Afefo fbfr

^jg Jgjitrdgmsms

Mokmiftdr Mokmiftdr
>.<.6. Cjcprjkmism
>.<.1 Cjobjg
>.<.1 Cjobjgfsi
fsifo
fo prmosm
prmosmp
p
rjfi
rjfism
sm yfo
fo`` tjrb
tjrbfk
fkmm km
ijrbf
ijrbf sjg jgjitr
jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms yfo`
yfo`
fo
fodk
dkff kf
kfo
o if
iftd
tdkf
kf pfpfkf
kf
km
km`u
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o pfpfkf
kf aj ajaj
ajrfp
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sjg jgji
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gmsms
sms kjkjo`
o`fo
fo tjiodgd`m kfgfc ijemkupfo
tjiodgd`m ijemkupfo
cjo``u
cjo ``uofi
ofifo
fo jgjitrd
jgjitrdkf
kf
sjefrm-efrm
mojrt cfupuo tmkfi mojrt

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 ^JG
JGJI[QDGM^M^
Xfkf tdpmi sjajgucoyf tjgfe kmafefs cjo`jofm sfgfe sftu sjg jgjitrdimcmf

yfmtu sjg \dgtf. Xfkf tdpmi ifgm mom, fifo kmafefs

kmafefs cjo`jofm sjg jgjitrdimcmf yfo` gfmo
kfo tmkfi ifgfe pjotmo` kjo`fo sjg vdgtf yfmtu sjg jgjitrdgmsms. [mkfi sjpjrtm sjg vdgtf,
sjg jgjitrdgmsms cjcjrguifo jojr`m gmstrmi uotui cjgfo`suo`ifo rjfism imcmf km kfgfc
sjg.

Xfkf
Xfkf cftj
cftjrm
rm sjg vd
vdgt
gtf,
f, rj
rjfi
fism
sm rjkdi
rjkdiss spdo
spdotf
tfo
o cjom
cjomca
caug
ugif
ifo
o frus
frus gmst
gmstrmi
rmi..
[jrbfkmoyf frus gmstrmi mom kfpft kmfcftm kfrm vdgtcjtjr. [mkfi kjcmimfo efgoyf kjo`fo
sjg jgjitrdgmsms,
jgjitrdgmsms, rjfism rjkdis
rjkdis yfo` tmkfi spdotfo
spdotfo kfpft ajrgfo`suo`
ajrgfo`suo` amgf ijkfgfcoyf
ijkfgfcoyf
kmfgmrm gmstrmi. Xjreftmifo `fcafr susuofo sjg jgjitrdgmsms pfkf @fcafr 6. Frus gmstrmi
kfrm sucajr frus sjfrfe cjo`fgmr ij kfgfc gfrutfo cjgfgum iftdkf ftfu jgjitrdkf
oj`ftm
oj`ftml.X
l.Xfkf
fkf iftdkf
iftdkf mom tjrbfk
tjrbfkmm rjfism
rjfism rjkuis
rjkuismm kfrm
kfrm spjsm
spjsm tjrtjo
tjrtjotu
tu yfo`
yfo` fkf kfgfc
kfgfc
gfrutfo. ^pjsm tjrtjotu yfo` gfmo cjo`fgfcm dismkfsm km fodkf/jgjitrdkf pdsmtml. Kfgfc
efg tjcpft rjfism ajrgfo`suo` sfcf sjpjrtm sjg vdgtf yfmtu iftdkf tjcpft tjrbfkm rjfism
rjkuism sjkfo`ifo fodkf tjcpft tjrbfkm dismkfsm, tjtfpm cuftfo jgjitrdkf kfgfc sjg
jgjitrdgmsms ajrgfwfofo kjo`fo cuftfo jgjitrdkf kfgfc sjg vdgtf.

Xfkf sjg jgjitrdgmsms iftdkf cjrupfifo jgjitrdkf oj`ftml, sjkfo`ifo fodkf

cjrupfifo jgjitrdkf pdsmtml. ^pjsm yfo` cjo`fgfcm rjkuism km iftdkf kfo spjsm yfo`
cjo`fgfcm dismkfsm km fodkf, tjr`fotuo` pfkf pdtjosmfgoyf cfsmo`-cfsmo`. ^pjsm
yfo` cjo`fgfcm rjkuism fkfgfe yfo` cjcpuoyfm pdtjosmfg jgjitrdkf gjame pdsmtml.
^jkf
^jkfo`
o`if
ifo
o sp
spjsm
jsm yf
yfo`
o` cjo`
cjo`fg
fgfc
fcmm di
dismk
smkfsm
fsm fk
fkfg
fgfe
fe yf
yfo`
o` cjcp
cjcpuo
uoyf
yfmm pd
pdtj
tjos
osmfg
mfg
jgjitrdkf gjame oj`ftml. Kjo`fo kjcmimfo, tmkfi sjgfgu iftmdo yfo` cjo`fgfcm rjkuism
kfo tmkfi sjgfgu fomdo yfo` cjo`fgfcm dismkfsm, cuo`i
cuo`imo
mo sfbf pjgfrutoyf
pjgfrutoyf (fmr) yfo`
cjo`fg
cjo`fgfcm
fcm rjkuis
rjkuismm kfo ftfu
ftfu di
dismk
smkfsm.
fsm. Amgf
Amgf jgjitr
jgjitrdkf
dkf auifo
auifo jgj
jgjitrd
itrdkf
kf mojrt (suifr
ajrjfism) cfif jgjitrdkf fifo cjo`fgfcm dismkfsm

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 6 ^usuofo sjg jgjitrdgmsms
^jg jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitrdgmsms tjrsusuo
tjrsusuo ftfs sjaufe
sjaufe wfkfe,
wfkfe, jgjitrdkj,
jgjitrdkj, jgjitrdgmt,
jgjitrdgmt, kfo sucajr
fruss sjfrfe.
fru sjfrfe. Xfkf sjg jgjitrdg
jgjitrdgmsms
msms tmkfi
tmkfi cjcjrgu
cjcjrguifo
ifo bjcaftf
bjcaftfo
o `frfc.
`frfc. Cuftfo
Cuftfo
jgjitrdkj ajrajkf kjo`fo sjg \dgtf. Ndaf ifgmfo mo`ft ijcafgm iftdkj kfo fodkj
kfgfc sjg \dgtf. Xfkf sjg jgjitrdgmsms iftdkj ajrcuftfo oj`ftml kfo fodkj ajrcuftfo

pdsmtml. Qjfism yfo` tjrbfkm sfcf sjpjrtm pfkf sjg \dgtf, yfmtu rjfism rjkuism pfkf
iftdkjj kfo rjfism dismkfsm
iftdk dismkfsm pfkf fodkj. Jgjitrdo cjo`fgmr
cjo`fgmr cjcfsuim
cjcfsuim gfrutfo
gfrutfo cjgfgum
cjgfgum
iutua oj`ftml (iftdkj). ^pjsm tjrtjotu kfgfc gfrutfo cjoyjrfp jgjitrdo kfrm iftdkj
kfo cjo`fgfcm rjkuism. ^pjsm yfo` gfmo cjgjpfsifo jgjitrdo km fodkj kfo cjo`fgfcm
dismkfsm.

