Obhb`bg

[\OML] C\Y]A[A ZBIB Y\OM\GBC (Ybcbg ibc Btofsdlr)

(Iasusuc \ctuh Ololcuga Yuebs Obtb Hu`abg Cutrasa Yuomubc ia Bopug f`lg
Ir. Nuscb Bgobi, O.[a
O.[a )

Ia [usuc

HL@FOZFH = >

OFG. B@UA

UA@BC OAQFI\

[B]BG

Maf`fea B Cfc-iah

N\]\[BC MAF@FEA
DBH\@YB[ OBYLOBYAHB IBC A@O\ ZLCELYBG\BC B@BO
\CATL][AYB[ CLEL]A EF]FCYB@F
=:=2
 HBYB ZLCEBCYB]

Zuna ibc syuhur hatb pbcnbthbc

pbcnbthbc hl gbiarbt
gbiarbt Yugbc
Yugbc Qbce Obgb Lsb. Hbrlcb
btbs mlrhbt ibc gaibybg-Cyb plcyusuc masb olcyl`lsbahbc
olcyl`lsbahbc tuebs aca ilcebc mbah.
Yuebs
Yuebs aca iahlrnb
iahlrnbhbc
hbc uctuh
uctuh ololcuga
ololcuga sb`bg sbtu tuebs
tuebs obtb hu`abg
hu`abg Cutras
Cutrasaa
Yuomugbc
Yuomugbc ilcebc nuiu` ‐ [uomlr Cutrasa pbib Yuomugbc‟. Ia ib`bo tuebs
ac
acaa tlri
tlribp
bpbt
bt mb
mbcy
cybh
bh hl
hlhu
hurbc
rbceb
ebc,
c, uc
uctu
tuh
h atu
atu pl
plcy
cyus
usuc
uc ac
acea
eac
c olce
olceuk
ukbp
bphb
hbc
c
plrofgfcbc obbd ybce slmlsbr-mlsbrcyb. Bibpuc asa ibra obhb`bg aca plcu`as
ibpbthbc
ibpbthbc ibra mlrmbeba suomlr-suomlr
suomlr-suomlr rldlrlcsa ibra mlrmbeba oliab ybce obcb
obhb
obhb`b
`bg
g aca
aca obsa
obsag
g oloa
oloa`a
`aha
ha mbcy
mbcybh
bh hl
hlhu
hurb
rbce
cebc
bc ib
ibc
c pl
plcy
cyus
usuc
uc sb
sbce
cebt
bt
olomutughbc mbcybh obsuhbc ybce mlrsadbt olombceuc ibc olciaiah slgaceeb
plcyusuc olcibpbt pl`bnbrbc ibc plceb`bobc ybce ibpbt iatlrbphbc ib`bo
ol`b`ua plciaiahbc aca.

Hratah ibc sbrbc bhbc plcyusuc tlraob slmbeba subtu obsuhbc ybce mbah
uctuh plcyusuc hlilpbccyb. Yaibh `upb plcyusuc sbopbahbc tlraob hbsag ybce
slmlsbr-mlsbrcyb hlpbib sloub pagbh ybce tl`bg olombctu tlrsl`lsbahbc tuebs
aca. Ouibg-ouibgbc sloub mbctubccyb iamlrahbc mb`bsbc ybce tlrmbah f`lg B``bg
[UY.. \ctuh
[UY \ctuh atu,
atu, slhb`a
slhb`a `bea
`bea plcyus
plcyusuc
uc ukbphb
ukbphbc
c obbd
obbd ybce
ybce slmlsbr
slmlsbr-ml
-mlsbrc
sbrcyb,
yb,
ouibg-ouibgbc tuebs aca mlrobcdbbt mbea hatb sloub.

Efrfctb`f, Obrlt , =:=2

Zlcyusuc
 IBDYB] A[A

HBYB ZLCEBCYB]..........................
ZLCEBCYB]................................................
............................................................
...................................... a

IBDYB] A[A................................................
A[A......................................................................
.....................................
..............................
............... aa

MBM A ZLCIBG\@\BC...........................
ZLCIBG\@\BC.................................................
............................................
................................
.......... 2

2.2 @btbr Ml`bhbce........................................

Ml`bhbce..............................................................
....................................................
.............................. 2

2.= ]uousbc Obsb`bg............................................

Obsb`bg..................................................................
...........................................=
.....................=

2.; Yunubc..................................
Yunubc........................................................
............................................
.................................................
...........................==

MBM AA ZLOMBGB[BC.............................
ZLOMBGB[BC...................................................
.....................................................;
...............................;

=.2 [uomlr Cutrasa pbib tuomugbc..................................................................

tuomugbc.................................................................. ;
=.; Dbhtfr `acehucebc ybce oloplcebruga cutrasa pbib tuomugbc................ =9

MBM AAA ZLC\Y\Z.............................

ZLC\Y\Z...................................................
.............................................................=7
.......................................=7

;.2 Hlsaopu`bc.....................................
Hlsaopu`bc...........................................................
............................................................=7
......................................=7

IBDYB] Z\[YBHB
 MBM A
ZLCIBG\@\BC
2.2
2.2 @btb
@btbrr Ml`b
Ml`bhb
hbce
ce

Zlrtuomug
Zlrtuo mugbc
bc tbcbob
tbcbobc
c taibh
taibh gbcyb
gbcyb iahfct
iahfctrf`
rf` f`lg
f`lg dbhtfr
dbhtfr ib`bo
ib`bo (actlr
(actlrcb`
cb`),
),
tltbpa
tltbpa nueb
nueb iatlct
iatlctuhb
uhbcc f`lg
f`lg dbhtfr
dbhtfr `ubr
`ubr (lhstlr
(lhstlrcb`
cb`).
). [b`bg
[b`bg sbtu dbhtfr
dbhtfr lhstlrc
lhstlrcb`
b`
tlrslmut bib`bg ucsur gbrb lslcsab`. \csur gbrb lslcsab` bib`bg ucsur-ucsur ybce
iaplr`uhbc mbea plrtuomugbc tbcbobc. Bpbma`b ucsurl tlrslmut taibh tlrsliab mbea
tbcbobc, obhb tbcbobc bhbc olcucnuhhbc elnb`b hlhurbcebc ucsurl tlrslmut
ibc plrtuomugbc tbcbobc bhbc tlrebceeu. Mlribsbrhbc nuo`bg ybce iaplr`uhbc
hatb olcelcb` bibcyb ucsur gbrb obhrf ibc ucsur gbrb oahrf. \csur gbrb obhrf
iaplr`uhbc f`lg tbcbobc ib`bo nuo`bg ybce `lmag mlsbr (:.<- ;% mlrbt tumug
tbcbobc). [libcehbc ucsur gbrb oahrf iaplr`uhbc f`lg tbcbobc ib`bo nuo`bg

ybce rl`btad hlka` ( mlmlrbpb ppo/ pbrt plr oa``afc ibra mlrbt hlracecyb). \csur
Gbrb tlrmbea olcnbia = Gbrb Obhrf, ucsur ‛ ucsur ybce tlrnbia ib`bo hfcslctrbsa
taceea ia ib`bo mbgbc tbcbobc btbu kbarbc ia ib`bo tbcbobc, Gbrb Oahrf ucsur ‛
ucsur ybce gbcyb plctace pbib nuo`bg/hfcslctrbsa ybce sbcebt rlcibg.
\csur gbrb obhrf bctbrb `bac> K, G, F, C, Z, H, [, Kb, ibc Oe. [libcehbc
ybce tlrobsuh ucsurl gbrb oahrf bib`bg > Dl, M, Oc, Ku, ^c, Of, ibc K`.
Mlmlrbpb ucsur bib ybce lslcsab` mbea tbcbobc tlrtlctu, oasb`cyb Cb, [a ibc Kf.
Hbrmfc iaboma` f`lg tuomugbc ib`bo mlctuh ebs KF= , gyirfelc iaboma` ib`bo
mlctuh bar (G=F), slibcehbc fhsaelc sl`bac ib`bo mlctuh KF= ibc G=F nueb

ibpbt iaboma` ib`bo mlctuh F=, obupuc slcybwb `baccyb. \csur K, G, ibc F o
plrupbhbc plcyusuc utbob obhrfof`lhu`, slplrta> hbrmfgairbt, `apai, prftlac ibc
bsbo
bsbo cu
cuh`
h`lbt
lbt.. [ltl
[ltl`b
`bg
g K, G, ib
ibc
c F, catr
catrfe
felc
lc olru
olrupb
pbhb
hbc
c uc
ucsu
surr gb
gbrb
rb obhr
obhrf
f
tlrplctace.
Ybcbg
Ybcbg olrupb
olrupbhbc
hbc subtu
subtu sastlo
sastlo ybce
ybce hfop`l
hfop`lhs,
hs, mlrplr
mlrplrbc
bc slmbeb
slmbebaa suomlr
suomlr
hlgaiupbc tbcbobc ybatu bar, uibrb ibc ucsur gbrb. Ylombeb (Ku), slce
s lce (^c), mlsa
(Dl)) ibc obcebc
(Dl obcebc (Oc)
(Oc) olrupb
olrupbhbc
hbc mlmlrbp
mlmlrbpbb kfctfg
kfctfg uc
ucsur
sur gbrb
gbrb oahrf
oahrf ybce
ybce
lslcsab` mbea tbcbobc hbrlcb wb`bupuc iaplr`uhbc ib`bo nuo`bg rl`btad sliahat
tltbpa sbcebt mlsbr plrbcbccyb ib`bo oltbmf`asol ia ib`bo tbcbobc.
 Zloupuhbc
Zloupuhbc ybce taibh iaahuta ilcebc plcacehbtbc
plcacehbtbc prfiuhsa
prfiuhsa hbrlcb gbcyb
ololcuga mlmlrbpb ucsur gbrb obhrf sbnb, slolctbrb
s lolctbrb ucsur oahrf ybce `bac taibh
tlrplcuga. Zbibgb` olshapuc iamutughbc
iamutughbc ib`bo nuo`bg ybce `lmag sliahat, ucsur

oahrf aca taibh hb`bg plctacecyb ilcebc ucsur gbrb obhrf slmbeba hfopfclc
struhturb` sl` ybce tlr`ambt `bcesuce ib`bo oltbmf`asol sl` ibc bhtavatbs lczao.
Hltlrsliabbc ucsur-ucsur lslcsab` iaib`bo tbcbobc sbcebt iatlctuhbc f`lg pG, C
pbib pG <.< ‛ 7.<, Z pbib pG <.< ‛ 5.< slibcehbc H pbib pG <.< ‛ 2: slmb`ahcyb
ucsur oahrf
oahrf rl`btad tlrsliab
tlrsliab pbib pG rlcibg. Gb` aca iaslmbmhbc
iaslmbmhbc hbrlcb
hbrlcb pbib pG
tlrslmut sloub ucsur gbrb lslcsab` mbah obhrf obupuc oahrf mlrmlib ib`bo
hlbibbc ybce sabp uctuh iaslrbp f`lg bhbr tbcbobc slgaceeb ibpbt olcnboac
plrtuomugbc ibc prfiuhsa
prfiuhsa tbcbobc.
2.=
2.= ]uou
]uousb
sbc
c Obsb`
Obsb`bg
bg

2. Nl`bshbc cutrasa pbib tuomugbc 6

=. Mbebaobcb suomlr cutrasa pbib tuomugbc 6
;. Bpb sbnb plrbcbc ucsur oaclrb` pbib tuomugbc 6
9. Mbebaobcb kbrb plcylrbpbc ibc ploacibgbc zbt tlr`brut6
<. Mbebaobcb kbrb plcylrbpbc ebrbo oaclrb` f`lg plrbhbrbc tuomugbc6
4. Bp
Bpbb db
dbht
htfr
fr `ace
`acehu
huce
cebc
bc ybce
ybce olop
oloplc
lceb
ebru
ruga
ga su
suom
omlr
lr cu
cutr
tras
asaa pb
pbib
ib
tuomugbc6
2.; Yunubc
2. Olcils
Olcilshra
hrasah
sahbc
bc cutra
cutrasa
sa pbib
pbib tuomu
tuomugbc
gbc

