1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying - Students

Chapter One 6/7/2022
Introduction To Surveying
Out line
Introduction
 Definitions
AASTU The Need for Surveying

Types & Classification of surveying
CEng 2108 Units of Measurements & Scale

Theory of Errors in Surveying
 Accuracy & Precision
Chapter One  Sources of Errors
Introduction to Surveying  Definitions of Terms used for
describing errors
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 1 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 2
Some Surveying Instrument

Compass
Theodolite
Total Station
7-Jun-22 3 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 4

Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
History of Surveying
• Historically surveying starts with the settlement of people
in one place and started to domesticate animals and crops.
• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was
HISTORY OF SURVEYING conserved.

Armies were being kept to preserve the borders of the
city/states.
• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

arts because, as noted previously, from the earliest times it
has been necessary to mark boundaries and land divisions.
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 5 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 6

Surveying
1
Definition of Surveying
Surveying is the science and art of determining the
relative positions of natural and man-made features
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface, and the
DEFINITIONS OF SURVEYING presentation of this information either graphically or
numerically.
 Why it is an art?
 Why it is a Science?
 Why relative positions?

Definition of … Definition of …
Why it is an art? Why relative positions?
 Because only a surveyor who possesses through  When we say the relative positions of points it
understanding of surveying techniques will be able to
means that determining the relative positions of
determine the most efficient methods required to obtain
points in reference to another Objects reference
optimal results over a wide variety of surveying problems.
point/station.
Why it is a Science?
For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North-
 Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze
east of Akaki Town. In this example, it is obvious
field data, accuracy and reliability depends on
that the (relative position) location of AASTU is
understanding scientific principles underlying and
affecting survey measurement. described with reference to Akaki Town.
Definition of … Definition of …
 After taking the measurements in the field, • Engineering Surveying is defined as those
computations are done and the plans and the maps activities involved in the planning and execution
are prepared in the office. of surveys for the location, design, construction,
 These plans and maps are used for: maintenance, and operation of civil and other
• planning of engineering works

Engineered Projects.
• Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all

• making boundaries
methods for measuring, processing, and
• computation of areas and volumes, and disseminating information about the physical
• various other purposes. earth and our environment.

2
Need For Surveying

Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way
of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:
1. Map the earth above and below sea level.
2. Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea.
NEED FOR SURVEYING 3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information

which aid in managing our environment
5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of

the earth and
6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets, etc.
Need For … Need For …

The two fundamental reasons for taking ♠ Surveying plays an essential role in the planning,
measurements in Surveying. design, layout and construction of our physical
i. to determine the relative positions of existing environment and infrastructure.
features or objects on or near the surface of the ♠ Surveying is the link between design and
earth. construction.
ii. to layout or locate the desired positions of new ♠ In addition to its customary applications in
points or objects which are to be placed or construction and land-use projects, surveying is
constructed on or near the surface of the earth. playing an increasingly important role in modern
industrial technologies.
Need For … Need For …

Surveying activities during the construction process
Thus, surveying is the Firs stage for all Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized
Before Construction Under construction After construction
are:
Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)
 to fix the national and state boundaries; data collection phase plan or map
of construction on the construction
 to establish National control points;
Observations
in the field
 to collect field data;
Presenting
Processing the Field checks of documentation
 to prepare plan or map of the area to be surveyed; observations construction to the client
(office)
 to analyze and to calculate the field parameters for setting
Drawing maps,
out operation of actual engineering works. plans or providing
Providing data Deformation
numerical data Monitoring/
and services to
the client Load Tests
Presenting
documentation
to the client
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 17 7-Jun-22 18
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
3
Types & Principles of Surveying

Since surveying is a vast discipline, it needs detail
understanding from different perspectives
TYPES & Principles of SURVEYING So it can be classified based on different norms,

Principles & aspects:
 Based on the shape (nature) of the earth
 Based on the purpose for which they are conducted
 Based on the instrument used
 Based on field of observation

Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Earth’s surface showing
mountains and other irregularities
 The shape of the
earth is an oblate
GEOID – equipotential surface
polar semi-axis = b
spheroid.
equatorial semi-axis = a
oblate spheroid
perpendicular to gravity and
 It is an ellipsoid approximating mean sea level
of revolution, equator
ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the
flattened at the geoid using a mathematically
poles and b definable figure (a = semi-major axis;
bulging at the b = semi-minor axis)
a
equator a= 6378km
b= 6356km
Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Surveying is categorized in to two based on the i. Plane Surveying is the type of surveying in which
principle whether the curvature of the earth is the curvature of the earth is ignored and the earth
considered or the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. is assumed to be a flat surface.
i. Plane Surveying ♠ All distances and horizontal angles are assumed
ii. Geodetic Surveying to be projected on to a horizontal plane.
♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is

concerned with small portions of the earth’s
surface and the areas involved.
4
Classifi…Shape of the Earth

ii. Geodetic Surveying is the type of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is taken in to account
♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the Classification of Surveying

measurements and representation of the Earth,
Based on Instruments Used
including its gravity field, in a 3D, time varying space.
♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to

determine the precise location of a system of widely
spaced points on the surface of the earth.
Classifi…Instrument Used Classifi…Instrument Used

Based on the instruments used, it can be classified as: iii. Leveling
i. Chain surveying This is a type of survey in which a leveling
- is the simplest type of surveying in which linear instrument is used for determination of relative
measurements are taken with a chain or tape elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical
ii. Compass surveying plane.
- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are iv. Theodolite surveys
measured with the help of a magnetic compass, in A theodolite is a very precise instrument for
addition to the line or measurements with a chain measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
or a tape.
Classifi…Instrument Used
v. Photogrammetric surveys
Photogrammetry (Aerial) surveying is a science of taking Classification of Surveying

measurements with the help of photographs, mainly
used for topographic mapping of vast areas. Based on Purpose of the
Surveying
5
Class… Purpose of the Surveying

Based on the purpose for which they are conducted,
i. Route surveying
-These surveys are especial types of surveys

conducted along a proposed route for establishing
precise position of highway, railway, sewer line, high
tension electric lines, etc.
-Route survey is done along a wide strip.
-In general, route surveying also includes the staking

out and calculation of the earth work
Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

iii. Control Survey
ii. Property survey
Used to establish a network of
It is performed in order to establish the positions of
horizontal and vertical
boundary lines and property corners:
monuments that serve as a
• when ever ownership is to be transferred
reference framework for other
• when a large tract of land is to be subdivided in to
survey projects.
smaller parts called parcels.
• before the design and construction of any public or

private land- use project can get underway
• to mark property corners with permanent monument

iv. Topographic Survey v. Construction survey
• Made to collect data or information - is performed in order to mark the position of new
• to produce a map showing the configuration of the features on the ground
terrain (natural and man made features) and - It is applicable in most/many engineering projects
• the location of natural and man-made objects. in order to represent the location of building
corners, road center lines and other facilities that
are to be built such as pipe lines, bridges,
canals…etc.
6

vi. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
Other types of Surveying
boundaries, and areas of land parcels. • City survey
vii. City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and • Mine survey
• Hydrographic survey
development of towns including roads, drainage, water
• Astronomic survey
supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally • Satellite survey
referred to as city survey. • Geological survey
• Engineering survey
viii. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and
the bottom of bodies of water. Also known as
bathymetric surveying.
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 37 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 38
Surveying
Phases of Surveying
There are two phases:

- Field Phase
Phases of Surveying - Office Phase
Phases of Surveying
• Office Work phase
1. Planning and design of the survey specifications
2. Calculations and adjustment of data
3. Preparation of plans, maps, etc.
Units of Measurements
• Field Work phase
&
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed
2.Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3.Performing measurements
Scale
4.Setting out in the field
5.Recording of measured data
7
Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying

Surveying basically consists of the following 2. Vertical distance
four measurements
- Is the vertical distance measured to determine the
1. Horizontal distance
difference in elevations (height) of the various points.
- Is measured in a - it is in a vertical direction that is parallel to the
horizontal plane.
direction of gravity; at any point, it is the direction of
- If it is measured along a
slope, it should be a freely suspended plum bob cord or string.
reduced to its
horizontal equivalent. - The most commonly used reference surface for
measuring vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL).
Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying
3. Horizontal angle 4. Vertical angle

An angle measured A vertical angle
between two between two lines of
intersecting lines in a sight is measured in
horizontal plane is a plane that is
called horizontal vertical at the point
angle. of observation.
Measurement
• Measurement is the process of Comparing
unknowns with standards or
• Measurement is the process of estimating or determining

Measurements the magnitude of a quantity
• The difference between the measured and its
true value is called the measurement error
8
•A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a
physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention or
by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the
same physical quantity.
There are two systems of measurements:
• M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system (SI =

System International)
• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)
Units of Measurements… Units of Measurements…

2. Angular units of measurements
1. Linear units of measurements There are three systems in use for angular unit:
• Length: meter (m), Kilo meter (Km), inch (in), feet i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts.
(ft), mile, yard 1 full circle = 3600 (degrees)
• Area: Sq.m (m2), Sq.Km, Sq.ft, hectar (ha) ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts.
• Volume: Cu.m (m3), Cu,ft 1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

1 radian = 57.300
Conversion of Units Conversion of Units…

i. The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m)
•We can convert measurements from one unit to 1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam
another unit or within the same system (English or 1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1km
Metric) or between the two systems. 1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm
•To convert measurements, it is necessary to know 1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm
conversion factors between measurements. 1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm
1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm
1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm
9
Conversion of Units… Conversion of Units…

ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter
square (m2) » Conversion of length » Conversion of length
1Km = 1000m 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 hectare = 100m X 100m=104m2 = 1 ha 1m = 100cm 1 foot = 0.3048m
1cm= 10mm 1 foot = 12inches
1 sq.km= 1000m X 1000m=106 m 2 = 1km2 = 100 ha
1 mile = 1.6093 km
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic
meter (m3) » Conversion of length » Conversion of length
1sq.cm = 102 mm 1 inch = 2.54 cm
1000 cu millimeters=1 cubic centimeter meter
1sq.m = 104 cm 1 foot = 0.3048m
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter 1sq.Km = 106 m 1 foot = 12inches
1 mile = 1.6093 km
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
Conversion of Units…
» Conversion of area » Conversion of Volume
1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm 1 cu. m = 106 cu.cm
1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm 1 cu. cm = 103 cu.mm
1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km 1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
» Conversion of Angles » Conversion of Angles Scale of a Map

1 degree = 60min 1 gon = 9/10 deg
1 min = 60sec, 1 deg = 10/9 gon,
1 min = 60sec 400 gon = 3600
1 gon = 100mgon 1 radian = 57.300
1 mgon = 10cgon
Scale of a map Scale of a map…

 The scale of a map is defined as the ratio of a distance  Large denominator numbers refer to small scale ,
on the map to the corresponding measured distance where as small denominator numbers are an
on the ground indicative of a large scale
 The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on -----Large scale:- 1: 1,000 or more
the map to distance on the ground or vice versa
example 1:500
 Scales of a map are generally classified as large,
-----Medium scale:- 1:1,000 to 1:10,000
medium and small
example 1: 5,000
 A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size
-----Small Scale:- 1: 10,000 or less
than a small scale map
example 1:50,000
10
Representations of Scale Representations of Scale…

Scale of a map can be represented:
ii. By representative fraction (RF)-
i. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
 This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the
ii. By representative fraction representative fraction.
iii. By graphical Scale  The RF is always written with the map distance as 1 and
i. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-According to this is independent of any unit of measurement.
representation, a specified distance on the map Note:The unit in the numerator and denominator must be
represents the corresponding distance on the ground. the same (scale is unit less).
For example 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1cm on the E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map
map represents 100m on the ground. represents 5000 cm (50m) on the ground.
Representations of Scale…
iii. By graphical Scale:
 A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that

its map distance corresponds to its length on the
ground
RF
 It is used to convert distances on the map to actual Graphical
ground distances
 It is also used to determine straight line distance

between two points on a map
centimeter
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4
Statement
inch

