1 - Chapter One Introduction To Surveying - Students

Chapter One 3/9/2024
Introduction To Surveying
Out line
 Introduction
 Definitions
 The Need for Surveying
ARCH 3124  Types & Classification of surveying
 Units of Measurements & Scale
Chapter One  Theory of Errors in Surveying

 Accuracy & Precision
Introduction to Surveying  Sources of Errors
 Definitions of Terms used for describing
errors
9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 1 9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 2
Some Surveying Instrument

Compass
Theodolite
Total Station
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Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
History of Surveying
• Historically surveying starts with the settlement of people
in one place and started to domesticate animals and crops.
• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was
HISTORY OF SURVEYING conserved.

Armies were being kept to preserve the borders of the
city/states.
• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

arts because, as noted previously, from the earliest times it
has been necessary to mark boundaries and land divisions.
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Surveying
1
Definition of Surveying Definition of …

Why it is an art?
Surveying is the science and art of determining the
 Because only a surveyor who possesses through
relative positions of natural and man-made features
understanding of surveying techniques will be able to
above, on, or beneath the earth’s surface, and the
determine the most efficient methods required to obtain
presentation of this information either graphically or optimal results over a wide variety of surveying problems.
numerically.
Why it is a Science?
 Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze

 Why it is an art? field data, accuracy and reliability depends on
 Why it is a Science? understanding scientific principles underlying and

affecting survey measurement.
 Why relative positions?
Definition of … Definition of …
Why relative positions?
 After taking the measurements in the field,
 When we say the relative positions of points it
computations are done and the plans and the maps
means that determining the relative positions of
are prepared in the office.
points in reference to another Objects reference
 These plans and maps are used for:
point/station.
• planning of engineering works
For example, AASTU is found at about 3 km North-
east of Akaki Town. In this example, it is obvious • making boundaries
that the (relative position) location of AASTU is • computation of areas and volumes, and
described with reference to Akaki Town.
• various other purposes.
Definition of … Need For Surveying

Surveying has now become indispensable to our modern way
• Engineering Surveying is defined as those of life. The results of today’s surveys are being used to:
activities involved in the planning and execution 1. Map the earth above and below sea level.
of surveys for the location, design, construction, 2. Prepare navigational charts for use in the air, on land and at sea.
maintenance, and operation of civil and other 3. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
Engineered Projects. 4. Develop data banks of land-use and natural resources information
which aid in managing our environment
• Surveying is a discipline, which encompasses all
5. Determine facts on the size, shape, gravity and magnetic fields of
methods for measuring, processing, and
the earth and
disseminating information about the physical
6. Prepare charts of our moon and planets, etc.
earth and our environment.
2
Need For … Need For …

The two fundamental reasons for taking ♠ Surveying plays an essential role in the planning,
measurements in Surveying. design, layout and construction of our physical

environment and infrastructure.
i. to determine the relative positions of existing
features or objects on or near the surface of the ♠ Surveying is the link between design and
earth. construction.
ii. to layout or locate the desired positions of new ♠ In addition to its customary applications in
points or objects which are to be placed or construction and land-use projects, surveying is
constructed on or near the surface of the earth. playing an increasingly important role in modern
industrial technologies.
Need For … Need For …

Surveying activities during the construction process
Thus, surveying is the Firs stage for all Engineering projects.
Other principal works in which surveying is primarily utilized
Before Construction Under construction After construction
are:
Planning and Setting out on each Final (as-built)
 to fix the national and state boundaries; data collection phase plan or map
of construction on the construction
 to establish National control points;
Observations
in the field
 to collect field data;
Presenting
Processing the Field checks of documentation
 to prepare plan or map of the area to be surveyed; observations construction to the client
(office)
 to analyze and to calculate the field parameters for setting
Drawing maps,
out operation of actual engineering works. plans or providing
Providing data Deformation
numerical data Monitoring/
and services to
the client Load Tests
Presenting
documentation
to the client
9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 15 9-Mar-24 16
Chapter One Introduction To Surveying
Types & Principles of Surveying Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Since surveying is a vast discipline, it needs detail
 The shape of the
understanding from different perspectives
earth is an oblate polar semi-axis = b
spheroid.
equatorial semi-axis = a
So it can be classified based on different norms, oblate spheroid
Principles & aspects:  It is an ellipsoid

