28934e00 Soil Improvement

eni spa
COMPANY TECHNICAL STANDARD

SOIL IMPROVEMENT-ON SHORE CIVIL
WORKS
28934.ENG.CIV.STD
Rev. 00 – December 2021
ABSTRACT The present standard defines material characteristics, the

requirements, and the execution and acceptance procedures of
onshore soil improvement works.
E. Oldani (CIVI) F. Duclocher

00 December 2021 Issue for Comments A. Gallus
RINA Consulting S. Rugan
REV. DATE Reason for issue Prepared Verified Approved
ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Documento riservato di proprietà di Eni spa. Esso non sarà mostrato a terzi né utilizzato per scopi diversi da quelli per i quali è stato inviato.
This document is property of Eni spa. It shall neither be shown to third parties nor used for purposes other than those for which it has been sent.
eni spa 28934.ENG.CIV.STD
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REVISION TRACKING
Rev. 00: 57 pages

Date: December 2021
INFORMATION REQUEST
Eni personnel can access company standard repository at:

http://wwweandp.eni.it/TSServices/TAE/company-documents-standards
External user shall refer to the Project Engineer Manager.
For information about the content of this standard, please refer to persons mentioned on first
page or to Company Standard Team (mbxc&st@eni.com).
HIERARCHY OF REGULATIONS
1. Local Regulations of the Country where the equipment is installed.

2. Project Specifications and Data Sheets.
3. Company General Specifications.
4. International Codes & Standards.

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INDEX
1 SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT 6
2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS 6
2.1 DEFINITIONS 6
2.2 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS 7
3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS 7
4 REFERENCE CODES 7
4.1 COMPANY DOCUMENTS AND STANDARDS 8
4.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD 8
4.3 ITALIAN LAWS & DECREES 8
4.4 ORDER OF PRECEDENCE 8
5 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS 9
6 GENERAL: SOIL IMPROVEMENT METHODOLOGIES AND CHARACTERISTICS 10
7 TECHNOLOGY CLASSIFICATION AND ELEMENTS 11
7.1 PRE COMPRESSION OR PRELOADING 11
7.2 VERTICAL DRAINS 12
Applicability 13
Design Principle 13
Construction Considerations 15
Quality Assurance 16
7.3 VIBRO-COMPACTION 18
Applicability 19
Design Principle 20
Equipment 22
7.4 DYNAMIC COMPACTION (HEAVY TAMPING) 24
Applicability 24
Design Principle 25
7.5 STONE COLUMNS 27
Applicability 28
Design Principle 31
7.6 DEEP SOIL MIXING 34

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Applicability 35
Design Principle 37
7.7 JET GROUTING 38
Materials 45
Design Principle 45
Equipment 50
7.8 OTHER INJECTION TECHNIQUES 54
Compaction Grouting 54
Permeation Grouting 55
8 POSITIONING 56
8.1 GEODETIC DATUM 56
8.2 SURFACE POSITIONING 56
8.3 VERTICAL DATUM 56
8.4 BENCHMARKS VERIFICATION 56
9 GENERAL DOCUMENTATION TO BE PRODUCED BEFORE COMMENCEMENT OF THE
WORK 56
10 DOCUMENTATION TO BE PRODUCED DURING THE WORK 56
10.1 SCHEDULES 56
10.2 DAILY PROGRESS REPORTS (DPR) 57
10.3 WEEKLY COORDINATION MEETINGS 57
10.4 MINUTES OF MEETING 57
TABLE
Table 7.1: Main Ground Improvement Techniques 11
Table 7.2: Backfill material rating criteria 22
Table 7.3: Typical Vibrators Specifications 22
Table 7.4: Suggested values of parameter Ec for different soil types. 26
Table 7.5: Threshold values of soil chemical parameters: Favorable Soil-Chemistry Factors 36
Table 7.6: Typical Improved Engineering Properties 37
Table 7.7: Design and Execution Activities 41
Table 7.8: Jet Grouting Parameters 48
FIGURE
Figure 7.1: Preloading 12
Figure 7.2: PVDs Installation 12
Figure 7.3: PVD scheme 14
Figure 7.4: PVD Installation operations 16