=. \ctuh olceltbgua
olceltbgua suomlr
suomlr cutrasa
cutrasa pbib tuomugbc
tuomugbc
;. \ctuh olceltbgua
olceltbgua plrbcbc
plrbcbc ucsur oaclrb`
oaclrb` pbib tuomugbc
tuomugbc
9. \ctuh olceltbgua
olceltbgua kbrb plcylrbpbc
plcylrbpbc ibc ploacibgbc
ploacibgbc zbt tlr`brut
tlr`brut
<. \ctuh olceltbgua
olceltbgua kbrb plcylrb
plcylrbpbc
pbc ebrbo
ebrbo oaclrb`
oaclrb` f`lg plrbhbrbc
plrbhbrbc
tuomugbc
4. \ctuh olceltbgua dbhtfr `acehucebc ybce oloplcebruga suomlr cutrasa
pbib tuomugbc.
 MBM AA
ZLOMBGB[BC
=.2 Cutrasa pbib Yuomugbc

Yuomugbc ololr`uhbc hfomacbsa ybce tlpbt ibra mlrmbeba cutrasa uctuh

tu
tuom
omug
ug,, ml
mlrh
rhlo
lomb
mbce
ce,, ib
ibc
c ml
mlrlp
rlprf
rfiu
iuhs
hsa.
a. Hlta
Hltahb
hb tu
tuom
omug
ugbc
bc olce
olceb`b`bo
boaa
ob`cut
ob`cutrasa
rasa,, tuomu
tuomugbc
gbc olcucn
olcucnuhh
uhhbc
bc elnb`b-
elnb`b-eln
elnb`b
b`b taibh
taibh slgbt.
slgbt. Cutrasa
Cutrasa ybce
ybce
tlr`b`u sliahat btbu ybce tlr`b`u mbcybh ibpbt olcaomu`hbc obsb`bg.
=.= [uomlr
[uomlr Cutrasa Yuomugbc
Yuomugbc
[lnuo`bg mlsbr mbgbc mlrbebo ibpbt mlrducesa slmbeba suomlr cutrasa
tbcbobc. Aca ibpbt mlrupb `aombg b`boa, sactltas, ibur u`bce, btbu slrbcehbabc
prfiuh maf`feas tlrobsuh acfhu`bc oahrfmb. Zbsfhbc suomlr oaclrb` ibc
cutrasa
cutrasa frebcah tlrtlctu
tlrtlctu gbiar ia tbcbg, tltbpa slrace gbrus
gbrus ia`lcehbpa
ia`lcehbpa ilcebc

bp
bp`a
`ahb
hbsa
sa lh
lhstl
stlrc
rcb`
b` uc
uctu
tuh
h pl
plrt
rtuo
uomu
mugb
gbc
c tb
tbcb
cbob
obc
c yb
ybce
ce `l
`lma
mag
g mb
mbah
ah.. Ib`bo
Ib`bo
plrtbcabc prbhtas, mlrmbeba suomlr ibpbt iatlouhbc iaeucbhbc olshapuc bib
plrmlibbc mlsbr ib`bo sadbtcyb, hbciucebc cutrasa, mlctuh, sadbt dasahfhaoab
ibc `bnu pl`lpbsbc cutrasa. [uomlr gbrb uouocyb iah`bsadahbsahbc slmbeba
frebcah, oaclrb` btbu maf`feas. [uomlr cutrasa frebcah slrace iaebombrhbc
slmbeba pupuh hbcibce btbu pupuh frebcah. [lmbeabc mlsbr suomlr cutrasa
frebca
frebcah,
h, tlrobsu
tlrobsuh
h mbgbc
mbgbc `aombg
`aombg,, oa`aha
oa`aha hf
hfopf
opfsasa
sasa sbcebt
sbcebt mlrbeb
mlrbebo
o ibc
slrac
slraceh
ehb`
b`aa gb
gbcy
cybb hf
hfcs
cslc
lctrb
trbsa
sa cu
cutr
tras
asaa yb
ybce
ce rlcib
rlcibg,
g, yb
ybce
ce ml
mlrm
rmli
libb ib
ib`b
`bo
o
hltl
hltlrs
rsli
liab
abbc
bccy
cyb.
b. Mlml
Mlmlrb
rbpb
pb ia bctb
bctbrb
rbcy
cyb,
b, sl
slpl
plrt
rtaa nl
nlrb
rboa
oa ps
psia
ia,, gb
gbcy
cybb

ol`lpbsh
ol`lp bshbc
bc cu
cutra
trasa
sa pl
plr`b
r`bgb
gbc
c Ybom
Ybombgbgbc
bc,, ml
mlrm
rmbe
beba
ba obkb
obkbo
o prprfi
fiuh
uh yb ybce
ce
iaplrf`lg ibra ibur u`bce tbcbobc, glwbc, obcusab ibc `aombg aciustra ibpbt
ibc olobce mlrducesa
mlrducesa slmbeba suomlr
suomlr cutrasa
cutrasa tbcbobc.
tbcbobc. [aecadahbc
[aecadahbc nuo`bg C
tlrsli
tlrsliab
ab ol`b`u
ol`b`uaa MCD f`lg
f`lg slnuo`b
slnuo`bg
g oahrff
oahrffreb
rebcas
casol
ol ia tbcbg
tbcbg mbah
mbah slkbrb
slkbrb
obciara btbu saomafsas ilcebc tbcbobc tlrtlctu. Acfhu`b slobkbo atu oahrf-
frebcasol mabsbcyb iaslmut slmbeba pupuh gbybta, ybce mabsb iaeucbhbc uctuh
atu olcace
olcacehbt
hbthbc
hbc pbsfhb
pbsfhbc
c C uctuh
uctuh tbcbob
tbcbobc.
c. Nuo`bg
Nuo`bg cutrasa
cutrasa ybce
ybce ibpbt
ibpbt
iatlraob nueb masb mlrbsb` ibra gunbc (oas. plcelcibpbc btofsdlr catrbt ibc
su`dbt) ibc ilcebc araebsa bar (]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).
 Yuomugbc uouocyb oloplrf`lg ucsur oaclrb`cyb ibra `brutbc tbcbg.
Lcbo
Lcbo uc
ucsu
surr oacl
oaclrb`
rb`,, catr
catrfe
felc
lc (C),
(C), df
dfsd
sdfr
fr (Z),
(Z), hb
hb`a
`auo
uo (H),
(H), hb
hb`sa
`sauo
uo (Kb),
(Kb),
obeclsauo (Oe) ibc ml`lrbce ([), iaplr`uhbc ib`bo nuo`bg mlsbr, slibcehbc

h`fr
h`frac
ac (K`)
(K`),, mf
mfrf
rfc
c (M),
(M), ml
mlsa
sa (Dl)
(Dl),, obce
obcebc
bc (Oc)
(Oc),, tlomb
tlombeb
eb (Ku)
(Ku),, slce
slce (^c)
(^c),,
iapl
iaplr`u
r`uhb
hbc
c ibib`b
`bo
o nu
nuo`
o`bg
bg yb
ybce
ce `lma
`lmag
g hl
hlka
ka`.
`. Ia wa`b
wa`byb
ybg
g el
elfe
ferbd
rbdas
as il
ilce
cebc
bc
hltlrsl
hltlrsliab
iabbc
bc datf
datf ybce
ybce rlcibg
rlcibg,, l`lolc
l`lolc oaclrb
oaclrb`` lslcsab`
lslcsab` iapbsf
iapbsfh
h hl tbcbob
tbcbobc
c
slmbeba pupuh uctuh olckbpba gbsa` ybce `lmag mlsbr. [l`bac atu, pupuh ybce
olcebciuce ucsur oaclrb` plctace uctuh cutrasa obcusab hbibce-hbibce iapbsfh
hl tbcbob
tbcbobc
c uc
uctuh
tuh olcace
olcacehbt
hbthbc
hbc hfcslc
hfcslctrbs
trbsaa olrlhb
olrlhb ib`bo
ib`bo pfrsa
pfrsa ybce
ybce ibpbt
ibpbt
iaobhb
iaobhbc
c uctuh
uctuh obcdbb
obcdbbtt hlslgb
hlslgbtbc
tbc obcusa
obcusabb (Ugatl,
(Ugatl, Zga`ap
Zga`ap & Mrfwc,
Mrfwc, Zbtrak
Zbtrakh,
h,
=:2:).

2. [uom
[uomlr
lr Catr
Catrfe
felc
lc
[loub C ib`bo pupuh mlrbsb` ibra ebs catrfelc (C=) ia btofsdlr, ybce
olce
olcebc
bciu
iuce
ce 51 plrs
plrslc
lc C vf`u
vf`uol
ol.. Ia bt
btbs
bs sl
slta
tabp
bp gl
glht
htbr
br `b
`bgb
gbc
c ia
plrouhbbc `but, ia sbcb bib`bg 57.::: tfc C=. Aca bib`bg C ybce iaumbg
olcnbia bofcab ia pbmrah pupuh, ibc aca nueb C ybce iadahsbsa slkbrb
maf`feas olcnbia boofcauo f`lg mlrmbeba oahrffrebcasol. Ilcebc
iloahabc, bib mbcybh plrsliabbc C uctuh prfiuhsa pupuh catrfelc (]. C.
]fy, lt b`, =::4).
Zrfiuhsa pupuh C Datur utbob ibra prfiuhsa pupuh C bib`bg (]. C. ]fy,
lt b`, =::4).>
2. Boofcab>
Boofcab> Aca bib`bg tatah
tatah bwb`
bwb` ibc plrbctb
plrbctbrb
rb ibsbr uctuh
uctuh prfiuh
prfiuhsa
sa pupuh
pupuh
C. Aca iasactlsas f`lg rlbhsa Gbmlr-Mfskg ybce mlrebmuce of`lhu` C=
btofsdlr ybce sbcebt stbma` ilcebc gairfelc, oas. ibra ebs b`bo, ia mbwbg
tlhbcbc =:: btofsdlr pbib <<: º K> uibrb + ebs b`bo + bar ↝Bofcab +
hbrmfc iafhsaib F= + C= + KG9 + G=F
G=F ↝ CG; + KF=
=. Zupuh
Zupuh catrbt>
catrbt> Ib`bo gb`
gb` aca, bsbo catrbt
catrbt (GCF;)
(GCF;) iaprfiuh
iaprfiuhsa
sa f`lg fhsaib
fhsaibsa
sa
bofc
bofcab
ab hl
hlou
ouia
iabc
bc iacl
iacltrb
trb`h
`hbc
bc il
ilce
cebc
bc mb
mbgb
gbc-
c-mb
mbgb
gbc
c slplrt
slplrtaa hb
hb`sa
`sauo
uo
hbrmfcbt (KbKF;) uctuh olcegbsa`hbc hb`sauo catrbt Kb (CF;)=. Zupuh
catrbt ibpbt nueb mlrbsb` ibra suomlr `bac slplrta Kga`a sb`tpltrl.
 ;. Dlrta` Zupuh
Zupuh bofcauo
bofcauo catrbt
catrbt (BC)>
(BC)> Aca iagbsa`h
iagbsa`hbc
bc ilcebc
ilcebc kbrb olcltrb`h
olcltrb`hbc
bc
bsbo catrbt (mlrbsb` ibra fhsaibsa
fhsaibsa bofcab) ilcebc bofcab. GCF; + CG;
↝ CG9CF; bsbo catrbt + boofcab ↝ Bofcauo catrbt (`brutbc)

9. BC ililce
cebc
bc hb
hbpu
pur>
r> Ia
Iapr
prfi
fiuh
uhsa>
sa> (a
(a)) il
ilce
cebc
bc olck
olckbo
bopu
purh
rhbc
bc BC il
ilce
cebc
bc
hb`sauo hbrmfcbt hl oloplrf`lg hb`sauo bofcauo catrbt (KBC)8 ibc (aa)
ol`b`ua rlbhsa hb`sauo catrbt ilcebc bofcab ibc KF=.
<. \rlb>
\rlb> Iaprfiu
Iaprfiuhsa
hsa f`lg
f`lg rlbhsa CG;
CG; ibc KF= pbib
pbib 25: btofsdlr
btofsdlr tlhbcb
tlhbcbc
c
ibc sugu 2<:ºK.
4. Zlrbwbtbc
Zlrbwbtbc iaplr`uhb
iaplr`uhbc
c sl`bob plcelra
plcelracebc
cebc uctuh
uctuh olobsta
olobstahbc
hbc mbgwb
mbgwb maurlt
maurlt
ybce tlrmlctuh bib`bg oacaouo ibc ib`bo mbtbs ybce iaazachbc ybce
iatltbphbc ib`bo stbcibr hub`atbs pupuh.