 Based on the shape (nature) of the earth
of revolution, equator
flattened at the
 Based on the purpose for which they are conducted poles and
 Based on the instrument used bulging at the
equator
 Based on field of observation
3
Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Earth’s surface showing
mountains and other irregularities Surveying is categorized in to two based on the
principle whether the curvature of the earth is
GEOID – equipotential surface considered or the earth is assumed to be a flat plane.
perpendicular to gravity and
approximating mean sea level i. Plane Surveying
ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the ii. Geodetic Surveying

geoid using a mathematically
b definable figure (a = semi-major axis;
b = semi-minor axis)
a
a= 6378km
b= 6356km
Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

i. Plane Surveying is the type of surveying in which ii. Geodetic Surveying is the type of surveying in which
the curvature of the earth is ignored and the earth the curvature of the earth is taken in to account
is assumed to be a flat surface. ♠ Geodesy is the discipline that deals with the
♠ All distances and horizontal angles are assumed measurements and representation of the Earth,
to be projected on to a horizontal plane. including its gravity field, in a 3D, time varying space.
♠ Plane surveying can safely be used when one is ♠ The main object of geodetic surveying is to
concerned with small portions of the earth’s determine the precise location of a system of widely
surface and the areas involved. spaced points on the surface of the earth.
Classifi…Instrument Used Classifi…Instrument Used

Based on the instruments used, it can be classified as: iii. Leveling
i. Chain surveying This is a type of survey in which a leveling
- is the simplest type of surveying in which linear instrument is used for determination of relative
measurements are taken with a chain or tape elevations (levels) of various points in the vertical
ii. Compass surveying plane.
- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are iv. Theodolite surveys
measured with the help of a magnetic compass, in A theodolite is a very precise instrument for
addition to the line or measurements with a chain measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
or a tape.
4
Classifi…Instrument Used Class… Purpose of the Surveying

Based on the purpose for which they are conducted,
v. Photogrammetric surveys
i. Route surveying
Photogrammetry (Aerial) surveying is a science of taking
-These surveys are especial types of surveys
measurements with the help of photographs, mainly
conducted along a proposed route for establishing
used for topographic mapping of vast areas.
precise position of highway, railway, sewer line, high
tension electric lines, etc.
-Route survey is done along a wide strip.
-In general, route surveying also includes the staking

out and calculation of the earth work
Class… Purpose of the Surveying

ii. Property survey
It is performed in order to establish the positions of
boundary lines and property corners:
• when ever ownership is to be transferred
• when a large tract of land is to be subdivided in to

smaller parts called parcels.
• before the design and construction of any public or

private land- use project can get underway
• to mark property corners with permanent monument
Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

iii. Control Survey
iv. Topographic Survey
Used to establish a network of
• Made to collect data or information
horizontal and vertical
• to produce a map showing the configuration of the
monuments that serve as a
terrain (natural and man made features) and
reference framework for other
survey projects. • the location of natural and man-made objects.
5
Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

v. Construction survey vi. Boundary Surveying – establishing property corners,
- is performed in order to mark the position of new boundaries, and areas of land parcels.
features on the ground vii. City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and
- It is applicable in most/many engineering projects development of towns including roads, drainage, water
in order to represent the location of building supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally
corners, road center lines and other facilities that referred to as city survey.
are to be built such as pipe lines, bridges,
viii. Hydrographic Surveying – mapping of shorelines and
canals…etc.
the bottom of bodies of water. Also known as
bathymetric surveying.
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Surveying
Phases of Surveying
Class… Purpose of the Surveying
Other types of Surveying