○@fcafr 6. ^usuofo sjg jgjitrdgmsms

^ucajr2 ettp 2// susuofo-sjg-jgjitrdgmsms/

1 Qjfism pfkf sjg jgjitrdgmsms

Imtf
Imtf tjgf
tjgfe
e cjojo``jtfe
jtfeum
um afewf
fewf jgjgji
jitr
trd
dgmt
gmt cjru
cjrupf
pfif
ifoo sjsjoy
oyfwfwff yf
yfo
o`
cjo`efotfrifo gmstrmi.Jgjitrdgmt kfpft ajrfkf sjaf`fm gfrutfo jgjitrdgmt ftfu gjgjefo
sjoyfwf
sjoyfwf mdo.
mdo. Fpfam
Fpfamgf
gf frus
frus gms
gmstrm
trmi
i kmgjwf
kmgjwftif
tifo
o cjgfgu
cjgfgumm gfrutfo
gfrutfo jgjitr
jgjitrdgm
dgmtt cfif
cfif fifo
fifo
tmcaug rjfism rjkdis tmkfi spdotfo.
Qjfism rjkdis yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf gfrutfo jgjitrdgmt ajrsmlft idcpgjis ifrjof
fkfoyf pjrsfmo`fo fotfrf rjfism rjkdis jgjitrdgmt kjo`fo rjfism rjkdis pjgfrut fmr.
^jkfo`ifo
^jkfo`ifo uotui gjgjefo sjoyfwf mdo, rjfism rjkdis yfo` tjrbfkm ajrsmlft sjkjrefof
ifrjof tmkfi cjgmaftifo fmr

Bjoms jgjitrdkj yfo` km`uofifo

km`uofifo kfgfc prdsjs jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitrdgmsms sfo`ft ajrpjo`fru
ajrpjo`frue e
pfkf efsmg jgjitrdgmsms. Jgjitrdkj kfpft kmajkfifo cjobfkm kuf ajrkfsfrifo
ijfitmlfooyf, yfmtu jgjitrdkj tmkfi fitml (suifr ajrjfism ftfu mojrt), sjpjrtm N, Xt, kfo
Fu sjkfo`ifo jgjitrdkj fitml (jgjitrdkj yfo` pdtjosmfg rjkuismoyf gjame oj`ftml kfrm
fmr sjpjrtm gd`fc kfrm `dg MF,MMF, Fg kfo Co ) pfkf prdsjs jgjitrdgmsms. Xfkf prdsjs
jgjitrdgmsms kjo`fo jgjitrdkj fitml ajrgfo`suo` rjfism jgjitrdkj kfo rjfism jgjitrdgmt,

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 sjkfo`ifo
sjkfo`i fo prdsjs
prdsjs jgjitrd
jgjitrdgmsm
gmsmss kjo`fo
kjo`fo jgjitrd
jgjitrdkj
kj mojrt
mojrt efoyf
efoyf ajrgfo
ajrgfo`su
`suo`
o` rjfism
rjfism
jgjitrdgmtoyf sfbf.

^jg jgjitrdgmsms cjo``uofifo jgjitrdgmt ajrupf gjgjefo kfo gfrutfo

gfrutfo..

 ^jg jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitr dgmsms kjo`fo
kjo `fo jgjitrdgmt
jgjitrd gmt gjgjefo
gjgje fo

Bjoms jgjitrdgmsms mom cjgmaftifo rjfism rjkdis sjkjrefof ifrjof ajrgfo`suo` tfopf
fmr .aja
.ajajrf
jrfpf
pf bjoms
bjoms gd
gd`f
`fc
c kmpj
kmpjrd
rdgj
gje
e kf
kfrm
rm jg
jgji
jitr
trdg
dgmsm
msmss jg
jgjt
jtrd
rdgm
gmtt gj
gjgj
gjef
efo
o sj
sjoy
oyfw
fwff
gd`fcoyf. Xjreftmifo ndotde ajrmiut!

Jgjitdgmsms gjgjefo OfNg kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Xt

Iftdkj 2 YOf+(g) + j ↑Of(s)Sx1

Fodk
Fodkjj 2 1Ng- (g)
1Ng ↑ Ng1 (`) + 1j +

^jg 2 1Of+(g) + 1Ng-(g) ↑ 1Of (s) + Ng1(`)

Kmkfgfc sjg jgjitrdgmsms, mdo Of+fifo tjrjkuism km iftdkf cjcajotui gd`fc Of.
-
^jcjotfrf mdo Ng fifo tjrdismkfsm cjobfkm Ng 1.
 ^jg jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitr dgmsms kjo`fo
kjo `fo jgjitrdgmt
jgjitrd gmt gfrutfo
gfrut fo

Bmif kfgfc jgjitrdgmsms km`uofifo jgjitrdgmt ajrupf gfrutfo cfif rjfism yfo`
tjrbfkm
tjrbfkm tmkfi
tmkfi efoyf
efoyf cjgmaf
cjgmaftif
tifoo mdo-mdo
mdo-mdo kfgfc
kfgfc gfrutf
gfrutfo,
o, tjt
tjtfpm
fpm bu`f
bu`f fmr.Efg
fmr.Efg tjrsjau
tjrsjautt
cjoyjafaifo tjrbfkmoyf idcpjtjsm fotfrf mdo kjo`fo cdgjiug pjgfrutoyf ftfu mdo-mdo
gfmo kfgfc gfrutf
gfrutfo
o pfkf
pfkf sfft cjo`fg
cjo`fgfcm
fcm rjfism
rjfism km fodkj
fodkj kfo iftdkj.^
iftdkj.^pjs
pjsmm yfo`
yfo`
cjcmgmim efr`f J8 gjame
gjame ajsfr
ajsfr fifo
fifo cjofo`
cjofo` kfgfc idcpjtmsm
idcpjtmsm tjrsjaut.
tjrsjaut. Idcpjtmsm
yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf iftdkj fkfgfe Qjfism rjkuism iftmdo, rjfism rjkuism fmr 2

D(g) + 1j ↑E1(`) + 1DE- ((fq

1E1D(g fq)) , rjfism rjkuism E + (jgjitrdgmt fsfc) 2
1E+ (fq
(fq)+
)+ 1j↑ E1(`). Idcpjtmsm yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf fodkj fkfgfe rjfism dismkfsm
+
fomdo kfo rjfism dismkfsm fmr 2 1E 1D (g
(g) ↑ D1 (`) + ;E (fq
fq)) + ;j
Xjreftmifo ndotde ajrmiut mom!