Ybml` 2. Zlrslc pupuh C slkbrb uouo

=. [uo
[uomlr
mlr dfs
dfsdf
dfrr
[uom
[uomlr
lr utbo
utbobb df
dfsdb
sdbtt ib
ib`b
`bo
o pu
pupu
puh
h bi
bib`
b`bg
bg oacl
oaclrb`
rb` bp
bpbt
btat
at,, yb
ybat
atu
u
trahb`sauo dfsdbt XKb;(ZF9)=_. Mbgbc mbhu ibsbr uctuh prfiuhsa pupuh
 dfsdbt. Aca olcebciuce dfsdbt mbtubc iatlouhbc ib`bo lcibpbc elf`fea
ibc mlmlrbpb olcebciuce dfsdbt manag mlsa btbu slcybwb Z `baccyb. Z]
tlriara ibra mlrmbeba nlcas bpbtatls. Ylrebctuce pbib ifoacbsa D, K` btbu

FG ib`bo hrastb` bpbtat atu iahlcb` slmbeba d`ufrbpbtatl, kg`frbpbtatl btbu

gy
gyir
irfx
fxyb
ybpb
pbta
tatl.
tl. Zr
Zrfs
fsls
ls Zl`b
Zl`bpu
puhb
hbc
c sl`bo
sl`bobb pl
plraf
rafil
il wbht
wbhtuu yb
ybce
ce `b`bob
ob
olcegbsa`hbc bhuou`bsa praolr bpbtat btbu tu`bce, eaea (]. C. ]fy, lt b`,
=::4) Ilpfsatf Z] ib`bo nuo`bg mlsbr bib ia mlmlrbpb mbeabc iucab,
oasb`cyb>
 Bdrahb \tbrb (Obrfhf, B`nbzbar, Yucasab, i``.) Ib`bo mlctuh frebcfelcah
dfsdfr, mbah slmbeba mbtubc hlrbs hurbce `lmag btbu slmbeba dfsdbt tbcbg
`ucbh8
 Bolrahb [lrahbt, oas. D`fraib bpbtatl, ybce ib`bo mlctuh hlraha` ybce

kuhup hlrbs ibc eaea slrtb tu`bce glwbc `but.

 Dlilrbtafc Dlilrbsa ]usab, ib`bo mlctuh tbcbg hlrbs, bpbtat hrastb` hbsbr,
oas. bpbtat Hf`b obeobtah.
 [uplrpgfspgbtl, btbu `lmag tlpbtcyb [[Z, bib`bg pupuh oaclrb` plrtbob
ybce iaprfiuhsa ia pbmrah ia tbguc 279:-bc ia Aceeras. Bib iub kbrb utbob
oloprfiuhsa pupuh Z ibra Z]s (]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).>
2. Zl`bru
Zl`brutbc
tbc haoab
haoab btbs Z] olcnbia
olcnbia mlctuh
mlctuh ybce
ybce `brut ib`bo
ib`bo bar slplcug
slplcugcyb
cyb
btbu slmbeabc ilcebc>
 Bsbo su`dbt olcegbsa`hbc [[Z> Kb;(ZF9)= + G=[F9 ↝Kb(G=ZF9)=
↝Kb(G=ZF9)=

+ Kb[F9
Kb[F9 trakb`k
trakb`kauo
auo pgfspg
pgfspgbtl
btl + su`pgu
su`pgurak
rak bkai
bkai ↝ Xofcfk
Xofcfkb`k
b`kauo
auo
pgfspgbtl + eypsuo_ ? [[Z
 Bsbo
Bsbo df
dfsd
sdbt
bt olce
olcegb
gbsa
sa`h
`hbc
bc trap`
trap`ll supl
suplrp
rpgf
gfsp
spgb
gbtl
tl (Y[Z
(Y[Z)) sl
slmb
mbeb
ebaa
mlrahut> Kb;(ZF9) = + G;ZF9 ↝Kb (G=ZF9) =trakb`kauo pgfspgbtl
+ bsbo dfsdbt ↝Xofcfkb`kauo pgfspgbtl_ ? (Y[Z)
 Hl`bru
Hl`brutbc
tbc slmbea
slmbeabc
bc ibra
ibra Z] ilcebc
ilcebc nuo`bg
nuo`bg bsbo su`dbt ybce `lmag
`lmag
sliahat uctuh olcegbsa`hbc bpb ybce iahlcb` slmbeba mbtubc dfsdbt
ybce iabsbohbc slmbeabc (ZBZ]s).
=. Zlceea
Zlceea`ac
`acebc
ebc gb`u
gb`uss olhbca
olhbcass Z] rlbhtad
rlbhtad uctuh
uctuh bp`ahbsa
bp`ahbsa `bcesuce
`bcesuce slmbeba
slmbeba
pupuh.
 ;. \ctu
\ctuh
h lvb`
lvb`u
ubs
bsaa hf
hfol
olrs
rsab
ab`` Z], tf
tftb
tb`` hfc
fctl
tlc
c Z olr
lrlh
lhbb iatlc
atlctu
tuhb
hbc
c
olceeucbhbc bsbo oaclrb` hubt. [lmbeabc mlsbr pupuh Z ialvb`ubsa f`lg
"rlbhtad" btbu "tlrsliab" mbeabc ibra tftb` hfctlc dfsdbt. Aca iaibsbrhbc

pbib hl`brutbc haoab, ybce slgbruscyb slsuba ilcebc hltlrsliabbc pbmrah.

Mlmlrbpb
Mlmlrbpb pl`brut
pl`brut iaeucbhbc
iaeucbhbc uctuh lhstrbhsa
lhstrbhsa mbeabc
mbeabc "tlrsliab"
"tlrsliab" ibra Zupuh
Zupuh
Z.
9. Bar> uctuh
uctuh [[Z,
[[Z, Y[Z,
Y[Z, i``.8
i``.8 lhstrbhsa
lhstrbhsa dfsdbt ybce
ybce `brut
`brut ib`bo
ib`bo bar.
<. Bofcau
Bofcauo
o satrbt cltrb`
cltrb` uctuh [[Z,
[[Z, Z], i``.
i``. Iaeucb
Iaeucbhbc
hbc ia mlmlrbp
mlmlrbpbb clebrb
clebrb
uctuh
uctuh olclctuh
olclctuhbc
bc dfsdbt
dfsdbt hlrnb klpbt. Ib`bo
Ib`bo mlmlrbp
mlmlrbpbb hbsus,
hbsus, lhstrbh
lhstrbh
plrtbob iamubce ibc lhstrbh hliub iaboma` uctuh lvb`ubsa Z]. Hl`brutbc
taceea ib`bo satrbt (3 25 plrslc)
plrslc) olcucnuhhbc rlbhtavatbs taceea.
4. Bsbo satrbt
satrbt (=
(= plrslc)
plrslc) uctuh
uctuh catrf dfsdbt ibc Ygfobs
Ygfobs dfsdbt.

5. Bsbo dfrobt
dfrobt (= plrslc)
plrslc) uctuh
uctuh Z]
Z] ia
ia mlmlrbpb
mlmlrbpb clebrb.
clebrb.
7. Hl`brutbc
Hl`brutbc taceea
taceea (3 <<
<< plrslc)
plrslc) olcucnu
olcucnuhhbc
hhbc ldlhtav
ldlhtavatbs
atbs taceea.
taceea.

Ybml`.= Mlmlrbpb pupuh dfsdbt slkbrb uouo

;. [uo
[uomlr
mlr Hb`a
Hb`auo
uo
Zupuh
Zupuh hb`auo
hb`auo plrtbob
plrtbob bib`bg ebrbo H olctb
olctbg
g ybce olcebciuce
olcebciuce 2;
plrslc H=F. Aca obsag iaeucbhbc sbopba mbtbs tlrtlctu uctuh ploupuhbc
pbibce ruoput uctuh olobsfh H ibc Cb. Olrlhb nueb iatlraob ib`bo
mafdbroace slmbeba pupuh b`boa. H utbob pupuh ybce iaeucbhbc sbbt aca
 bib`bg ebrbo ourca. Zrfiuhsa hb`auo h`fraib (HK`) btbu OFZ ol`ambthbc
plceea`acebc mbtubc ebrbo, ybce tlriara ibra oaclrb` slplrta hbacatl (21
plrslc H=F) ibc hbrcb`at (H=F 25 plrslc). Hfopfclc ybce taibh

iaaceachbc slplrta Cb, Oe ibc K` hlouiabc iapasbghbc, ybce ol`ambthbc

plobcbsbc (plomumbrbc ebrbo) iaahuta f`lg hrastb`asbsa HK` sbbt
plciaceacbc. Ib`bo prfsls d`ftbsa ybce `lmag mbru, hrastb` HK`
iaeb
iaebmu
muce
cehb
hbc
c ilce
ilcebc
bc be
belc
lc fr
freb
ebca
cah,
h, ol`b
ol`byb
ybce
ce hl pl
plro
rouh
uhbb
bbc
c ib
ibc
c
iahl`u
iahl`ubrh
brhbc.
bc. L`lhtr
L`lhtrfst
fstbtah
btah oltfil
oltfil oloasbg
oloasbghbc
hbc hrastb`
hrastb` pbibt
pbibt HK` ibra
ibra
slcybwb `bac. Hb`auo su`dbt iaprfiuhsa f`lg rlbhsa haoab ibra ebrbo hbsbr
ybce mlrmlib slplrta nueb f`lg rlbhsa HK` ilcebc bsbo su`dbt. [l`bac
lcibpbc ebrbo, bib prfiuh `aombg aciustra ybce olcebciuce H, oas.
ilmu ibra prfiuhsa slolc, atu ibpbt mlrducesa slmbeba pupuh H (]. C.

]fy, lt b`, =::4).

9. [uo
[uomlrmlr [u
[u`du
`dur
Hlmbcy
Hlmbcybhb
bhbc
c pupuh
pupuh ybce
ybce olcebc
olcebciuc
iuce
e [ slmlcb
slmlcbrcy
rcybb bib`bg
bib`bg ebrbo
ebrbo
slcybwb su`dbt ybce nueb olcebciuce cutrasa btbu oahrfcutralc utbob
`baccy
`baccyb.
b. Zupuh
Zupuh ybce
ybce olcebc
olcebciuc
iuce
e [ slplrt
slplrtaa B[, [[Z ibc [FZ tl`bg
tl`bg
iambgbs ia btbs ia mbeabc obsace-obsace pbib pupuh ybce olcebciuce
pupuh C, Z btbu H. Ou`tacutralc tlrobsuh CZ / CZH hfop`lhs ybce
olcebciuce [ nueb pupuh kbar (oas. bofcauo tafsu`dbt) iambgbs ia mbeabc
sl`bcnutcyb. [btu-sbtucyb pupuh [ mlreaza tuceeb` bib`bg prfiuh l`lolc [

(]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).