• City survey There are two phases:
• Mine survey - Field Phase
• Hydrographic survey
• Astronomic survey
- Office Phase
• Satellite survey
• Geological survey
• Engineering survey
Phases of Surveying Basic measurements in surveying

• Office Work phase
1. Planning and design of the survey specifications
Surveying basically consists of the following
2. Calculations and adjustment of data
four measurements
3. Preparation of plans, maps, etc. 1. Horizontal distance
• Field Work phase
- Is measured in a
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed horizontal plane.
2.Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3.Performing measurements - If it is measured along a
slope, it should be
4.Setting out in the field reduced to its
5.Recording of measured data horizontal equivalent.
6
Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying
2. Vertical distance
3. Horizontal angle
- Is the vertical distance measured to determine the
An angle measured
difference in elevations (height) of the various points.
between two
- it is in a vertical direction that is parallel to the
intersecting lines in a
direction of gravity; at any point, it is the direction of
horizontal plane is
a freely suspended plum bob cord or string.
called horizontal
- The most commonly used reference surface for
angle.
measuring vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL).
Basic measurements in surveying Measurement

• Measurement is the process of Comparing
4. Vertical angle unknowns with standards or
A vertical angle • Measurement is the process of estimating or determining
between two lines of the magnitude of a quantity
sight is measured in • The difference between the measured and its
a plane that is
true value is called the measurement error
vertical at the point
of observation.
Units of Measurements Units of Measurements…

•A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a
physical quantity, defined and adopted by convention or
1. Linear units of measurements
by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the
• Length: meter (m), Kilo meter (Km), inch (in), feet
same physical quantity.
(ft), mile, yard
There are two systems of measurements: • Area: Sq.m (m2), Sq.Km, Sq.ft, hectar (ha)
• M.K.S (meter, kilogram, second): Metric system (SI = • Volume: Cu.m (m3), Cu,ft
System International)
• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)
7
Units of Measurements… Conversion of Units

2. Angular units of measurements •We can convert measurements from one unit to
There are three systems in use for angular unit: another unit or within the same system (English or
i) Sexagesimal graduation: a circle is divided in to 360 parts. Metric) or between the two systems.
1 full circle = 3600 (degrees) •To convert measurements, it is necessary to know
ii) Centesimal graduation: The circle is divided in to 400 parts. conversion factors between measurements.
1 full circle = 400 gon/grad
iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

1 radian = 57.300
Conversion of Units… Conversion of Units…

i. The SI unit of length is the base unit meter (m) ii. The SI unit for area, is the derived units meter
1 Decameter = 101m = 1dam square (m2)
1 hectometer = 102m = 1hm
1 kilometer = 103m = 1km 1 hectare = 100m X 100m=104m2 = 1 ha
1 mega meter = 106m = 1Mm
1 giga meter = 109m = 1Gm 1 sq.km= 1000m X 1000m=106 m 2 = 1km2 = 100 ha
1 tetrameter = 1012m = 1Tm
iii. The SI unit for volume is the derived unit cubic
1 Decimeter = 10-1m = 1dm
1 centimeter = 10-2m = 1cm meter (m3)
1 Millimeter = 10-3m = 1mm
1 micrometer = 10-6m = 1Mm 1000 cu millimeters=1 cubic centimeter meter
1 nano meter = 10-9m = 1nm
1000 cu centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter
1 Pico meter = 10-12m = 1pm
1000 cu decimeters = 1 cubic meter
Conversion of Units… Conversion of Units…

» Conversion of area » Conversion of Volume
» Conversion of length » Conversion of length
1Km = 1000m 1 sq. in = 6.4516 sq. cm 1 cu. m = 106 cu.cm
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1m = 100cm 1 sq. Ft = 0.0929 sq. cm 1 cu. cm = 103 cu.mm
1 foot = 0.3048m
1cm= 10mm 1 sq. mile = 2.59 sq. km 1 cu. In = 16.387 cu.cm
1 foot = 12inches
1 cu ft = 0.0283 cu.m
1 mile = 1.6093 km
» Conversion of length » Conversion of length » Conversion of Angles » Conversion of Angles