Surveying
Theory of errors
It can be stated unconditionally that
1. No measurement is exact,
2. Every measurement contains errors,
3. The true value of a measurement is never known, and

Theory of Errors in Surveying thus
4. The exact sizes of the errors present are always

unknown.
****The true value of a quantity is, a value which is, absolutely

free from all types of errors*****
11
Types of Errors in measurements A. Mistakes (Gross errors)…

 The surveyor’s task is to keep errors in measurement
• These are serious faults and occur when the
with in prescribed or agreed limits.
surveyor blunders through lack of experience and
 In order to do so, he/she must know source of errors,
lack of care. Some of these are:
types of errors, the effects of errors and how to
. Incorrect booking of measurements For
evaluate his/her results.
example, recording 79.36 or 73.69 instead
 There are three basic types of errors. These are;
of 73.96
– Mistakes (Gross) errors
• Mistakes can be eliminated only by proper and
– Systematic ( Cumulative) errors
careful methods of observing & booking and
– Accidental (Random) errors constantly checking both operations.
B. Systematic (cumulative) errors C. Accidental (Random) Errors

• A random error (or accidental error) is an error
• These are constant errors, which can be calculated and
produced by irregular causes that are beyond the
so corrected. For example
control of the observer.
• if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a
• These errors are remaining after mistakes &
temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c
systematic errors have been eliminated.
the tape will be about 3.5mm too long.
• These errors can be +ve or -ve.
• This means when the measured distance is 30m, the • These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series
actual distance is 30.0035m. of measurements, and are, therefore, also called
• Hence, there is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every compensating errors.
30m tape length.
Accuracy & Precision Accuracy & Precision

• Accuracy is the measure of the absolute • Precision is the degree of consistency
nearness of a measured quantity to its true between observations based on the sizes of
value. the discrepancies in a data set.
• It is an indication of how close it is to the • The precision of a measurement has to do
true value of the quantity that has been with the refinement used in taking the
measured. measurement, the quality of an instrument.
N.B: Accuracy – Result to be right N.B: Precision – Method to get right
12
Accuracy & Precision Accuracy Vs Precision

ACCURACY
• Precision in a measurement is influenced by:
High
1. care used in making a measurement Low
2. refinement of instrument construction
Low
3. Least count of the scale
PRECISION
4. Number of times the measurement is
repeated
High
Sources of Errors
Natural errors
• Curvature, refraction, strong winds, Temperatures
variations, loose muddy and swampy areas
Instrumental errors
• Sag, Vertical and horizontal Axis, lateral and
collimation error plate level test, cross hair ring Test,
Definitions of Terms used for
collimation in azimuth test, vertical circle, Index Test.
Personal Errors
describing Errors
• Mistakes in reading and recording, focusing, setting
up, holding staffs

Surveying
Probability
probability can be used to study the behavior of random
errors.
The frequency and magnitude of occurrence of these

errors follow the laws of probability.
• Small errors (residuals) occur more often than large

random errors.
• Large errors happen infrequently
• Positive and negative errors of the same size occur

with the same frequency
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 77 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 78
Surveying Surveying
13
Residual, V Standard (error) Deviation (σ)

It is the difference between any individual measured • The standard deviation is also known as the root-mean
quantity and the most probable value of the quantity. square (R.M.S) error,
• It is a measure of distribution by assuming the

observations are of equal reliability.
• It is the probability of the error to occur between +

Where υi is the residual in the ith observation, yi,
and - , it has a percentage of 68.3%.
and ӯ is the most probable value for the
unknown. Where:
𝑣2 n is the number of observations
𝛿=±
(𝑛 − 1) 𝑣 is the sum of the squares of the
2
errors
7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 79 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 80
Surveying