6. Qjfism
Qjfism jgjitr
jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms gfrutf
gfrutfo
o Of1^D; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Xt
Xfkf fodkj tjrbfkm idcpjtmsm fotfrf mdo suglft kjo`fo cdgjiug fmr

1^D;1-(fq) ↑ ^1D51-(fq) + 1j J8 3 -1,86 vdgt

1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j J8 3 -6,1> vdgt

Dismkfsm fmr gjame cukfe ajrgfo`suo` ifrjof pdtjosmfg dismkfsm fmr gjame ajsfr
kfrmpfkf ^D;1-.Xfkf iftdkj tjrbfkm idcpjtmsm fotfrf mdo Of + kjo`fo cdgjiug fmr sjsufm
rjfism ajrmiut.

Of+(fq) + j ↑ Of(s) J8 3 -1,06 vdgt

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 1E1D + 1j ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`) J8 3 -8,5> vdgt

Xdtjosmfg rjkuism fmr gjame ajsfr kfrmpfkf Of + sjemo``f rjkuism fifo gjame cukfe
tjrbfkm.
tjrbfkm. Qjfism jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo
gfrutfo Of1^D; sjnfrf gjo`ifp kfpft kmtugms sjpjrtm km afwfe
mom.

Of1^D;(fq)↑ 1Of+(fq) + ^D;1-(fq)

Iftdkj 2 1E1D(g) + 1j ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`) (x 1)

Fodkj
Fod 1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j
kj 2 1E (x 6)

<E1D(g) ↑ ;DE-(fq) + 1E1(`) + ;E+(fq) + D1(`)

Qjfism tdtfg2 1E1D(g) ↑ 1E1(`) + D1(`)

1. Jgjitrdgms
Jgjitrdgmsms
ms gfrutfo
gfrutfo IM
IM kjo`fo
kjo`fo jgjitr
jgjitrdkj
dkj `rflmt
`rflmt (N)
Gfrutfo IM pfkf prdsjs jgjitrdgmsms fifo cjo`efsmgifo `fs eykrd`jo km iftdkj
kfo mdkmoj km fodkj. Gfrutfo sjimtfr iftdkj fifo ajrsmlft afsf. Xfkf iftdkj fifo tjrbfkm
idcpjtjsm fotfrf mdo I+ kjo`fo cdgjiug fmr, sjsufm pjrsfcffo ajrmiut mom2
+ 8

I (fq) + j ↑ I(s) J 3 -1,=1 vdgt

1E1D(g) + 1j ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`) J8 3 -8,5> vdgt
Xdtjosmfg rjkuism fmr gjame ajsfr kfrmpfkf I+ sjemo``f rjkuism fmr gjame cukfe
ajrgfo`suo`.Xfkf fodkj tjr bfkm idcpjtjsm fotfrf mdo M- kfo cdgjiug fmr. Qjfism dismkfsm
f odkj tjrbfkm
km fodkj sjaf`fm ajrmiut2
1M-(fq) ↑ M1(s) + 1j J8 3 -8,:; vdgt
1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j J8 3 -6,1> vdgt
Qjfism dismkfsm mdo M- gjame cukfe ajrgfo`suo` ifrjof pdtjosmfg dismkfsm mdo M -
gjame ajsfr kfrm E1D. Jgjitrdgmsms
Jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo cjo`efsmgifo E 1, DE-, kfo M1 sjaf`fm
gfrutfo IM fifo cjo`efsmgifo
ajrmiut.
IM(fq) ↑ I+(fq) + M-(fq)
Iftdkj 2 1E1D(g) + 1j ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`)
-
Fodkj 2 1M (fq) ↑ M1(s) + 1j
Qjfism 2 1E1D(g) + 1IM(fq) ↑ 1IDE(fq) + E 1(`) + M1(s)

>. Jgjitr
Jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms gfrutf
gfrutfo
o Nu^D
Nu^D; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Nu
Xfkf gfrutfo Nu^D ; tjrkfpft mdo Nu1+, mdo ^D;1-, cdgjiug fmr, kfo gd`fc Nu
(fodkj). Xfkf iftdkj fifo tjrbfkm idcpjtjsm fotfrf mdo Nu kfo cdgjiu fmr.

Nu1+(fq) + 1j ↑ Nu(s) J8 3 -8,:; vdgt

1E1D(g) + 1j ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`) J8 3 -8,5> vdgt
Xdtj
Xdtjos
osmfg
mfg rjkui
rjkuism
sm Nu gjam
gjame
e aj
ajsfr
sfr kf
kfrm
rmpf
pfkf
kf E1D ajrkfs
ajrkfsfri
frifo
fo rjfism
rjfism tjrsjau
tjrsjautt
1+
sjemo``f mdo Nu gjame cukfe cjo`fgfcm rjkuism. Xfkf fodkj fifo tjrbfkm idcpjtmsm
fotfrf mdo ^D;1-, cdgjiug fmr, kfo fodkj (Nu).
1^D;1-(fq) ↑ ^1D51-(fq) + 1j J8 3 -1,86 vdgt
1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j J8 3 -6,1> vdgt

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 Nu(s) ↑ Nu1+(fq) + 1j J8 3 -8,>; vdgt
Xdtjosmfg dismkfsm Nu pfgmo` ajsfr sjemo``f dismkfsm gd`fc tjcaf`f gjame cukfe
tjrbfkm.Qjfism jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo Nu^D; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Nu sjnfrf ijsjguruefo kfpft
kmtugms sjaf`fm ajrmiut.
Nu^D;(fq) ↑ Nu1+(fq) + ^D;1-(fq)
Iftdkj 2 Nu1+(fq) + 1j ↑ Nu(s)
Fodkj 2 Nu(s) ↑ Nu1+(fq) + 1j
Qjfism tdtfg 2Nu(s) ↑ Nu(s)
(fodkj) (iftdkj)

;. Jgjitr
Jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms gjg
gjgjef
jefo
o `frf
`frfc
c kfpur
kfpur

Jgjitrdgm
Jgjitrdgmsms
sms ajotui
ajotui mom efoyf
efoyf ajrgfi
ajrgfiu
u pfkf
pfkf sjoyfwf
sjoyfwf mdomn.
mdomn.kjo
kjo`fo
`fo tmkfi
tmkfi fkf zft
pjgfrut (sjpjrtm E1D). Bmif gjgjefo `frfc mom kmjgjitrdgmsms kjo`fo jgjitrdkf mojrt
kfgfc suftu wfkfe, cfif kfgfc wfkfe tjrsjaut efoyf fkf iftmdo kfo fomdo, tmkfi
fkf spjsm gfmo yfo` tjrifkuo` kmkfgfcoyf. Iftmdo kfrm gjgjefo mtu fifo cjo`fgfcm
rjkuism, sjkfo`ifo fomdo fifo cjo`fgfcm dismkfsm.

Xjreftmifo ndotde jgjitrdgmsms gjgjefo OfNg ajrmiut!