1sq.cm = 102 mm 1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 degree = 60min 1 gon = 9/10 deg
1sq.m = 104 cm 1 foot = 0.3048m 1 min = 60sec, 1 deg = 10/9 gon,
1sq.Km = 106 m 1 foot = 12inches 1 min = 60sec 400 gon = 3600
1 mile = 1.6093 km 1 gon = 100mgon 1 radian = 57.300
1 mgon = 10cgon
8
Scale of a map Scale of a map…

 The scale of a map is defined as the ratio of a distance  Large denominator numbers refer to small scale ,
on the map to the corresponding measured distance where as small denominator numbers are an
on the ground indicative of a large scale
 The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on -----Large scale:- 1: 1,000 or more
the map to distance on the ground or vice versa
example 1:500
 Scales of a map are generally classified as large,
-----Medium scale:- 1:1,000 to 1:10,000
medium and small
example 1: 5,000
 A large scale map shows the features in a bigger size
-----Small Scale:- 1: 10,000 or less
than a small scale map
example 1:50,000
Representations of Scale Representations of Scale…

Scale of a map can be represented:
ii. By representative fraction (RF)-
i. By statement (Verbal) (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
 This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called the
ii. By representative fraction
representative fraction.
iii. By graphical Scale  The RF is always written with the map distance as 1 and
i. By statement (engineer’s Scale)- is independent of any unit of measurement.
– Simple terms are used to define a noticeable surface feature Note:The unit in the numerator and denominator must be
on this scale. the same (scale is unit less).
– A verbal map scale describes a location or object by E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map
expanding abbreviations, for example “One inch to the represents 5000 cm (50m) on the ground.
mile
9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To 51 9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 52
Surveying
Representations of Scale…
iii. By graphical Scale:
 A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that

its map distance corresponds to its length on the
ground
RF
 It is used to convert distances on the map to actual Graphical
ground distances
 It is also used to determine straight line distance

between two points on a map
Statement
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Surveying Surveying
9
Theory of errors Types of Errors in measurements

 The surveyor’s task is to keep errors in measurement
It can be stated unconditionally that
with in prescribed or agreed limits.
1. No measurement is exact,
 In order to do so, he/she must know source of errors,
2. Every measurement contains errors,
types of errors, the effects of errors and how to
3. The true value of a measurement is never known, and
evaluate his/her results.
thus
 There are three basic types of errors. These are;
4. The exact sizes of the errors present are always
unknown. – Mistakes (Gross) errors
****The true value of a quantity is, a value which is, absolutely – Systematic ( Cumulative) errors
free from all types of errors***** – Accidental (Random) errors
A. Mistakes (Gross errors)… B. Systematic (cumulative) errors

• These are serious faults and occur when the • These are constant errors, which can be calculated and
surveyor blunders through lack of experience and so corrected. For example
lack of care. Some of these are: • if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a
. Incorrect booking of measurements For
temperature of 20c but the field temperature is 30c
example, recording 79.36 or 73.69 instead the tape will be about 3.5mm too long.
of 73.96
• This means when the measured distance is 30m, the
• Mistakes can be eliminated only by proper and
actual distance is 30.0035m.
careful methods of observing & booking and
• Hence, there is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every
constantly checking both operations.
30m tape length.
C. Accidental (Random) Errors Accuracy & Precision

• A random error (or accidental error) is an error • Accuracy is the measure of the absolute
produced by irregular causes that are beyond the
nearness of a measured quantity to its true
control of the observer.
value.
• These errors are remaining after mistakes &
systematic errors have been eliminated. • It is an indication of how close it is to the
• These errors can be +ve or -ve. true value of the quantity that has been
• These errors tend to cancel themselves in a series measured.
of measurements, and are, therefore, also called N.B: Accuracy – Result to be right
compensating errors.
10
Accuracy & Precision Accuracy & Precision