Mlmlrbpb suomlr [ bib`bg>
 boofcauo su`dbt (CG9) = [F9> olcebciuce =9 plrslc [8

 bofcauo su`dbt catrbt (CG9) =[F9.CG9CF;> olcebciuce

olcebciuce 2= plrslc [8

 [[Z> olcebciuce 2= plrslc [8

 bofcauo dfsdbt su`dbt> olcebciuce 2< plrslc [8

 hb`auo su`dbt (H=[F9)> olcebciuce 27 plrslc [8

 hb`auo obeclsauo su`dbt (H=[F9.=Oe[F9)> olcebciuce

olcebciuce == plrslc [8

 obeclsauo su`dbt ofcfgairbt (Oe[F9.G=F)> olcebciuce == plrslc [8

  obeclsauo su`dbt glptbgairbt (Oe[F9.5G=F)> olcebciuce 2; plrslc [8

 eypsuo / pgfspgfeypsuo (Kb[F9.=G=F)> olcebciuce 2;-25 plrslc [8

 prfiuh ucsur [> olcebciuce

olcebciuce 7<-2:: plrslc [8

 ml`lrbce mlctfcat> olcebciuce 1: plrslc [8

 pyratls (Dl[=)> olcebciuce 27‛==

27‛== plrslc [8

 ebrbo su`dbt oahrfcutralc> olcebciuce nuo`bg vbrabml` [.

\csur [ ia ib`bocyb plrtbob-tbob gbrus iafhsaibsa su`dbt ib`bo tbcbg

f`lg mbhtlra (Ygafmbka``us tgaffxaibcs) slml`uo ibpbt iaslrbp f`lg bhbr tbcbobc.
Yacehbt fhsaibsa [ tlrebctuce pbib uhurbc pbrtahl` pupuh, sugu, hl`lombmbc,
tacehbt hfctbh ilcebc tbcbg, ibc tacehbt blrbsa. \ctuh olodbsa`atbsa fhsaibsa ibra
[ hl [F9 =-, suomlr ucsur [ mabsbcyb iabp`ahbsahbc pbib plrouhbbc mlmlrbpb

oaceeu slml`uo tbcbo.

<. [uom
[uomlr
lr Hb`s
Hb`sau
auo
o (Kb)
(Kb)
Mbgbc mbhu uctuh pupuh Kb mlr`aopbg hbrlcb sl`urug pleucucebc
tlriara ibra hb`sauo hbrmfcbt (KbKF;) ibc taibh bib hlhurbcebc eapsuo
(Kb[F9
(Kb[F9.=G
.=G=F)
=F) mbah
mbah slmbeba
slmbeba oaclrb`
oaclrb` btbu slmbeb
slmbebaa prfiuh
prfiuh sbopac
sbopacebc
ebc
(pgfspgfeypsuo) ibra prfsls mbsbg prfiuhsa bsbo dfsdbt. Zupuh Kb ybce
uouo bib`bg>
 hb`sauo fhsaib (KbF)> olcebciuce <:-47 plrslc Kb (Kb Õ 2,9 ? KbF)8

 nlruh capas XKb (FG) =_> olcebciuce 9;-<:

9;-<: plrslc Kb8


hbpur plrtbcabc (KbKF;)> olcebciuce ;:‛;7 plrslc Kb8
 if`foat (KbKF;.OeKF;)> olcebciuce =9-;= plrslc Kb,

 KBC> olcebciuce 5-29 plrslc Kb8

 hb`sauo catrbt XKb (CF;) =_> olcebciuce =: plrslc Kb8

 hb`sauo h`fraib (KbK`=.4G=F)> 2<‛27 plrslc Kb8

 [[Z> olcebciuce 27‛=2 plrslc Kb8

 eapsuo (Kb[F9.=G=F)> olcebciuce =; plrslc Kb8

 hb`sauo kgl`btls> vbrabm`l (]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).

4. [uom
[uomlr
lr Obec
Obecls
lsau
auo
o
 Kbibcebc
Kbibcebc b`boa Oe sbcebt mlsbr, mbah ib`bo ilpfsat ebrbo (OeK`=,
OeKF;i
OeKF;i``.
``.)) ibc ia pleucu
pleucuceb
cebc
c ybce
ybce tlriar
tlriaraa ibra
ibra mbtu
mbtu hbpur
hbpur if`foa
if`foatt
(KbKF;.OeKF;). Bib mlmlrbpb mbgbc ybce tlrsliab slkbrb hfolrsab`

il
ilce
cebc
bc huhub`
b`at
atbs
bs yb
ybce
ce ib
ibpb
pbtt iatl
iatlra
raob
ob yb
ybce
ce ib
ibpb
pbtt ia
iaeu
eucb
cbhb
hbc
c uc
uctu
tuh
h
olomlrahbc
oloml rahbc Oe hl tbcbg ibc tbcbobc. Bib iub hl`fopfh
hl`fopfh utbob pupuh
Oe, ybatu, `brut ib`bo bar ibc taibh `brut ib`bo bar. Ia bctbrb pupuh ybce
`brutt bib`bg
`bru bib`bg obecls
obeclsauo
auo su`dbt
su`dbt,, ilcebc
ilcebc mlrmbe
mlrmbeba
ba tacehb
tacehbtt gairbsa
gairbsa,, ibc
obeclsauo hl`bt [u`dbt ibpbt iaeucbhbc uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg ibc ibuc
kgl`btl, slplrta obeclsauo ltgy`lcliaboacl tltrbbkltak bkai (Oe-LIYB),
bib`bg iaeucbhbc tlrutbob uctuh sloprftbc ibuc (].
( ]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).
Mlmlrbpb suomlr Oe bib`bg>
 obeclsauo fhsaib (OeF)> olcebciuce 9= plrslc Oe (Oe Õ 2,44 ?

OeF)8
 obeclsat (OeKF;)> olcebciuce =9‛=5 plrslc Oe8

 mbtu hbpur if`foat (Oe[F9.Kb[F9)>

(Oe[F9.Kb[F9)> olcebciuce ;-2=
;-2= plrslc Oe8

 obeclsauo su`dbt bcgairbt (Oe[F9)> olcebciuce =: plrslc Oe8

 obeclsauo su`dbt ofcfgairbt (Oe[F9.G=F)> olcebciuce 24 plrslc Oe8

 obeclsauo
obeclsauo su`dbt glptbgairbt
glptbgairbt (Oe[F9.5G
(Oe[F9.5G=F)>
=F)> olcebciuc
olcebciuce
e 2: plrslc
Oe8
 obeclsauo h`fraib (OeK`=.4G=F)> olcebciuce 2= plrslc Oe8

 hb`auo obeclsauo su`dbt (H=[F9.=Oe[F9)> olcebciuce 22 plrslc Oe.

5. [uo
[uomlr
mlr Mfr
Mfrfc
[l
[lkb
kbrb
rb gast
gastfr
fras
as,, Kga`
Kga`aa sb
sb`t
`tpl
pltr
trll bi
bib`
b`bg
bg pu
pupu
puh
h M pl
plrt
rtbo
bobb yb
ybce
ce
iaeucbhbc. Ldlhcyb sbcebt mbeus tbcbobc slplrta mat eu`b taibh gbcyb
hbrlcb C tltbpa nueb uctuh hfctramusa M. Zupuh M uouo bib`bg cbtrauo
tltrbmfrbt btbu mfrbhs (Cb=M9F5.2:G=F) (2:,< plrslc M), bsbo mfrbt
(G;MF;) (25 plrslc M), [f`umfr Cb=M9F5.<G=F + Cb=M2:F24.2:G=F
(21 plrslc M), ibc mfrfc
mfrfc dra
drat.
t. Mfrbhs,
Mfrbhs, btbu cbtrau
cbtrauo
o tlt
tltrbm
rbmfrb
frbt,
t, bib`bg
bib`bg
pupuh M stbcibr. Aca bib`bg ebrbo mlrpbsar putag ybce kfkfh uctuh
bp`ahbsa tbcbg ibc ibuc. Bsbo mfrbt `lmag `brut tltbpa rl`btad mlrbkuc mbea
tbcbobc
tbcbobc nahb iatlrbphbc slmbeba sloprftbc ibuc. Zupuh tlrmbah uctuh
uctuh
iasloprfthbc pbib ibuc bib`bg pf`ymfrbtl. \ctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg, mfrbhs
ol`ambthbc rasahf hlrbkucbc M uctuh tbcbobc slcsatad. Cbouc, bib pupuh

M ybce mlhlrnb `bombt,

`bombt, slplrta kf`lobcatl
kf`lobcatl btbu mfrfc
mfrfc sa`ahbt (mumuh
(mumuh hbkb
gb`us
gb`us ybce
ybce olcebc
olcebciuc
iuce e M), ybce
ybce bobc.
bobc. Cbouc,
Cbouc, olrlhb
olrlhb hlhurb
hlhurbceb
cebc
c
pbsfhbc bwb` ybce klpbt.Zbib tbcbg ybce hlhurbcebc
hlhurbcebc M, slhatbr 2-= he M /
gb oucehac iaplr`uhbc uctuh gbsa` taceea. [lmbeba nuo`bg pupuh bhtub`
ybce
ybce iaeucb
iaeucbhbc
hbc hlka`
hlka` ibc su`at
su`at iaiastr
iaiastramu
amusah
sahbc
bc slkbrb
slkbrb olrbtb,
olrbtb, ybatu
ybatu M
mabsbcyb iasup`ba mlrsbob ilcebc pupuh hfomacbsa hgusus (C btbu Z btbu
CZH ilcebc M) (]. C. ]fy,
]fy, lt b`, =::4).
7. [uo
[uomlr
mlr K`f
K`fra
rac
c
Cutrasa K` slrace gbiar ia tbcbg ib`bo nuo`bg ybce olobiba btbu

iatbombgh
iatbom bghbc
bc slkbrb
slkbrb taibh
taibh slcebn
slcebnbb ol`b`ua
ol`b`ua pupuh
pupuh ybce
ybce olcebc
olcebciuciucee
h`fraib ibc ib`bo mlmlrbpb hbsus ol`b`ua bar araebsa btbu sloprftbc `but ia
iblrbg pbctba. Zupuh uouo ybce olcebciuce K` bib`bg HK` (95 plrslc
K`), hfop`lhs CZ / CZH ia obcb HK` olrupbhbc acput, cbtrauo h`fraib
(4: plrslc K`) ibc bofcauo h`fraib (44 plrslc K`) (]. C. ]fy, lt b`,
=::4).
1. [uomlr Ku
Zupuh
Zupuh Ku plrtbo
plrtbobb hb`a
hb`a iaeucb
iaeucbhbc
hbc uctuh
uctuh plcefm
plcefmbtb
btbc
c ildasal
ildasalcsa
csa Ku
pbib tbcbg mlrbwb uctuh olcefrlhsa ‐plcybhat rbwb‟ ibra ebciuo btbu