@fcafr 1 . Jgjitrdgmsms gjgjefo OfNg

^ucajr2 ettp 2// jgjitrdgmsms-gjgjefo-`frfc-kfpur/

Kfrm `fcafr 68, jgjitrdkf yfo` kmeuauo`ifo kjo`fo iutua oj`ftml Xdwjr
^uppgy „ KN fifo cjobfkm iutua oj`ftml sjg kfo jgjitrdkf yfo` kmeuauo`ifo kjo`fo
iutua
iut ua pdsmt
pdsmtml
ml pdwjr
pdwjr suppgy
suppgy fifo
fifo cjobfk
cjobfkmm iutua
iutua pd
pdsmtm
smtmll kfr
kfrmm sjg. Xfkf
Xfkf jgjitr
jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms
gjgjefo OfNg fifo kmefsmgifo mdo-mdo Of + kfo Ng-. Mdo-mdo Of+ fifo ajr`jrfi cjoubu
iutua oj`ftml kfo pfkf jgjitrdkf tjrsjaut tjrbfkm rjfism 2

Of+(g) + j-Of(g) (rjkuism)

^jkfo`ifo, mdo-mdo Ng-ajr`jrfi cjoubu jgjitrdkf

jgj itrdkf pdsmtml kfo pfkf jgjitrdkf
jgj itrdkf tjrsjaut
tjrbfkm rjfism2

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 1Ng-(g)Ng1(`) + 1j- (dismkfsm)

Ifrjoff pf
Ifrjo pfkf
kf jgji
jgjitr
trdk
dkff oj
oj`f
`ftm
tmll tjrbf
tjrbfkm
km rjfis
rjfismm rj
rjku
kuis
ismm cfif
cfif jg
jgji
jitr
trdk
dkff tj
tjrsj
rsjau
autt
cjrupf
cjr upfifo
ifo iftdkf
iftdkf.. Xfkf
Xfkf jgjitrd
jgjitrdkf
kf pdsmtm
pdsmtmll tjrbfk
tjrbfkmm rjfism
rjfism di
dismk
smkfsm.
fsm.Dgj
Dgje
e ifrjof
ifrjof mtu
jgjitrdkf tjrsjaut cjrupfifo fodkf.

:. Jgjitrdgms
Jgjitrdgmsms
ms Gfrutfo
Gfrutfo Jgjitrdgm
Jgjitrdgmt.
t.

Bmif suftu sjoyfwf kfgfc ajotui gfrutfo kmgjitrdgmsms kjo`fo cjo``uofifo

jgjitrdkj mojrt, cfif fifo fkf ajajrfpf spjsm yfo` tjrkfpft kfgfc gfrutfo tjrsjaut
sjpjrtm iftmdo, fomdo ftfu E1D (bmif pjgfrutoyf E1D). Efg mom fifo cjoyjafaifo
idcpjtmsm fotfrf mdo-mdo kfo cdgjiug E1D. pjcjofo` idcpjtmsm mom ajr`fotuo` pfkf
efr`f pdtjosmfg stfokfr sjg (Jd), bjoms jgjitrdkj kfo bjoms fomdo.

Cmsfgoyf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo OfNg sjpjrtm pfkf `fcafr 6< ajrmiut2

^jgfcf
^jgfcf prdsjs
prdsjs jgjitrd
jgjitrdgms
gmsms
ms ajrgfo
ajrgfo`su
`suo`,
o`,
pfkf iftdkf tjrbfkm pjrsfmo`fo fotfrf fmr
kjo`fo mdo Of+. Ajrkfsfrifo [fajg
Qjkuism,, fmr cjcmgmim
Xdtjosmfg ^tfokfr Qjkuism
J¸rjk yfo
yfo`
` gjame
gjame ajsfr
ajsfr kmafok
kmafokmo`
mo`ifo
ifo mdo
Of+. Mom ajrfrtm,
ajrfrtm, fmr gjame cukfe tjrjkuism
kmafokmo`ifo mdo Of+.Dgje sjafa mtu, spjsm
yfo` ajrjfism km iftdkf fk
fkfg
fgfe
fe fm
fmr.
r.
^jcjot
^jcjotfrf,
frf, ajrkfs
ajrkfsfri
frifo
fo [faj
[fajgg Xdtjosmfg
Xdtjosmfg
^tfokfr Qjkuism, omgfm J¸rjk mdo Ng- kfo
@fcafr > . Jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo OfNg
^ucajr2 ettp 2// susuofo-sjg-jgjitrdgmsms/ fmr efcpmr sfcf. Dgje ifrjof dismkfsm
fm
fmrr cjcj
cjcjrgu
rguif
ifo
o pd
pdtj
tjos
osmf
mfgg tf
tfca
cafe
fefo
fo
(dvjrvdgtf`j), cfif dismkfsm mdo Ng- gjame cukfe kmafokmo`ifo dismkfsm fmr. Dgje
dvjrvdgtf`j),
sjafa mtu, spjsm yfo` ajrjfism km fodkf fkfgfe mdo Ng-. Kjo`fo kjcmimfo, rjfism yfo`
tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo `frfc OfNg fkfgfe sjaf`fm ajrmiut 2

Iftdkf (-) 2 1 E1D(g) + 1 j- ‛‛? E1(`) + 1 DE-(fq)

Fodkf (+) 2 1 Ng-(fq) ‛‛? Ng1(`) + 1 j-

Qjfism sjg 2 1 E1D(g) + 1 Ng-(fq) ‛‛? E1(`) + Ng1(`) + 1 DE-(fq)

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 Qjfism jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo `frfc OfNg cjo`efsmgifo `jgjcauo` `fs E1 kfo
mdo DE-(afsf) km iftdkf sjrtf `jgjcauo` `fs Ng 1 km fodkf.[jrajotuioyf mdo DE-
pfkf iftdkf kfpft kmauitmifo kjo`fo pjruafefo wfrof gfrutfo kfrm ajomo` cjobfkm
cjrfe cukf sjtjgfe kmajrm sjbucgfe mokmiftdr ljodgltfgjmo (pp).Kjo`fo kjcmimfo,
tjrg
tjrgme
meft
ft af
afew
ewff pr
prdk
dkui
ui jgji
jgjitr
trdg
dgms
msms
ms gjgj
gjgjef
efo
o ucuc
ucucoy
oyff aj
ajra
rajk
jkff kj
kjo`
o`fo
fo pr
prdk
dkui
ui

jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo.