Standard error of the Mean (σm) Most Probable Error (e):
The error in the mean computed from a sample set of measured The probability of the true error being less than the
values probable error is 50% and the probability of the true error
It is also known as root-mean-square (R-M-S) error of the mean being greater than the probable error is also 50%.
The standard error of the mean (σm ) of a number of observations of
This error is also called 50% error, expressed as E50.
the same quantity is given by:
𝑣2 𝛿
𝛿𝑚 = ± Or 𝛿𝑚 = ± 𝑒 = ±0.6745𝛿
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛
indicates that the probability of the mean value to be

between + 𝛿𝑚 and -𝛿𝑚 is 68.3%.
Most Probable Error of the mean (em): Maximum error ( e max)

• It is impossible to estimate absolutely maximum error, as it
would occur at infinity.
• In surveying generally 99.9% error (E 99.9) is taken as the

maximum error.
• It corresponds to a range of +3.29 and -3.29 .The

Em  0.6745
v 2
Maximum error is often used to separate mistakes (gross

n  n  1
errors) from the random errors.
• If any measurement deviates from the mean by more than

±3.29 it is considered as a mistake, and that measurement
is rejected.
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
7-Jun-22 83 7-Jun-22 84
14
Variance (V) Different Percentage errors

• Variance is a value by which the precision for a set The following percentages of error are also required
of data is given.
• Population variance applies to a data set consisting 1. 90% Error (E90) = + 1.645
2. 95% Error (E95) = + 1.96
of an entire population.
3. 95.5% Error (E95.5) = + 2.0
• It is the mean of the squares of the errors and is 4. 99.7% Error (E99.7) = + 3.0
given by:
𝑣2
𝑉=± Or 𝑉 = 𝛿2
(𝑛−1)

Surveying
Relative precision Degree of accuracy

The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in
• The relative precision or the degree of precision is
the measurements .
used to express the precision of the various
It is usually expressed as the ratio of the error to the
measurements.
measured quantity.
• It is usually expressed as a ratio of the standard
For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000
error of the mean ( m) to the mean value (M) of the
indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.
quantity
1
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚
𝛿𝑚
Surveying
15

1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying - Students

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying - Students

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter One 6/7/2022

AASTU The Need for Surveying

CEng 2108 Units of Measurements & Scale

Some Surveying Instrument

7-Jun-22 3 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 4

• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was

HISTORY OF SURVEYING conserved.

• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 5 7-Jun-22 Chapter One Introduction To 6

 Why relative positions?

• planning of engineering works

• Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all

• various other purposes. earth and our environment.

Need For Surveying

of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:

1. Map the earth above and below sea level.

4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information

5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of

6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets, etc.

Need For … Need For …

measurements in Surveying. design, layout and construction of our physical

i. to determine the relative positions of existing environment and infrastructure.

Need For … Need For …

Types & Principles of Surveying

TYPES & Principles of SURVEYING So it can be classified based on different norms,

 Based on the shape (nature) of the earth

 Based on the purpose for which they are conducted

 Based on the instrument used

 Based on field of observation

Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is

Classifi…Shape of the Earth

♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the Classification of Surveying

♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to

Classifi…Instrument Used Classifi…Instrument Used

ii. Compass surveying plane.

- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are iv. Theodolite surveys

Photogrammetry (Aerial) surveying is a science of taking Classification of Surveying

Class… Purpose of the Surveying

-These surveys are especial types of surveys

-Route survey is done along a wide strip.

-In general, route surveying also includes the staking

Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

• before the design and construction of any public or

• to mark property corners with permanent monument

Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

• to produce a map showing the configuration of the features on the ground

Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

There are two phases:

Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying

Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying

3. Horizontal angle 4. Vertical angle

unknowns with standards or

• Measurement is the process of estimating or determining

• The difference between the measured and its

true value is called the measurement error

• M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system (SI =

• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)

Units of Measurements… Units of Measurements…

• Volume: Cu.m (m3), Cu,ft 1 full circle = 400 gon/grad

iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.