uctuh ‐plcybhat olcna`bt‟ tlrcbh ybce iapl`agbrb ia pbibce ruoput ybce

hlhurb
hlhurbceb
cebc
c Ku hbrlcb
hbrlcb zbt guobt
guobt klcilr
klcilruce
uce oloplr
oloplrmba
mbaha
ha Ku ib`bo
ib`bo
mlctuh ybce taibh tlrsliab. . Mlmlrbpb pupuh Ku ybce uouo bib`bg>
tlombeb su`dbt Ku[F9.<G=F (=9 plrslc Ku), Ku[F9.G=F (;< plrslc Ku)8
ibc hl`bt tlombeb Cb=Ku-LIYB (2=-2; plrslc Ku).
Ylom
Ylombe
bebb su`db
su`dbtt (Ku[
(Ku[F9
F9.<
.<G=
G=F)
F) bi
bib`b
b`bg
g pu
pupu
puh
h tl
tlrtu
rtubb ib
ibc
c pb
pb`a
`ace
ce
tlrhlcb
tlrhlcb`` ebrbo
ebrbo maru
maru olcebc
olcebciuc
iuce
e =9 plrslc
plrslc Ku btbu
btbu ;<-;4
;<-;4 plrslc
plrslc Ku
ilcebc
ilcebc `lmag
`lmag sliaha
sliahatt bar ia ib`bo
ib`bo struhtu
struhturcy
rcyb.
b. Oucku`
Oucku` ib`bo
ib`bo uhurbc
uhurbc
pbrtahl` mlrvbrabsa ibra mumuh gb`us gaceeb erbcu`br ibc iaeucbhbc mbah

ib`bo mlctuh pbibt uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg btbu slmbeba

slmbeba `brutbc
`brutbc lcklr uctuh
 plcyloprftbc ibuc, ybce `lmag ldlhtad ibrapbib bp`ahbsa tbcbg. \ctuh
plcyloprftbc ibuc, tlombeb fhsah`fraib ibc hl`bt tlombeb `lmag iasuhba
ibrapbib ebrbo su`dbt. Zupuh Ku mlribsbrhbc fhsaib `febo ibc mlctuh

sa`ahbt nueb ibpbt iaeucbhbc

sa`ahbt iaeucbhbc uctuh olcefmbta
olcefmbta hlhurbcebc
hlhurbcebc Ku tbcbg. ^bt-
zbt aca plrtbob-tbob gbrus ia`bruthbc ib`bo tbcbg, ybatu iaumbg olcnbia
Afc Ku= +. Aca `lmag kfkfh uctuh pbsfhbc Ku nbcehb pbcnbce, mlrmlib
ilcebc tlombeb su`dbt, ybce `lmag kfkfh uctuh ldlh `bcesuce. Mlmlrbpb
pupuh uctuh pbibce ruoput olcebciuce Ku ibc ^c ibc mbghbc Kf (].
C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).
2:. [uomlr
[uomlr Dl
Dl
Obyfr
Obyfrat
atbs
bs pu
pupu
puh
h Dl bi
bib`
b`bg
bg zb
zbtt yb
ybce
ce `brut
`brut ib
ib`b
`bo
o ba
barr eb
ebrbo
rbo bt
btbu
bu
hf
hfop
op`l
`lhs
hs fr
freb
ebca
cah
h (h
(hl`
l`bt)
bt).. Zupu
Zupuh
h Dl yb
ybce
ce uouo
uouo bi
bib`b
b`bg
g ml
mlsa
sa su`d
su`dbt
bt

Dl[F
Dl[F9.
9.5
5G=F
G=F (2
(21
1 plrs
plrslc
lc Dl)
Dl) ibc dl dlrr
rrf
f bofc
bofcau
auo
o su
su`d
`dbt
bt (CG9
(CG9))
=[F9.Dl[F9.4G=F (24 plrslc Dl), ybce slmlcbrcyb olrupbhbc pupuh
taeb cutrasa olcebciuce C, [ ibc Dl. Zupuh Dl plctace `baccyb bib`bg
hl`bt mlsa, zbt mlsa pf`yd`bvfcfails (2: plrslc Dl) ibc drats mlsa, ybce
oloa`aha hbciucebc Dl vbrabml`. Dlrrfus su`pgbtl (Dl[F9.5G=F) bib`bg
pupuh uouo tltbpa ia mbcybh Clebrb bib plclraobbc ybce `lmag mlsbr
ibra hl`bt mlsa uctuh plcyloprftbc
plcyloprftbc ibuc. Hl`bt mlsa bib`bg pupuh utbob
ybce olcebciuce Dl uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg ibc ibuc ia mbcybh clebrb
obnu ibc olcnbia pfpu`lr ia clebrb `bac nueb (]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).

Dl kgl`btl ybce iaeucbhbc bib`bg>

 Dl-LIYB
Dl-LIYB ? bsbo lta`lciaboboac
lta`lciaboboac tltrbbsltbt ilcebc <-2= plrslc Dl (Dl=
+)8
 Dl-LIIGB ? bsbo bsltbt lta`lcbiaboacb ia (f-gairfhsadlca`) ilcebcc4
plrslc Dl (Dl; +).
 Zlcylrbpbc
Zlcylrbpbc Dl f`lg ibuc `lmag mlsbr ibra kgl`btl ibrapbib ibra ebrbo. Ia
tbcbg, kgl`btls ol`aciucea Dl ibra dahsbsa klpbt. Bpb`bea, hl`bt pucyb ybce
hu
hurb
rbce
cec
c ld
ldlh
lh olru
olrusbh
sbh pb
pbib
ib ib
ibuc
uc.. \ctu
\ctuh
h bp
bp`a
`ahb
hbsa
sa pb
pbib
ib tbcbg
tbcbg yb
ybce
ce
oloplrmbaha Dl, ybce uouocyb cltrb` hl mbsb, stbma`atbs hl`bt ia tbcbg
bib`bg plctace. Ia ib`bo, Dl-LIIGB `lmag stbma` ibc ldlhtad ibrapbib Dl-
LIYB (]. C. ]fy, lt b`, =::4).
22. [uomlr
[uomlr Obcebc
Obcebc

Zupuh Oc ybce
Zupuh ybce plctac
plctace
e bib`bg
bib`bg obcebc
obcebc su`dbt
su`dbt Oc[F9
Oc[F9.G=.G=F
F (;:,<
(;:,<
plrslc Oc), obcebc fhsaib OcF (92-47 plrslc Oc), drbhsa
d rbhsa obcebc (2:-
;< plrslc Oc), ibc kgl`btl Oc (<-2= plrslc Oc). Obcebc su`dbt bib`bg
ebrbo mlrwbrcb olrbg ouib ybce `brut ib`bo bar ibc ibpbt iaeucbhbc
mbah uctuh plcef`bgbc tbcbg obupuc uctuh bp`ahbsa ibuc. Aca nueb
olrupbhbc
olrupbhbc hfcstatulc
hfcstatulc ibra pupuh
pupuh ou`tacutra
ou`tacutralc
lc ybce olcebciuce
olcebciuce Oc.
[lplrta ib`bo hbsus Dl, hl`bt Oc `lmag ldlhtad ibrapbib ebrbo. Zupuh Oc
`bac uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg bib`bg mlrmbeba fhsaib obcebc, obcebc hbrmfcbt
ibc obcebc dfsdbt. Aca ibpbt iaeucbhbc tlrutbob uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg.

Fhsaib obcebc
Fhsaib obcebc iaofma`asbs
iaofma`asbsaa ol`b`ua
ol`b`ua rliuhsa
rliuhsa mbhtlra
mbhtlra ib`bo hfciasa bsbo,
slgaceeb olceumbg OcF= ybce taibh tlrsliab olcnbia afc Oc= + ybce
tlrslia
tlrsliab.
b. Zloupu
Zloupuhbc
hbc Oc mlrobs
mlrobsb`bg
b`bg hbrlcb
hbrlcb hlhurb
hlhurbceb
cebc
c Oc mabsbc
mabsbcyb
yb
taibh
taibh iaslmb
iaslmbmh
mhbc
bc f`lg
f`lg ploash
ploashacb
acbc
c tbcbg
tbcbg tltbpa
tltbpa f`lg
f`lg dahsbsa
dahsbsa Oc, ybce
ybce
olceurbcea
olceurbcea Oc ybce tlrsliab. Zupuh Oc taibh tlr`b`u
tlr`b`u ldlhtad
ldlhtad pbib tbcbg
ybce hlhurbcebc Oc ibc ldlh bpb puc ybce olrlhb oa`aha oucehac hlka`
ibc taibh tbgbc `bob, hbrlcb Oc ybce `brut ibpbt iaplrmbaha ilcebc klpbt.
Zupuh C ybce olcebsbohbc tbcbg mbghbc masb `lmag ldlhtad ibrapbib
pupuh Oc (]. C. ]fy,
]fy, lt b`, =::4).

2=. [uomlr
[uomlr ^ack
Zupuh ^c ybce uouo bib`bg slce su`dbt, ^c-LIYB kgl`btl (2= plrslc
^c), slce fhsaib ^cF (<< plrslc ^c), drats slce (hbibr ^c vbrabml`) ibc
^c b`boa hl`bt [lce su`dbt bib`bg pupuh ybce pb`ace uouo ibc tlrsliab
mbah slmbeba ^c[F9.5G=F (=2 plrslc ^c) btbu ^c[F9.G=F (;; plrslc
^c). Ibpbt iaeucbhbc uctuh bp`ahbsa tbcbg btbu ibuc ibc slplrta sloub
ebrbo su`dbt nueb olcyliabhbc [. Atu hurbce kfkfh uctuh bp`ahbsa ibuc
hbrlcb tacibhbc bsbo, ybce slce su`dbt ilcebc mlmlrbpb nlruh capas `lmag
iasuhba, btbu ^c kgl`btls slplrta ^c-LIYB ibpbt iaeucbhbc. [lce fhsaib

(^cF
(^cF)) mabs
mabs iaeu
iaeucb
cbhb
hbc
c uc
uctu
tuh
h bp
bp`a
`ahb
hbsa
sa tb
tbcb
cbg,
g, uc
uctu
tuh
h pl
plck
ckl`
l`up
upbc
bc bh
bhbr
br
 tbcbobc
tbcbobc pbia slml`uo plcbcbobc
plcbcbobc ibc nueb plrlcibobc
plrlcibobc uoma-uoma
uoma-uomabc
bc
slml`uo
slml`uo pbclc.
pbclc. Ofma`asbsa
Ofma`asbsa ^c ia tbcbg iambctu
iambctu f`lg pupuh C plomlctuh
plomlctuh
bsbo slplrta B[ btbu zbt `bac, oas. parat (Dl[=), ybce olcegbsa`hbc brlb

su`dur `fkb` bsbo ib`bo tbcbg slgaceeb ol`bruthbc ^c (]. C. ]fy, lt b`,
=::4).
=.; Zlrbcbc \csur
\csur Oaclrb`
Oaclrb` pbib Yuomugbc
Yuomugbc