Qjfism „ rjfism yfo` tjrbfkm km jgjitrdgmsms

Qjfism pfkf Fodkf (Dismkfsm)
Amgf jgjitrdkjoyf mojrt (Xt, Fu, ftfu N), cfif fodkf tmkfi miut tjrdismkfsm,
Mdo DE- tjrdismkfsm cjobfkm E 1D kfo `fs D1
;DE- (fq
(fq)) ↑ 1E1D ((gg) + D1 (`
`)) + ;j
Mdo smsf fsfc efgmkf (Ng-, Ar-, M-) tjrdismkfsm cjobfkm cdgjiugoyf.
Ndotde 2 1Ar- ((fq
fq)) ↑ Ar1 (g(g) + 1j
Mdo smsf fsfc dism (^D ;1-, OD>-, ND>1-) tmkfi tjrdismkfsm, yfo` tjrdismkfsm
fkfgfe fmr (pjgfrut).
1E1D ((gg) ↑ ;E+ (fq
(fq)) + D1 (`
`)) + ;j
Amgf jgjitrdkj sjgfmo kfrm Xt, Fu, ftfu N, cfif fodkf miut tjrdismkfsm.
Ndotde 2 fodkf kfrm gd`fc F` cfif 2 F` (s ( s) ↑ F`+(fqfq)) + j
1+
fodkf kfrm gd`fc Nu cfif 2 Nu (s (s) ↑ Nu ((fqfq)) + 1j
Qjfism pfkf Iftdkf (Qjkuism)
Mdo E+ tjrjkuism cjobfkm `fs E1 2
1E+(fq
fq)) + 1j ↑ E1(`
`))
Mdo-mdo gd`fc
Mdo-mdo gd`fc fgifgm kfo fgifgm tfofe (Of +, I +, Nf 1+, C` 1+ kfo gfmo-gfmo) sjrtf
Fg>+, Co1+tmkfi cjo`fgfcm rjkuism, yfo` tjrjkuism fkfgfe fmr (pjgfrut).
Gftmefo
`)) + 1DE- ((fq
1E1D ((gg) + 1j ↑ E1 (` fq))
Mdo-mdo gd`fc gfmo (sjgfmo fgifgm kfo fgifgm tfofe sjrtf Fg >+, Co1+) tjrjkuism
cjobfkm gd`fcoyf.
Ndotde2 Om1+ (fq
(fq)) + 1j ↑ Om (s
(s)

Ndotde 2

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 f. Jgjitr
Jgjitrdgm
dgmsms
sms gfr
gfrutf
utfo
o OfNg kjo`f
kjo`fo
o jgjitrd
jgjitrdkj
kj `rflmt
`rflmt (N)
Fodkf 2 1Ng- (fq) ↑ Ng1 (`) + 1j
Iftdkf 2 1E1D (g) + 1j ↑ E 1 (`) + 1DE- (fq)
1Ng- (fq) + 1E1D (g) ↑ Ng 1 (`) + E1 (`) + 1DE- (fq)

a. Jgjitrdgmsms Nu^D; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Xt

Fodk
Fo dkjj 2 1
1E (g) ↑ ;E+ (fq
E1D (g (fq)) + D1 (`) + ;j
Iftdkj 2 1 Nu1+(fq) + ;j ↑ 1 Nu(s)
1 E1D(g) + 1 Nu1+(fq) ↑ ; E+(fq) + D1(`) + Nu(s)
n. Jg
Jgji
jitr
trdg
dgms
msms
ms Nu^D
Nu^D; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj Nu
Fodkj 2 Nu (s) ↑ Nu1+ (fq) + 1j
Iftdkj 2 Nu1+ (fq) + 1j ↑ Nu(s)
Nu(s) fodkj ↑ Nu(s) iftdkj

> Xrmosmp Ijrbf kfo Fpgmifsm ^jg Jgjitrdgmsms

Imtf tjgfe cjo`jtfeum

cjo`jtfeum afewf jgjitrdgmt cjrupfifo
cjrupfifo sjoyfwf
sjoyfwf yfo` cjo`efotfrifo
cjo`efotfrifo
gmstrmi. Jgjitrdgmt kfpft ajrfkf sjaf`fm gfrutfo jgjitrdgmt ftfu gjgjefo sjoyfwf mdo. Fpfamgf
fruss gms
fru gmstrmi
trmi kmgjwf
kmgjwftif
tifo
o cjgfgu
cjgfgumm gfrutfo
gfrutfo jgjitrd
jgjitrdgmt
gmt cfif
cfif fifo
fifo tmcaug
tmcaug rjfism
rjfism rjkdis
rjkdis tmkfi
tmkfi
spdotfo.
Qjfism rjkdis yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf gfrutfo jgjitrdgmt ajrsmlft idcpgjis ifrjof fkfoyf
pjrsfmo`fo fotfrf rjfism rjkdis jgjitrdgmt
jgj itrdgmt kjo`fo rjfism rjkdis pjgfrut fmr. ^jkfo`ifo uotui
gjgjefo sjoyfwf mdo, rjfism rjkdis yfo` tjrbfkm ajrsmlft sjkjrefof ifrjof tmkfi cjgmaftifo fmr
Zotui cjo`jtfeum rfo`ifmfo sjg jgjitrdgmsms smcfi rfo`ifmfo ajrmiut.
Kuf jgjitrdkf mojrt kmnjgupifo ij kfgfc gjgjefo NuNg 1, ijcukmfo kmeuauo`ifo ij aftjrfm
yfo` fifo cjcfsdi frus gmstrmi pfkf sjg.

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 @fcafr < Xjruafefo ijrtfs
gficus cjobfkm putme
ifrjof tjrajotuioyf `fs Ng1,
sjkfo`ifo pfkf jgjitrdkf
gfmooyf tjrajotui jokfpfo
Nu. Kmiftfifo afewf NuNg1
tjgfe tjrurfm cjobfkm
pfkftfo Nu kfo `fs Ng1.

@fcafr : sjg jgjitrdgmsms

jgjitrdgmsms uotui pjrurfmfo
pjrurfmfo NuNg
NuNg1
ettp 2//sjg-jgjitrdgmsms-pjrurfmfo-gd`fc-tjcaf`f/

Iftdkf2 Nu1+(g) + 1j-(g) Nu(ss))

Fodkf 2 1Ng- (fq)
(fq)Ng1(`) + 1j-
Qjfismh 2 Nu1+(g) + 1Ng- ((fq)
fq) Nu(ss)) + Ng1(`)

Xrdsjs jgjitrd
Xrdsjs jgjitrdgms
gmsms
ms kmcugf
kmcugfmm kjo`fo
kjo`fo kmfgmri
kmfgmrifoo
fooyfyf frus
frus gmstrm
gmstrmi
i kfrm
kfrm aftjrf
aftjrfm.
m.
Jgji
Jgjitrd
trdo
o kf
kfrm
rm iu
iutu
tua
a ojoj`f
`ftm
tmll af
aftj
tjrf
rfmm fi
fifo
fo cjo`
cjo`fgfgmr
mr cjou
cjoubu
bu jg
jgji
jitr
trdk
dkff kf
kfrm
rm sjg
jgjitrdgmsms. Fimaftoyf, jgjitrdkf tjrsjaut cjobfkm ajrcuftfo oj`ftml ftfu kmsjaut
iftdkj.. ^jkfo`ifo
iftdkj ^jkfo`ifo jgjitrdkf
jgjitrdkf gfmooyf fifo ajrcu
ajrcuftfo
ftfo pdsmtml ftfu kmsjau
kmsjautt fodkf
fodkf..
Mdo pdsmtml Nu1+ kfgfc gjgjefo fifo tjrtfrmi ij iftdkf kfo cjoyjrfp jgjitrdo uotui
tjrjkuism cjobfkm Nu ojtrfg.

Iftdkj2 Nu1+ (g) + 1j- Nu(s)

^jcjotfrf mtu, mdo Ng- kfgfc gjgjefo fifo tjrtfrmi ij fodkf. Mdo Ng - fifo
tjrdismkfsm cjobfkm Ng yfo` ojtrfg kjo`fo cjgjpfs jgjitrdo .jgjitrdo momgfe yfo`
fifo kmfcamg dgje fodkf uotui kmtjrusifo ijcafgm ij iutua pdsmstml aftjrfm.