• Precision is the degree of consistency • Precision in a measurement is influenced by:
between observations based on the sizes of 1. care used in making a measurement
the discrepancies in a data set. 2. refinement of instrument construction
• The precision of a measurement has to do 3. Least count of the scale
with the refinement used in taking the 4. Number of times the measurement is
measurement, the quality of an instrument. repeated
N.B: Precision – Method to get right
Accuracy Vs Precision Sources of Errors

ACCURACY Natural errors
• Curvature, refraction, strong winds, Temperatures
High
Low variations, loose muddy and swampy areas
Instrumental errors
Low
• Sag, Vertical and horizontal Axis, lateral and

PRECISION
collimation error plate level test, cross hair ring Test,

collimation in azimuth test, vertical circle, Index Test.
Personal Errors
• Mistakes in reading and recording, focusing, setting
High
up, holding staffs
Degree of accuracy
The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in
the measurements .
It is usually expressed as the ratio of the error to the
measured quantity.
For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000

indicates that there is an error of 1 unit in 10,000 units.
9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To 65

Surveying
11

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Chapter One 3/9/2024

Chapter One  Theory of Errors in Surveying

Some Surveying Instrument

9-Mar-24 3 9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 4

• Agriculture was firmly established and land ownership was

HISTORY OF SURVEYING conserved.

• Surveying is one of the world’s oldest and most important

9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To Surveying 5 9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To 6

Definition of Surveying Definition of …

 Because the use of mathematical techniques to analyze

 Why it is a Science? understanding scientific principles underlying and

Definition of … Need For Surveying

Need For … Need For …

measurements in Surveying. design, layout and construction of our physical

Need For … Need For …

Types & Principles of Surveying Classifi…Shape of the Earth

So it can be classified based on different norms, oblate spheroid

Principles & aspects:  It is an ellipsoid

Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

ELLIPSOID – models the surface of the ii. Geodetic Surveying

Classifi…Shape of the Earth Classifi…Shape of the Earth

Classifi…Instrument Used Classifi…Instrument Used

ii. Compass surveying plane.

- is a type of surveying, the horizontal angles are iv. Theodolite surveys

Classifi…Instrument Used Class… Purpose of the Surveying

-Route survey is done along a wide strip.

-In general, route surveying also includes the staking

Class… Purpose of the Surveying

• when ever ownership is to be transferred

• when a large tract of land is to be subdivided in to

• before the design and construction of any public or

• to mark property corners with permanent monument

Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

Class… Purpose of the Surveying Class… Purpose of the Surveying

Other types of Surveying

Phases of Surveying Basic measurements in surveying

Basic measurements in surveying Basic measurements in surveying

Basic measurements in surveying Measurement

Units of Measurements Units of Measurements…

• F.P.S (foot , pound, second):British System (Imperial)

Units of Measurements… Conversion of Units

1 full circle = 3600 (degrees) •To convert measurements, it is necessary to know

1 full circle = 400 gon/grad

iii) Radian system: 1 full circle = 2 Π rad.

Conversion of Units… Conversion of Units…

Conversion of Units… Conversion of Units…

» Conversion of length » Conversion of length » Conversion of Angles » Conversion of Angles

Scale of a map Scale of a map…

Representations of Scale Representations of Scale…

i. By statement (engineer’s Scale)- is independent of any unit of measurement.

 A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so that

 It is also used to determine straight line distance

9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To 53 9-Mar-24 Chapter One Introduction To 54

Theory of errors Types of Errors in measurements

A. Mistakes (Gross errors)… B. Systematic (cumulative) errors

C. Accidental (Random) Errors Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy & Precision Accuracy & Precision

Accuracy Vs Precision Sources of Errors

• Sag, Vertical and horizontal Axis, lateral and

collimation error plate level test, cross hair ring Test,

up, holding staffs

For example, a degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000