\csur Zlrbcbc ib`bo tbcbobc

Catrfelc (C) Zlcyusuc sloub prftlac, h`frfda`,
h`frfda`, ibc plrbcbc hflczao,
ibc bsbo- bsbo cuh`lbt.
Zgfspfr (Z)
Yrb Mlrplrbc ib`bo trbcsdlr lclrea oasb`cyb BIZ ibcBYZ,
plcyusuc mlmlrbpb prftlac, hflczao,
hflczao, bsbo cuh`lbt, ibc
sumstrbt oltbmf`asol, mlrplrbc ib`bo plomlctuhbc
olomrbc sl` oasb`cyb `lobh dfsdbt, mlrplcebrug tlrgbibp
struhtur H+, Kb=+, Oe=+,Oc=+, olrbcesbce plrtuomugbc
bhbr, olrbcesbce plolhbrbc muceb, olombctu ia ib`bo
olceubthbc sastlo plrtbgbcbc utbob.
Hb`auo
Hb`auo (H)
(H) [liaha
[liahatt plrbc
plrbcbcc
bccyb
yb slmbeba
slmbeba plcyus
plcyusuc
uc hfopf
hfopfclc
clc tbcbo
tbcbobc.
bc.
Mlrducesa ib`bo plcebturbc oltbmf`asol slplrta
dftfsactlsas, trbcs`fhbsa hbrmfgairbt, sactlsas prftlac, uctuh
plomucebbc ibc plomubgbc,
plomubgbc, sastlo plrtbgbcbc tbcbobc,
olombctu olcebhtadhbc lczao-lczao, olcebtur hbibr bar
Hb`sauo
Hb`sauo (Kb) Hfopfclc
Hfopfclc iaciac
iaciace
e sl`. Mlrplrbc
Mlrplrbc ib`bo
ib`bo struhtur
struhtur ibc
ibc

plrolbma`atbs olomrbc.
Obeclsauo Zlcyusuc h`frfda` ibc lczao bhtavbtfr,
(Oe) Hfopfclc plctace ia ib`bo prftfp`bsob tbcbobc
Ml`lrbce
Ml`lrbce ([) Mbeabc
Mbeabc plctace
plctace ibra prftlac
prftlac tbcbob
tbcbobc.
c. Olombc
Olombctu
tu
plombeabc sl`
Oloplrklpbthbc plrhlombcebc mubg
Hfopfclc plctace ia ib`bo prftfp`bsob
Mfrfc ( Mf)
Mf) Yaibh pbsta, tltbpa iaplrkbyb
iaplrkbyb plctac
plctace
e ib`bo
ib`bo trbcs`fhbsa
trbcs`fhbsa
eu`b ibc oltbmf`asol hbmfgairbt. Iaplr`uhbc ia ib`bo
plceurbabc hbrmfgairbt
Mlsaa (Dl)
Mls (Dl) [actlsa
[actlsass h`fr
h`frfda
fda`` i
ibc
bc lczao-
lczao- lczao
lczao uc
uctuh
tuh trbcsd
trbcsdlr
lr l`lh
l`lhtrf
trfc.
c.
 Zlctace ia ib`bo sactlsas h`frfda`
Obcebc
Obcebc ( Oc) Zlcelcib`a
Zlcelcib`a mlmlrbpb
mlmlrbpb sastlo fhsaibsa-
fhsaibsa- rliuhsa,
rliuhsa,
plomlctuhbc F= ib`bo dftfsactlsas. Olcebhtadhbc

slsltlcebg lczao tbcbobc

Ylombeb ( Ku) Hbtb`asbtfr uctuh rlsparbsa, plcyusuc
plcyusuc lczao. Hfopfclc ia
ib`bo struhtur lczao tbcbobc
Olobcehac tacibh mb`bs plcefhsaibbc
[lce
[lce ( ^c)
^c) Ib`bo
Ib`bo sastl
sastlo
o lczao
lczao,, ybce
ybce olce
olcebtu
bturr mlrob
mlrobkbo
kbo-- obkbo
obkbo
bhtv. oltbmf`ah. Olcebhtadhbc sltlcebg lczao
Olcegacibra mubg eueur slml`uo obtbce
Olrbcesbce plcel`ubrbc bhbr
Of`amilcuo Ib`bo catrfelcbsl iamutughbc uctuh dahsbsa catrfelc.
(Of) Hfopfclc lczao ybce tlr`ambt ib`bo oltbmf`asol

catrfelc
Hfmb`t
Hfmb`t (K)*
(K)* Zlctace
Zlctace uctuh
uctuh dahsbsa C slkbrb
slkbrb saomafta
saomaftah
h f`lg
f`lg rgazfma
rgazfmauo.*
uo.*
taibh plctace uctuh sloub tbcbobc mlrplomu`ug olcurut
mbtbsbc subtu ucsur plctace f`lg Brcfc.
H`frac
H`frac (K`)
(K`) Bhtavb
Bhtavbtfr
tfr sast
sastlo
lo uctuh
uctuh olcegb
olcegbsa`
sa`hbc
hbc F=
F= ib`bo
ib`bo
dftfsatlsas.

=.9 Kbrb Zlcylrbpbc ibc Zloacibgbc ^bt Ylr`brut

Yrbcspfrtbsa tuomugbc bib`bg prfsls plceboma`bc ibc plcel`ubrbc zbt-zbt
hl sl`urug
sl`urug mbeabc
mbeabc tumug
tumug tuomug
tuomugbc.
bc. Zbib
Zbib tuomug
tuomugbc
bc taceh
tacehbt
bt rlcibg
rlcibg (oasb`
(oasb`
ebceebce) plcylrbpbc bar ibc zbt gbrb ybce tlr`brut ia ib`bocyb ia`bhuhbc
ol`b
ol`b`u
`uaa sl
sl`u
`uru
rug
g mbea
mbeabc
bc tumu
tumug.
g. Zb
Zbib
ib tu
tuom
omug
ugbc
bc tace
tacehb
hbtt tace
taceea
ea (oas
(oasb`
b`
splrobtfpgytb) prfsls plcebcehutbc ia`bhuhbc plomu`ug plcebcehut ybce
tlriara ibra xy`lo ibc pg`flo.
Yuomugbc oloplrf`lg mbgbc ibra `acehucebc uctuh gaiup mlrupb F =,
KF=, bar ibc ucsur gbrb. Hlkub`a ebs F= ibc KF= zbt iaslrbp
iaslrbp ib`bo
ib`bo mlctuh
mlctuh
`brutbc afc. Olhbcasol prfsls plcylrbpbc ibpbt ml`bcesuce hbrlcb bibcyb
prfsls aomamasa, iadusa, fsofsas ibc trbcspfr bhtad.
Aomama
Aomamasa
sa olrup
olrupbhb
bhbc
c plcyus
plcyusupb
upbc
c btbu
btbu plrlsbp
plrlsbpbc
bc bar hl ib`bo
ib`bo rubce
rubcebc
bc
bc
bctbr
tbr iaci
iaciac
ace
e sl`,
sl`, slgac
slgacee
eebb iaci
iaciac
ace
e sl`
sl`cy
cybb bh
bhbc
bc olce
olcelo
lomb
mbce
ce.. Oasb
Oasb``
obsuhc
obsuhcyb
yb bar pbib
pbib mana
mana sbbt mlrhlk
mlrhlkbom
bombg
bg ibc mana hbkbce
hbkbce ybce
ybce iarlci
iarlcibo
bo
ib`bo bar mlmlrbpb nbo.
Iadusa olrupbhbc elrbh olcylmbrcyb of`lhu` ibra iblrbg hfcslctrbsa

taceea (gaplrtfcah) hl hfcslctrbsa rlcibg (gapftfcah). Oasb` plceboma`bc F =

ibc plcel`ubrbc KF= sbbt plrcbdbsbc, plcylmbrbc sltltls tactb ib`bo bar.
Fsof
Fsofsa
saso
solr
lrup
upbh
bhbc
bc prfsl
rfslss plr
lrp
pac
acib
ibgb
gbc
c ba
barr ibr
braa ibl
blrb
rbg
g yb
ybc
ce
mlrhfcslctrbsa rlcibg (gapftfcah) hl iblrbg ybce mlrhfcslctrbsa taceea
(gaplrtfcah) ol`b`ua olomrbc sloaplroabml`. Olomrbc sloaplroabml` bib`bg
sl`bput ploasbg ybce gbcyb masb iatlomus f`lg bar ibc zbt tlrtlctu ybce `brut
ia ib`bocyb. Hlbibbc tlebce ybce taomu`
taomu` bctbrb iaciace sl` ilcebc
ilcebc iaciace
iaciace
asa sl` hbrlcb olcylrbp bar iaslmut turefr, slibce tlhbcbc ybce iataomu`hbc
iaslmut tlhbcbc turefr. \ctuh sl` tuomugbc mlrsadbt sl`lhtad sloaplroabml`.

[ltabp sl` gaiup

[ltabp gaiup olrupb
olrupbhbc
hbc sastlo
sastlo fsofta
fsoftah.
h. Nahb
Nahb sl` iatlop
iatlopbth
bthbc
bc ib`bo
ib`bo
`brutbc ybce `lmag plhbt (gaplrtfcah) tlrgbibp kbarbc sl`, bar ib`bo sl` bhbc
tlrgasbp hl`ubr slgaceeb olcylmbmhbc sl` olcehlrut. Zlrastawb aca iaslmut
p`bsof`asas.
Yrbc
Yrbcsp
spfr
fr bhta
bhtadd olru
olrupb
pbhb
hbc
c plce
plcebc
bceh
ehut
utbc
bc `act
`actbs
bs olom
olomrb
rbc
c il
ilce
cebc
bc
olceeucbhbc lclrea BYZ, ol`ambthbc plrtuhbrbc afc Cb+ ibc H+ (pfopb
afc) slrtb prftlac hfctrbspfr ybce bhbc olcebcehut afc Cb+ mlrsbob ol`lhu`
`bac slplrta bsbo boacf ibc eu`b. Brbgcyb ibra iblrbg mlrhfcslctrbsa taceea
hl hfcslctrbsa rlcibg. Oasb` plrpacibgbc bar ibra hfrtlhs hl stl`l.

=.< Kbrb Zlcylrbpbc

Zlcylrbpbc Ebrbo Oaclrb` F`lg Zlrbhbrbc
Zlrbhbrbc Yuomugbc
Ebrbo oaclrb` ybce pb`ace ouibg tlrsliab mbea bhbr bib`bg ybce `brut
ib`bo
ib`bo `brutbc
`brutbc tbcbg,
tbcbg, slhb`ap
slhb`apuc
uc hfcslc
hfcslctrb
trbsac
sacyb
yb mabsbc
mabsbcyb
yb rlcibg
rlcibg.. Ebrbo
Ebrbo
oaclrb` ibpbt iaslrbp ibc iabcehut hl btbs ibra iblrbg bhbr ybce mlrbomut
ibc nueb ibra iblrbg ybce `lmag tub ybce `ltbhcyb mlmlrbpb slctaolctlr ibra
unuc
unuce
e bh
bhbr
brcy
cyb.
b. slhb`
slhb`ap
apuc
uc hf
hfcs
cslc
lctr
trbsa
bsacy
cybb rl
rlci
cibg
bg.. \csu
\csur-
r-uc
ucsu
surr gb
gbrb
rb ac
acaa
olckbpba bhbr ol`b`ua taeb kbrb > iadusa ol`b`ua `brutbc tbcbg, iambwb bar
slkbrb pbsad olcunu bhbr ibc bhbr ybce tuomug olcilhbta ucsur tlrslmut.
Ub`bupuc `actbsbc uctuh `b`u `actbs afc olcunu bhbr ibpbt mlrbebo, afc gbrus

sl`b`u
sl`b`u olclrf
olclrfmfs
mfs olomrb
olomrbc
c p`bsob
p`bsob sl` bhbr
bhbr ybce
ybce gaiup
gaiup mbghbc
mbghbc nueb sbbt
sbbt
iaslrb
iaslrbp
p plrtbo
plrtbobb hb`a
hb`a f`lg
f`lg gadb
gadb klcibw
klcibwbc.
bc. Olshapu
Olshapuc
c iloaha
iloahabc
bc olomrb
olomrbc
c
p`bsob olrupbhbc plcegb`bce utbob mbea plcylrbpbc afc. Zlcebcehutbc bar
ib
ibc
c eb
ebrbo
rbo ‛ eb
ebrb
rbo
o oacl
oaclrb`
rb` pb
pbib
ib tu
tuom
omug
ugbc
bc tace
tacehb
hbtt tace
taceea
ea,, slplr
slplrta
ta pb
pbib
ib

tuomugbc mana ia`bhuhbc ol`b`ua iub olhbcasol.