Fodkf2 1 Ng-(g) Ng1(`) + 1j-

Bjoms jgjitrdkj yfo` km`uofifo

km`uofifo kfgfc prdsjs
prdsjs jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitrdgmsms sfo`ft ajrpjo`frue
ajrpjo`frue
pfkf efsmg jgjitrdgmsms. Jgjitrdkj kfpft kmajkfifo cjobfkm kuf ajrkfsfrifo
ijfitmlfooyf, yfmtu jgjitrdkj tmkfi fitml (suifr ajrjfism ftfu mojrt), sjpjrtm N, Xt, kfo
Fu sjkfo`ifo jgjitrdkj fitml (jgjitrdkj yfo` pdtjosmfg rjkuismoyf gjame oj`ftml kfrm
fmr sjpjrtm gd`fc kfrm `dg MF,MMF, Fg kfo Co ) pfkf prdsjs jgjitrdgmsms. Xfkf prdsjs
jgjitrdgmsms kjo`fo jgjitrdkj fitml ajrgfo`suo` rjfism jgjitrdkj kfo rjfism jgjitrdgmt,

sjkfo`ifo
sjkfo` ifo prdsjs
prdsjs jgjitrd
jgjitrdgms
gmsms
ms kjo`fo
kjo`fo jgjitrd
jgjitrdkj
kj mojrt
mojrt efoyf
efoyf ajrgfo
ajrgfo`su
`suo`
o` rjfism
rjfism
jgjitrdgmtoyf sfbf.

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 Fkf ajajrfpf fpgmifsm pjo``uoffo jgjitrdgmsms tjrutfcf kfgfc kuomf mokustrm.
Ajajrfpf kmfotfrfoyf fkfgfe uotui cjcprdkuism zft-zft imcmf kfo uotui pjcuromfo
gd`fc.
f. Xjcu
Xjcuro
romf
mfo
o Nu
Xfkf pjo`dgfefo tjcaf`f kfrm ambme ifgidpmrmt kmpjrdgje tjcaf`f yfo` cfsme

tjrnf
tjrnfcp
cpur
ur kj
kjo`
o`fo
fo sjkmi
sjkmimt
mt pj
pjrfi
rfi,, jcfs,
jcfs, kf
kfo
o pg
pgft
ftmo
mof.
f. Zotu
Zotui
i aj
ajaj
ajrfp
rfpff ij
ijpj
pjrg
rguf
ufo
o
kmautueifo tjcaf`f curom, cmsfgoyf uotui cjcauft ifajg. [jcaf`f yfo` tmkfi curom
kmpmsfeifo kfrm zft pjo`dtdroyf kjo`fo jgjitrdgmsms.
[jcaf`f yfo` tmkfi curom kmpfsfo` sjaf`fm fodkf kfo tjcaf`f curom kmpfsfo`
sjaf`f
sjaf`fmm iftdkf
iftdkf kfgfc
kfgfc jgjitr
jgjitrdgm
dgmtt gfrutf
gfrutfo
o Nu^D
Nu^D; tjcaf`
tjcaf`ff km fodkf
fodkf fifo
fifo tjrdis
tjrdismkf
mkfsm
sm
cjobfkm Nu1+ sjgfobutoyf Nu1+ kmrjkuism km iftdkf.

@fcafr ;. Xjcuromfo Nu kjo`fo nfrf jgjitrdgmsms

^ucajr2 ettp 2// pjcuromfo-gd`fc-tjcaf`f/

Kjo`fo kjcmimfo tjcaf`f km fodkf pmokfe ij iftdkf sjemo``f fodkj sjcfimo

efams kfo iftdkf sjcfimo ajrtfcafe ajsfr. Gd`fc jcfs, pjrfi, kfo pgftmof tjrkfpft
pfkf gucpur fodkf sjaf`fm efsmg sfcpmo` pfkf pjcuromfo
pjcuromfo tjcaf`f.

a. Xjca
Xjcauf
uftf
tfo
o Of
Gd`fc oftrmuc sjnfrf idcjrsmfg kmprdkuism kjo`fo jgjitrdgmsms gjgjefo OfNg.
Xrdsjs mom kmijofg kjo`fo ofcf prdsjs Kdwo. Xfkf prdsjs mom tmkfi km`uofifo OfNg sfbf
tjtfpm kmnfcpur kjo`fo NfNg1 uotui cjouruoifo tmtmi gjgje OfNg kfrm 586 dN cjobfkm
:58dN. Af`fo sjg Kdwo kfpft kmgmeft pfkf `fcafr km afwfe mom2

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 @fcafr :. sijcf sjg Kdwo
^ucajr2 ettp 2// sijcf-sjg-kdwo/

Ajrkfs
Ajrkfsfri
frifo
fo `fcafr
`fcafr km ftfs,
ftfs, gd`fc
gd`fc oftrmu
oftrmuc
c tjrajo
tjrajotui
tui pfkf
pfkf iftdkj
iftdkj.. Gd`fc
Gd`fc
oftrmuc yfo` tjrajotui ajrwubuk nfmr kfo tjrfpuo` ifrjof cfssf bjoms oftrmuc gjame
ijnmg kmafokmo`ifo gjgjefo OfNg-NfNg 1. Xfkf fodkj tjrajotui `fs Ng 1. Qufo` fotfrf
iftdkj
iftdkj kfo fodkj
fodkj kmpmsfe
kmpmsfeifo
ifo supfyf
supfyf gd`fc
gd`fc oftrmu
oftrmuc
c yfo`
yfo` tjrajot
tjrajotui
ui tmkfi
tmkfi ajrjfi
ajrjfism
sm
kjo`fo `fs Ng1.

n. Xjcau
Xjcauftf
ftfo
o OfDE
OfDE kfo
kfo Ng
Ng1
Jgji
Jgjitr
trdg
dgms
msms
ms gfru
gfrutf
tfo
o OfNg
OfNg cjru
cjrupf
pfif
ifo
o pr
prds
dsjs
js pj
pjot
otmo
mo`
` kf
kfgf
gfc
c mo
moku
kust
strm
rm uotu
uotu
cjcprdkuism OfDE kfo igdrmo. Xfkf iftdkj, oftrmuc tmkfi tjrajotui ifrjof oftrmuc
cjcm
cjcmgmi
gmimm pd
pdtj
tjos
osmf
mfgg rjku
rjkuis
ismm gjam
gjame
e ij
ijnm
nmgg kmaf
kmafok
okmo
mo`
` E1D, sj
sjem
emo`
o``f
`f E1D tjrjku
tjrjkuism
ism
cjcajotui mdo DE- kfo `fs E1.
Of+ + j ↑ Of Jd 3 - 1,06 \
1 E1D + 1 j ↑ 1 DE - + E1 Jd 3 - 8,5> \
Xfkf fodkj, mdo Ng- fifo tjrdismk
tjrdismkfsm
fsm cjobfkm `fs Ng1. ^ijcf jgjitrdgm
jgjitrdgmsms
sms gfrutfo
gfrutfo
OfNg kfpft kmgmeft pfkf `fcafr km afwfe mom