b. Zlcebc
Zlcebcehu
ehutbc
tbc Lhstrbv
Lhstrbvbsah
bsahu`l
u`lrr
Zlcebc
Zlcebcehu
ehutbc
tbc aca ia`bhu
ia`bhuhbc
hbc ia `ubr
`ubr mlrhbs
mlrhbs plcebc
plcebcehu
ehut,
t, obhb
obhb iaslmu
iaslmutt
plcebcehutbc lhstrbvsahu`lr. ^bt ybce iabcehut bib`bg bar ibc ebrbo-ebrbo
oaclrb`. Ib`bo plrnb`bcbc olcunu sa`acilr pusbt, bar bhbc mlrelrbh slkbrb
mlmbs ia bctbrb rubce bctbr sl`. Zlcebcehutbc bar ibc oaclrb` ibra ib`bo
tbcbg
tbcbg ia `ubr
`ubr mlrhbs
mlrhbs plomu`
plomu`ug
ug aca ia`bhu
ia`bhuhbc
hbc ol`b`u
ol`b`uaa = olhbca
olhbcasol
sol,, ybatu
ybatu
bpfp`bs ibc saop`bs>
m. Zlcebcehutbc Bpfp`bs

Yrbcspfrtbsa bpfp`bs aca bib`bg olcyusupcyb bar tbcbg slkbrb iadusa mlmbs
btbu trbcspfrt pbsad ol`b`ua sloub mbeabc tbh gaiup ibra tuomugbc, oasb`cyb
iaciace sl` ibc rubce-rubce bctbrb sl`. Bar obsuh ilcebc kbrb iadusa, b`arbc
bar slkbrb bpfp`bs taibh taibh ibpbt tlrus olckbpba xy`lo hbrlcb tlrgb`bce
f`lg `bpasbc lcifilroas ybce oloa`aha plclmb`bc iaciace sl` ybce iahlcb`
slmbeb
slmbebaa patb hbspbra.
hbspbra. Bpfp`bs ibpbt tlrnbia pbib sltabp iaciace sl` hlkub`a
lcifilroas. Hgusus lcifilroas ia`bhuhbc slkbrb fsofsas.
k. Zlce
Zlcebc
bceh
ehut
utbc
bc [aop
[aop`bs
`bs
[aop`bs bib`bg mlrelrbhcyb bar tbcbg ibc zbt tlr`brut ol`b`ua mbeabc gaiup

ibra sl` tuomugbc, oasb`cyb satfp`bsob btbu vbhuf`b, ibra sl` hl sl`. Zbib
plcebcehutbc aca, sltl`bg obsuh hlib`bo sl` lpailroas mu`u bhbr, bar ibc
oaclrb
oaclrb`` ybce
ybce tlr`bru
tlr`brutt mlrelr
mlrelrbh
bh ib`bo
ib`bo satfp`b
satfp`bsob
sob ibc vbhuf`
vbhuf`b,
b, hlouia
hlouiabc
bc
mlrelrbh ibra sbtu sl` hl sl` ybce `bac ol`b`ua p`bsofilsobtb. [ast
p`bsofilsobtb [astlo
lo
plcebcehutbc aca olcylmbmhbc bar ibpbt olckbpba mbeabc sa`acilr pusbt.
Bibpuc `actbsbc b`arbc bar pbib plcebcehutbc saop`bs bib`bg sl` ‛ sl` mu`u
bhbr olcunu sl` ‛ sl` hfrtlhs,
hfrtlhs, lcifilroas, plrasahl`, ibc xy`lo. Ibra saca, bar
ibc ebrbo oaclrb` sabp iabcehut hl btbs olcunu mbtbce ibc ibuc.

i. Zlcebc
Zlcebcehu
ehutbc
tbc Actrbv
Actrbvbsah
bsahu`l
u`lrr
 Zl
Zlce
cebc
bceh
ehut
utbc
bc bar
bar ibc
ibc oacl
oaclrb
rb`` ia
iasl
slrb
rbp
p f`
f`lg
lg bh
bhbr
br olcu
olcunu
nu bt
btbs
bs ac
acaa
mlr`bcesuce ol`b`ua mlrhbs plcebcehut, ybatu Wy`lo, slgaceeb prfsls
plcebcehutbc iaslmut plcebcehutbc
plcebcehutbc vbshu`lr. [ltl`bg ol`lwbta sl` ‛ sl` bhbr,

bar
bar ib
ibc
c eb
ebrb
rbo
o oacl
oaclrb`
rb` ib
ibra
ra ib
ib`b
`bo
o tb
tbcb
cbg
g olob
olobsu
suha
ha tu
tuom
omug
ugbc
bc ol`b
ol`b`u
`uaa
lpailr
lpailroas
oas bhbr,
bhbr, olclom
olclomus
us hfrtlh
hfrtlhss bhbr,
bhbr, obsuh
obsuh hl stl`l
stl`l ibc hlouia
hlouiabc
bc
olceb`ar cbah hl plomu`ug xy`lo sbopba pukuh tuomugbc (mbtbce sbopba hl
olsfda`` ibuc). Zlomu`ug
olsfda Zlomu`ug Wy`lo (hbyu) iasusuc
iasusuc f`lg mlmlrbpb nlcas sl`,
cbouc mbeabc ybce mlrplrbc plctace ib`bo prfsls plcebcehutbc bar ibc
oacl
oaclrb
rb`` aca
aca bib`
bib`bg
bg sl
sl`` ‛ sl
sl`` tr
trbh
bhlb
lb.. Mbea
Mbeabc
bc un
unuc
uce
e sl
sl`` trbh
trbhlb
lb tl
tlrm
rmuh
uhbb
olomlctuh
olomlctuh papb hbpa`lr.
hbpa`lr. [truhtur nbracebc
nbracebc xy`lo slplrta papb hbpa`lr aca
tlrnbia hbrlcb sl` ‛ sl` plcyusuc nbracebc tlrslmut tlrslmut olceb`boa dusa
(plcee
(plceebmu
bmuceb
cebc).
c). Bar mlrelr
mlrelrbh
bh ibra
ibra sl` trbhlb
trbhlb sbtu
sbtu hl sl` trbhlb
trbhlb ybce
ybce ia

btbscyb olceahuta pracsap hbpa`bratbs ibc hfglsa bar ib`bo sl` trbhlb xy`lo.
=.4 Dbhtfr `acehucebc
`acehucebc ybce Oloplceb
Oloplcebruga
ruga [uomlr Cutrasa
Cutrasa Zbib
Yuomugbc
Dbhtfr Actlrcb`
b. Elc
Elc olrupb
olrupbhbc
hbc sumstbc
sumstbcsa
sa plombw
plombwbb sadbt
sadbt ybce
ybce iaturu
iaturuchb
chbc
c ibra
ibra
aciuh
aciuh hl elclrbs
elclrbsaa sl`bcnu
sl`bcnutcy
tcyb.
b. Elc oloplc
oloplcebr
ebruga
uga kara ibc sadbt
sadbt
obhg`uh gaiup iaobcb pbib tbcbobc oloplcebruga mlctuh tumug,
wbrcb
wbrcb muceb,
muceb, ibc rbsb mubg.
mubg. Elc nueb
nueb olclct
olclctuhb
uhbc
c hlobop
hlobopubc
ubc

oltbmf
oltbmf`a
`aso
soll sl
slga
gace
ceeb
eb sb
sbce
cebt
bt olop
oloplc
lceb
ebru
ruga
ga pl
plrt
rtuo
uomu
mugb
gbcc ib
ibc
c
plrhlombcebc tbcbobc tlrslmut. Ybcbobc ybce oloa`aha elc tuomug
ybce
ybce mbah
mbah bh
bhbc
bc tuom
tuomug
ug ibc
ibc ml
mlrh
rhlo
lomb
mbce
ce kl
klpb
pbtt sl
slsu
suba
ba il
ilce
cebc
bc
plrafilcyb.
Olshapuc dbhtfr ibra elc sbcebt plctace, cbouc dbhtfr aca muhbc sbtu-
sbtucy
sbtucybb ybce
ybce olclct
olclctuhb
uhbc
c pf`b
pf`b plrtuo
plrtuomug
mugbc
bc ibc plrhlo
plrhlombc
mbcebc
ebc tbcbob
tbcbobc.
c. Ia
sbopace atu bib dbhtfr `acehucebc ybce ahut mlrplcebrug. Oasb`cyb pbib tbcbobc
ybce oloa`aha sadbt uceeu`, gbcyb ibpbt tuomug ilcebc klpbt, mlrmubg `lmbt, ibc
rbsbcyb obcas ia `bgbc ybce sumur ibc hfciasacyb slsuba. Ma`b iatbcbo ia `bgbc
tbcius ibc hfciasacyb taibh slsuba, plrtuomugbc ibc plrhlombcebc tbcbobc aca
taibh bhbc fptaob`.
m. Gfrofc

Gfrofc
Gfrofc olrupb
olrupbhbc
hbc zbt ybce
ybce mlrplr
mlrplrbc
bc ib`bo
ib`bo olcelc
olcelcib`
ib`ahb
ahbc
c
mlrmbeba ducesa ia ib`bo tumug. Olshapuc nuo`bgcyb sliahat, gfrofc
olomlrahbc plcebrug cybtb ib`bo plcebturbc mlrmbeba prfsls ib`bo
tumug. Gfrofc ybce oloplcebruga plrtuomugbc ibc plrhlombcebc
pbib tbcbobc bib mlrbebo nlcascyb.
2. Buhsac
Buhsac,, mlrplr
mlrplrbc
bc uctuh
uctuh olobku
olobku prfsls
prfsls plobcnbc
plobcnbcebc
ebc,, ploml`
ploml`bgb
bgbc,
c, ibc
iadlrlcsabsa sl`.
=. Eaml
Eamlr`
r`ac
ac,, ml
mlrp
rplrb
lrbc
c uc
uctu
tuh
h pl
plom
omlc
lctu
tuhb
hbc
c ma
mana
na slrtb
slrtb pl
plrh
rhlo
lomb
mbce
cebc
bc ib
ibc
c
plrhlkbombgbc lomraf.

;. Lta`lc,
Lta`lc, mlrplrbc
mlrplrbc uctuh
uctuh plobtbc
plobtbcebc
ebc mubg
mubg ibc plrfctfhbc
plrfctfhbc ibuc.
9. [a
[atf
tfha
haca
cac,
c, mlrp
mlrplr
lrbc
bc uctu
uctuh
h plom
ploml`
l`bg
bgbc
bc sl
sl`` bt
btbu
bu satf
satfhl
hlcl
clsa
sas,
s, sl
slpl
plrt
rtaa
olrbcesbce plomlctuhbc bhbr ibc kbmbce tbcbobc.
<. Bsbo bmsasbt,
bmsasbt, mlrplrbc
mlrplrbc uctuh
uctuh prfsls
prfsls plcubbc
plcubbc ibc eueurcyb
eueurcyb ibuc.
ibuc.
4. Hbf`ac,
Hbf`ac, mlrplrbc
mlrplrbc uctuh
uctuh prfsls
prfsls frebcf
frebcfelclsa
elclsass tbcbobc.
tbcbobc.
5. Bsbo
Bsbo tr
trbu
buob
ob`a
`ac,
c, mlrp
mlrplr
lrbc
bc uctu
uctuh
h rl
rlel
elcl
clrb
rbsa
sa sl
sl`` bp
bpbm
bma`
a`bb olce
olceb`
b`bo
boaa
hlrusbhbc nbracebc.

Dbhtfr Lhstlrcb`
b. Cutrasa
Cutrasa olrupbhbc mbgbc mbhu ibc suomlr lclrea ib`bo prfsls
oltbmf`asol tumug. Hub`atbs ibc hubctatbs cutrasa bhbc oloplcebruga
plrtuomugbc ibc plrhlombcebc tbcbobc. Ybcbobc olomutughbc
cutrasa mlrupb bar ibc zbt gbrb ybce tlr`brut ib`bo bar. Ol`b`ua prfsls
dftfsactlsas, bar ibc hbrmfc iafhsaib iaumbg olcnbia zbt obhbcbc. ^bt
gbrb taibh mlrplrbc
mlrplrbc `bcesuce
`bcesuce ib`bo prfsls dftfsactlsas,
dftfsactlsas, cbouc sbcebt
iaplr`uhbc bebr tbcbobc ibpbt tuomug ibc mlrhlombce ilcebc mbah.
m. Kbgbyb Obtbgbra
Kbgbybb mlrplcebru
Kbgby mlrplcebrug
g tlrgbibp
tlrgbibp plrtuomug
plrtuomugbc
bc ibc plrhlombce
plrhlombcebc
bc
obhg`uh gaiup. Ybcbobc sbcebt olomutughbc kbgbyb obtbgbra uctuh
 dftfsactlsas.
dftfsactlsas. Cbouc hlmlrbibbc
hlmlrbibbc kbgbyb tlrcybtb
tlrcybtb ibpbt olcegbombt
olcegbombt
plrtuomugbc tuomugbc hbrlcb kbgbyb ibpbt olrusbh gfrofc buhsac
ybce tlribpbt pbib unuce mbtbce.

k. Bar
Bar ibc
ibc Hl`l
Hl`lom
ombm
bmbc
bc
Bar ibc hl`lombmbc olrupbhbc dbhtfr plctace uctuh plrtuomugbc
ibc plrhlombcebc. Bar sbcebt iamutughbc f`lg obhg`uh gaiup. Ybcpb
bar, obhg`uh gaiup taibh ibpbt mlrtbgbc gaiup. Bar olrupbhbc tlopbt
mlr`bcesucecyb rlbhsa-rlbhsa haoab ia ib`bo tumug. Hl`lombmbc
olop
oloplc
lceb
ebru
ruga
ga hl
hlml
mlrb
rbib
ibbc
bc bar
bar yb
ybce
ce ib
ibpb
pbtt ia
iaslr
slrbp
bp f`
f`lg
lg tbcbo
tbcbobc
bc
olceu
olceurbc
rbcea
ea plceub
plceubpbc
pbc.. Hfcias
Hfciasaa aca sbcebt
sbcebt oloplc
oloplcebr
ebruga
uga slhb`a
slhb`a
tlrg
tlrgbi
bibp
bp plo
plobcnb
bcnbce
cebc
bc sl
sl`.
`. Hl`l
Hl`lo
omb
mbm
mbc nu
nue
eb pl
plc
ctace
tace uct
ctu
uh
oloplrtbgbchbc stbma`atbs mlctuh sl`.

i. [ugu
[ugu
[ugu oloa
oloa`a
`aha
ha plce
plcebr
brug
ug cy
cybt
btbb tl
tlrg
rgbi
bibp
bp pl
plrt
rtuo
uomu
mugb
gbc
c ib
ibc
c
plrhlombcebc tbcbobc. Kfctfgcyb pbib pbia ybce iatbcbo pbib bwb`
ousao hlobrbu iaobcb sugu rbtb-rbtb taceea bhbc `lmag klpbt iapbclc
ibrapbib pbia ybce iatbcbo pbib ousao plcegunbc iaobcb sugu rbtb-
rbtb `lmag
`lmag rlcibg
rlcibg.. Gb` aca iaslmbmhb
iaslmbmhbc
c hbrlcb
hbrlcb sloub
sloub prfsls
prfsls ib`bo
ib`bo
plrtuomugbc ibc plrhlombcebc slplrta plcylrbpbc bar, dftfsactlsas,
plceubpbc, ibc plrcbpbsbc pbib tbcbobc iaplcebruga
iaplcebruga f`lg sugu.
l. Ybcbg

Ybcbg
Ybcbg mlrplc
mlrplcebr
ebrug
ug tlrgbib
tlrgbibp
p plrtuo
plrtuomu
mugbc
gbc ibc plrhlo
plrhlombc
mbcebc
ebc
tbcbobc. Ybcbobc bhbc tuomug ibc mlrhlombce ilcebc fptaob` ma`b
hfciasa tbcbg tlopbt gaiupcyb slsuba ilcebc hlmutugbc cutrasa ibc
ucsur
ucsur gbrb.
gbrb. Hfcias
Hfciasaa tbcbg
tbcbg iatlct
iatlctuhb
uhbc
c f`lg
f`lg dbhtfr
dbhtfr `acehu
`acehuceb
cebc
c `bac,
`bac,
oasb`cyb sugu, hbciucebc oaclrb`, bar, ibc ilrbnbt hlbsbobc btbu pG.

MBM AA
ZLC\Y\Z
;.2 Hlsao
Hlsaopu`
pu`bc
bc
2. Cutrasa
Cutrasa ybce iaplr`u
iaplr`uhbc
hbc f`lg tuomugbc
tuomugbc tlriara
tlriara ibra
ibra ucsur
ucsur oahrfcutra
oahrfcutralc
lc ibc
obhrfcutralc.
=. [uomlr
[uomlr Cutrasa
Cutrasa Yuomugbc
Yuomugbc[lnuo
[lnuo`bg
`bg mlsbr mbgbc mlrbebo
mlrbebo ibpbt mlrduce
mlrducesa
sa

slmbeba suomlr cutrasa tbcbobc. Aca ibpbt mlrupb `aombg b`boa, sactltas,
ibur u`bce, btbu slrbcehbabc prfiuh maf`feas tlrobsuh acfhu`bc oahrfmb
;. Zlrbcb
Zlrbcbc
c ucsur oaclr
oaclrb`
b` pbib tuomugb
tuomugbc
c tlriara
tlriara ibra oahrf
oahrf ibc obhrf ybce
ybce
oloa`aha ducesa obsace-obsace.
9. Olhbca
Olhbcasol
sol prfsls
prfsls plcylr
plcylrbpb
bpbc
c ibpbt ml`bcesu
ml`bcesuce
ce hbrlcb
hbrlcb bibcyb
bibcyb prfsls
prfsls
aomamasa, iadusa, fsofsas ibc trbcspfr bhtad
<. Zlcylrbpbc
Zlcylrbpbc ebrbo
ebrbo oaclrb`
oaclrb` f`lg plrbhbrbc
plrbhbrbc tuomugbc
tuomugbc tlrmbea
tlrmbea olcnbi
olcnbiaa taeb
kbr, ybatu iadusa, b`arbc obssb ibc bhbr ybce tuomug.
4. Dbhtfr
Dbhtfr ybce oloplc
oloplcebrug
ebrugaa plcebcehut
plcebcehutbc
bc oaclrb`
oaclrb` tlriara
tlriara ibra > b. [ugu
[ugu m.

Hfcslctrsa pG k. Kbgbyb i. Zlceuibrbbc tbcbg l. Actlrbhsa

IBDYB] Z\[YBHB
Biga
Bigaou
ours
rsbc
bcia
ia,, Ifii
Ifiiy.
y. (=
(=:2
:24)
4).. Dbhtfr-Dbhtfr Qbce Oloplcebruga Cabt
Hlwarbusbgbbc. Nurc
Nurcb`
b` Dbhu
Dbhu`t
`tbs
bs Lhfc
Lhfcfo
foaa ib
ibc
c Masc
Mascas
as \cav
\cavlrs
lrsat
atbs
bs
Ou`bwbrobc, Tf`. 2;, Cf. 2.

Bcfcao. =:22. Zrfsls Zlcebcehutbc pbib Yuomugbc.

Yuomugbc. gttp>/
gttp>//ma
/mafsl
fslnbta
nbta..
wfriprlss.kfo/=:22/22/2:/prfsls-plcebcehutbc-pbib-tuomugbc

Bcfcao
Bcfcao.. =::1.
=::1. Acvlstace ac tgl duturl> b ucatli kb`` tf bktafc fc vatboac bci
oaclrb`
oaclrb` ildaka
ildakalcka
lckals.
ls.www.u
www.ucatli
catlikb``tfbk
kb``tfbktafc.
tafc.fre/if
fre/ifwc`fb
wc`fbi
i 2= Obrlt
=:22..
=:22

Bradac ^bacb`. =::7.

=::7. Mlmlrbpb ucsur oaclrb` lslcsab` oahrf ib`bo sastlo maf`fea
ibc oltfil bcb`asascyb. Nurcb` @atmbce Zlrtbcabc =5(;)> 11-2:<.

Btobra
Btobratb.
tb. =::<.
=::<. Cutrat
Cutratafc
afc prfm`l
prfm`los
os ac acifcl
acifclsab.
sab. bc actler
actlerbtli
btli actlrc
actlrcbta
btafcb
fcb``
sloac
sloacbr
br bc
bci
i wfrh
wfrhsg
sgfp
fp fc `adl
`adlsty
sty`l
`l ‛r
‛rl`
l`bt
btli
li ia
iasl
slbsl
bsls.
s. Ebnb
Ebnbg
g Obib
Obib
\cavlrsaty, 21 ‛=: Obrkg, =::<. Qfeybhbrtb.

Mlcfast M. il, L. Ok.@lbc, O. Bcilrssfc, bci @. ]felrs. =::7. Afiacl ildakalcky

ac =:
=::5
:5>> E`
E`fm
fmb`
b` pr
prfe
ferl
rlss
ss sa
sack
ckll =:
=::;
:;.. Dff
Dffi
i bci Cutrat
Cutratafc
afc Mu``lt
Mu``ltac
ac
=1(;)>24<-=:=.

Mfuas
Mfuas G. L. bci ]. O Ul`kg.
Ul`kg. =:2:.
=:2:. Mafdfrtadakbtafc-b sustbacbm`l beraku`turb`
strbtley dfr rliukace oakrfcutralct ob`cutratafc ac tgl E`fmb` [futg.
Krfp [kalckl, <:> Obrkg‛Bpra` =:2:

Mfuas, G. L. 2114.
2114 . Lcrakgolct fd dffi stbp`ls tgrfueg p`bct mrlliace> B clw
strbtley dfr daegtace oakrfcutralct ob`cutratafc. Cutra
Cutratafc
tafc ]lvalws
<9>2;2‛2;5.

@bhatbc,
@bhatbc, Mlcyboac.
Mlcyboac. 211<. Ibsbr-ibsbr Dasaf`fea Yuomugbc.
Yuomugbc. Nbhbrtb>
Nbhbrtb> ZY ]bnb
Erbdacif Zlrsbib.

Ahbputra, Bcasb. =:22. Dasaf`fea Yuomugbc.

Yuomugbc. gttp>//m`fe.ubi.bk.ai/
bccasbahbputra/kbtlefry/dasaf`fea-tuomugbc
Obil.
Obil. =::
=::1.
1.Mbgbc Bnbr Cutrasa
Cutrasa.. gttp>//obil7.wfriprlss.kfo/=::1/
:4/:1/mbgbc-bnbr-cutrasa-plrtloubc-a-ibc-aa/

]. C. ]fy, B. Dackh, E. N. M`bar bci G. @. [. Ybcifc. =::4 Z`bct Cutratafc dfr

Dffi [lkuraty. B Euail dfr Actlerbtli Cutralct
Cutralct Obcbelolct. DBF.

Yliiy. =:22. Yrbcspfrtbsa pbib Yuomugbc.

Yuomugbc. gttp>//tlimaf.ou`tap`y.kfo/
nfurcb`/atlo/25/Y
nfurcb`/atlo/25/Yrbcspfrtbs
rbcspfrtbsa-pbib-Yuo
a-pbib-Yuomugbc
mugbc

Ugatl, Zga`ap & Mrfwc, Zbtra

rakkh. =:2:. Z`bct cutratafc dfr sustbacbm`l
glb`tg.Bccb`s fd Mftbcy 2:<> 2:5;‛2:7:, =:2:
ilvl`fpolct bci e`fmb` glb`tg.Bccb`s