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 @fcafr < . jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo OfNg
^ucajr2 ettp 2// jgjitrdgmsms-gfrutfo-`frfc-kfpur/

Qjfism yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo OfNg fkfgfe

Iftdkj 2 1 E1D + 1 j ↑ 1 DE - + E1
Fodkj 2 1 Ng- ↑ Ng1 + 1j
1 Ng- + 1 E1D ↑ 1 DE- + Ng1
Fotfrf fodkj kfo iftdkj kmpmsfeifo kjo`fo cjcarfo. [ubufooyf fkfgfe supfyf `fs Ng 1 yfo`
tjrajotui tmkfi ajrjfism kjo`fo mdo emkrdismkf yfo` tjrajotui km iftdkj. Zotui cjcpjrdgje
OfDE, zft yfo` fkf kmrufo` iftdkj kmsjkdt ijgufr kfo kmupfifo sjemo``f kmprdgje OfDE
kjo`fo ifkfr yfo` gjame tmo``m km afokmo` km rufo` iftdkj.
k. Xjca
Xjcauf
uftf
tfo
o Fg
Fgucmomuc cjrupfifo uosur tjrafoyfi odcdr tm`f kfgfc ijrfi aucm. Xjcauftfo
fguc
fgucmo
momu
muc
c kj
kjo`
o`fo
fo nf
nfrf
rf jgji
jgjitr
trdg
dgmsm
msmss cj
cjo`
o``u
`uof
ofif
ifo
o pr
prds
dsjs
js Efgg
Efgg-E
-Ejr
jrdu
dugt
gt.. Afef
Afefo
o kf
kfsfr
sfr
pjo`dgfefo fgucmomuc fkfgfe afuismt. Mokdojsmf cjcpuoyfm gdifsm pjofcafo`fo afuismt
yfmtu km Xugfu Amotfo. Xrdsjs pjrtfcf fkfgfe kjo`fo cjcuromifo afuismt (Fg 1D>). Afuismt
kmrjfismifo kjo`fo OfDE
Fg1D> + DE- ↑ FgD1- + E1D
Dismk
Dismkff gd`fc
gd`fc gfmo
gfmo tmkfi
tmkfi fifo
fifo ajrjfi
ajrjfism.
sm. ^jgfob
^jgfobuti
utifo
fo gfrutf
gfrutfo
o kmsfrm
kmsfrmo`
o` kfo lmgtrft
lmgtrft
kmfsfcifo kjo`fo cjo`fgmrifo `fs ND1.
1 ND1 + 1 E1D + (o+6) E1D ↑ Fg1D>.oE1D + END>-

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 ^jgfobutoyf fgucmof yfo` tjrajotui kmcuromifo kfo kmnfcpur kjo`fo irmdgmt uotui
kmgjgjeifo. Gjgjefo kmjgjitrdgmsms kjo`fo cjo``uofifo jgjitrdkj `rflmt.
Iftdkj 2 ; Fg>+ + 61j ↑ ;Fg
Fodkj 2 < D1- ↑ >D1 + 61j

@fcafr 0 . ^ijcf prdsjs Efgg-Ejrdugt

^ucajr2 ettp 2// prdsjs-efgg-ejrdugt

Xfkf `fcafr km ftfs kfpft kmgmeft afewf `fs dism`jo yfo` tjrajotui ajrjfism kjo`fo
`rflmi cjcajotui `fs ND1 sjemo``f sjnfrf pjrmdkmi `rflmt km`fotm.

j. Xjoy
Xjoyjp
jpue
uefo
fo
Kfgfc pjoyjpuefo tjrsjaut tjrbfkm rjfism jgjitrdgmsms. Qjfism jgjitrdgmsms efoyf kfpft
tjrbfkmm kfgfc sjg jgjitrdgmsms.
tjrbfk jgjitrdgmsms. ^jg jgjitrdgmsms
jgjitrdgmsms cjrupfifo
cjrupfifo sjg jgjitrdimcm
jgjitrdimcmff yfo` cjgmaftifo
cjgmaftifo
rjfism rjkdis tmkfi spdotfo kfo cjcjrguifo frus gmstrmi kfrm gufr.
gufr.

^jgfmo uotui pjoyjpuefo jgjitrdgmsms sjrmo` km`uofifo uotui cjo`urfmifo ijcafgm

suftu sjoyfwf cjobfkm uosur-uosuroyf.^jg jgjitrdgmsms km`uofifo kfgfc prdkuism mokustrm
kfrmm uosur-
kfr uosur-uo
uosur
sur pjotmo
pjotmo`
` tjrcfs
tjrcfsui
ui igdrmo
igdrmo,, fgucuo
fgucuomuc
muc,, kfo tjcaf`
tjcaf`f.^
f.^jaf
jaf`fm
`fm ndotde
ndotde
prdkuism afbf, nfcpurfo gd`fc, kfo pjcauftfo ifgjo` uotui cfifo
cfifofo.
fo.
^uftu prdkui kfrm gd`fc f`fr tjrgmokuo`m kfrm idrdsm (pjrifrftfo) kfo tjrgmeft gjame
cjofrm
cjofrmi
i sjrmo`i
sjrmo`ifgm
fgm kmgfpm
kmgfpmsm
sm kjo`fo
kjo`fo gfpmsfo
gfpmsfo tmpms
tmpms gd`fc
gd`fc gfm
gfmo
o yfo`
yfo` gjame
gjame tfefo
tfefo idrdsm
idrdsm kfo
cjo`imgft. ^fgfe sftu nfrf cjgfpmsm ftfu cjoyjpue fkfgfe kjo`fo jgjitrdgmsms. Ajokf yfo`
fifo kmgfpmsm kmpfsfo` sjaf`fm iftdkf kfo pdtdo`fo gd`fc pjoyjpue kmpfsfo` sjaf`fm fodkf
yfo`
yfo` kmajof
kmajofci
cifo
fo kfgfc
kfgfc gfrutf
gfrutfo
o `frfc
`frfc kfrm
kfrm gd`fc
gd`fc pjoyjp
pjoyjpue
ue kfo kmeuau
kmeuauo`i
o`ifo
fo kjo`fo
kjo`fo
sucajr frus sjfrfe.
Ndotde2 uotui cjgfpmsm sjokdi `frpu yfo` tjrauft kfrm afbfkjo`fo pjrfi, cfif `frpu
kmpfsfo`
kmpfsfo` sjaf`fm iftdkf
iftdkf kfo gd`fc pjrfi kmpfsfo` sjaf`fm fodkf, kjo`fo jgjitrdgmt gfrutfo

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

F`OD>. Gd`fc pjrfi pfkf fodkf tjrdismkfsm cjobfkm F` + ijcukmfo kmrjkuism cjobfkm F`
pfkf iftdkf ftfu `frpu. Kjo`fo kjcmimfo
kjcmimfo `frpu tjrgfpmsm. dgje gd`fc pjrfi.

○@fcafr 5 . Xjoyjpuefo sjokdi kjo`fo F`

^ucajr2 ettp 2// pjoyjpuefo-sjokfdi/

Iftdkj (s
(sjokdi) 2 F`+ + j ↑ F`
Fodkj 2 F` ↑ F`+ + j
F` (fodkj) ↑ F` (iftdkj/sjokdi

Ndotde sdfg rjfism-rjfism pfkf jgjitrdgmsms.

Ndotde 6
[ugmsifo rjfism yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo OfNg kjo`fo jgjitrdkj `rflmt.
Bfwfa.
Qjfism2 OfNg(fq) ↑ Of+(fq) + Ng-(fq)
Iftmdo Of+ cjrupfifo iftmdo gd`fc `dgdo`fo MF sjemo``f fmr fifo tjrjkuism km
fitdkj, sjkfo`ifo fomdo Ng- cjrupfifo mdo smsf fsfc odo dism sjemo``f mdo Ng -
tjrdismkfsm km fodkj.
-

Iftdkj 2 1E D(g) + 1j ↑ 1DE (fq) + E1(`)

1
-
Fodkj 2 1Ng (fq) ↑ Ng1(`) + 1j
1E1D(g) + 1Ng-(fq) ↑ 1DE-(fq) + E1(`) + Ng1(`)

Ndotde 1
[ugmsifo rjfism yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo Nu^D ; kjo`fo jgjitrdkj `rflmt.
Bfwfa.
Qjfism2 Nu^D;(fq) ↑ Nu1+(fq) + ^D;1-(fq)
Iftmdo Nu1+ tmkfi tjrcfsui gd`fc fitml sjemo``f iftmdo tjrjkuism km iftdkj.Mdo suglft
tjr`dgdo` smsf fsfc dism sjemo``f fmr tjrdismkfsm km fodkj.
Iftdkj 2 Nu1+(fq) + 1j ↑ Nu(s) (x 1)
Fodkj 2 1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j
Qjfism 2 1Nu1+(fq) + 1E1D(g) ↑ Nu(s) + ;E +(fq) + D1(`)

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

Gd`fc Nu cjo`jokfp pfkf iftdkj, sjkfo`ifo pfkf fodkj kmefsmgifo `fs dism`jo.Gfrutfo km
sjimtfr fodkj ajrsmlft fsfc sjafa kmefsmgifo mdo E +.

Ndotde >
[ugmsifo rjfism yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo F`OD > kjo`fo iftdkj Nu kfo
fodkj F`.
Bfwfa.
Qjfism2 F`OD>(fq) ↑ F`+(fq) + OD>-(fq)
Iftdkj 2 F`+(fq) + j ↑ F`(s)
Fodkj 2 F`(s) ↑ F`+(fq) + j
F`(s) ↑ F`(s)
(fodkj) (iftdkj)
Gd`fc pjrfi km fodkj gfrut ijcukmfo cjo`jokfp km iftdkj sjemo``f gd`fc Nu km
iftdkj tjrgfpmsm dgje gd`fc pjrfi.

Ndotde ;
[ugmsifo rjfism yfo` tjrbfkm pfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo EOD > kjo`fo jgjitrdkj `rflmt.

Bfwfa
Qjfism2 EOD>(fq) ↑ E+(fq) + OD>-(fq)
Iftdkj2 1E+(fq) + 1j ↑ E 1(`)
Fodkj 2 1E1D(g) ↑ ;E+(fq) + D1(`) + ;j
Qjfism 21E1D(g) ↑ 1E1(`) + D1(`)
Xfkf jgjitrdgmsms gfrutfo fsfc omtrft tjrbfkm jgjitrdgmsms fmr cjo`efsmgifo `fs emkrd`jo
km iftdkj kfo `fs dism`jo km fodkj

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 IJ^MCXZGFO

Nmrrm-nmrm rjfism jgjitrdgmsms fkfgfe sjaf`fm ajrmiut 2

Qjfism rjkdis tmkfi spdotfo
Jojr`m gmstrmi kmuafe cjobfkm jojr`m imcmf
Iftdkf iutua oj`ftml (-) kfo tjrbfkm prdsjs rjkuism
Fodkf, iutua pdsmtml (+) kfo tjrbfkm prdsjs dismkfsm

Qjfism-rjfism pfkf sjg jgjitrdgmsms

Qjfism pfkf Fodkf (Dismkfsm)
Amgf jgjitrdkjoyf mojrt (Xt, Fu, ftfu N), cfif fodkf tmkfi miut
tjrdismkfsm,
Amgf jgjitrdkj sjgfmo kfrm Xt, Fu, ftfu N, cfif fodkf miut
tjrdismkfsm.
Qjfism pfkf Iftdkf (Qjkuism)
Mdo E+ tjrjkuism cjobfkm `fs E1 2
Mdo-mdo gd`fc
Mdo-mdo gd`fc fgifgm kfo fgifgm tfofe (Of+, I+, Nf1+, C`1+ kfo gfmo-
gfmo)
Mdo-mdo gd`fc gfmo (sjgfmo fgifgm kfo fgifgm tfofe sjrtf Fg >+, Co1+)

Fpgmifsm sjg jgjitrdgmsms

Xjcuromfo gd`fc
Xjcauftfo Of, OfDE kfo Fgucmomuc
Fgucmomuc
pjoyjpuefo

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM

 KFL[FQ XZ^[FIF

Xrftfof, Nrys & Pmyfrsm, Fotuom. 188=. Cfrm Ajgfbfr Imcmf Zotui ^CF Igs UMM MXF
A^J Bfifrtf 2 Xusft Xjrauiufo, Kjpfrtjcjo Xjokmkmifo Ofsmdofg.
.

Xfo`fbufot
Xfo`fbufotd,[j`
d,[j`ue
ue & Qfecfkm,
Qfecfkm, [rm. 188=. Imcmf > 2 Zotui ^CF/CF ijgfs UMM A^J.
Bfifrtf2 Xusft Xjrauiufo Kjpfrtjcjo Xjokmkmifo Ofsmdofg.

Ztfcm, Aukm. Ou`rded, F`uo`.Cfefrkmfom, Gmof, ]fctmof, ^rm. Cu

Cugyfof,
gyfof, Afitm. 188=.
Imcmf > 2 Zotui ^CF/CF Ijgfs
Ijgfs UMM Xrd`rfc Mgcu Fgfc A^A^J.
J. Bfifrtf 2 Xusft
Xjrauiufo, Kjpfrtjcjo Xjokmkmifo Ofsmdofg.

Pftd
Pftdom
om,, F. Efrms.
Efrms. 18
186:
6:.. Auiu smswf IMCMF Zotui ^CF/CF Ijgfs UMM Ijgdcpdi
Xjcmoftfo Cftjcftmif kfo Mgcu-Mgcu Fgfc. Afokuo` 2 ]rfcf Pmkyf

Afefo fbfr sjg jgjitrdgmsms ^CF Igs UMM