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Figure 7.5: Vibro-Compaction 18

Figure 7.6: Soil Range Treatable by Vibro-Compaction 19
Figure 7.7: DR variation vs. Tributary area. 20
Figure 7.8: Typical Compaction Point Spacing for Area Layouts 21
Figure 7.9: Typical Compaction Point Layouts for Column Footings 21
Figure 7.10: Dynamic Compaction Intervention Scheme 24
Figure 7.11: Influence of coefficient n for different soil types 25
Figure 7.12: Pounding Grid Scheme 27
Figure 7.13: Applicable Grain-Size Distributions for Stone Columns 28
Figure 7.14: Vibro-replacement - Top Feed Construction Method 29
Figure 7.15: Vibro-replacement - Bottom Feed Construction Method 30
Figure 7.16: Stone Column Equilateral Triangular Pattern 32
Figure 7.17: Unit Cell Idealization 32
Figure 7.18: Deep soil mixing typical patterns 38
Figure 7.19: Jet grouted column (a) or panel (b) 39
Figure 7.20: Jet grouted diaphragm (a) or slab (b) 39
Figure 7.21: Jet grouted canopy 40
Figure 7.22: Jet grouting single fluid system: main steps and monitor details 42
Figure 7.23: Jet grouting double fluid (air) system: main steps and monitor details 42
Figure 7.24: Jet grouting double fluid (water) system: main steps and monitor details 43
Figure 7.25: Jet grouting triple system: main steps and monitor details 43
Figure 7.26: Fresh-in-fresh sequence 44
Figure 7.27: Primary-secondary sequence 45
Figure 7.28: Compaction Grouting 55

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1 SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT
This document defines the material characteristics, the requirements, and the construction and
acceptance procedures of different soil improvement works including:
• Pre-compression or preloading
• Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVDs) and Sand Vertical Drains
• Vibro-compaction
• Dynamic Compaction (Heavy Tamping)
• Stone columns
• Deep soil mixing
• Jet-Grouting
• Compaction Grouting
• Permeation Grouting
This document applies to the execution of soil improvement treatments, to be carried out for
refineries, industrial and power plants, camps, office, residential complexes, and all the other
typical works of the Energy Industry.
2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
2.1 DEFINITIONS
Throughout this specification the following definitions shall apply.
Company: ENI S.p.A.
Contractor: the firm responsible for the execution of the works defined in this
specification and in the Contractual Documents.
Bidder: the potential Contractor during the bidding phase.
Company Representative: any authority or person appointed in writing by the Company.
Contractual Documents: documents issued by Company (reports, specifications, data

sheets, drawings) to define the specific requirements relevant to
the work to be carried out by the Contractor.
Functional Specifications: documents issued by Company containing the minimum

requirements and guideline to be followed by Contractor during
the execution of the work.
Works: activities to be carried out in compliance with the contents of this

functional specification.
Vertical Datum: the reference surface or vertical level to which elevations or

heights are referred.
Reference Point: point toward all the investigations points are referred.
Accuracy: degree of closeness of “true” value. When in this specification,

accuracy is specified with a deviation from the “true” value, this

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deviation is to be taken as the standard deviation, which means

that 68.3% of the observations shall be inside the specified limits
Precision: precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an

operation (procedures and instrumentation) or in the statement
of a result. It is a measure of the uniformity or reproducibility of
the result. Simply, the way to perform the onshore survey
operations in accordance with the good data gathering and
engineering practice.
Original Data: the “raw” data as collected during the survey.
Work Data: the data decoded, corrected, validated, processed, etc. directly
in site, according to the requests described in this specification,
to satisfy the scope of work.
Final Data: the work data edited after the end of the survey in their final form
according to the requests described in this specification.
D.A.S.: the Data Acquisition System; i.e. all the transducers, antennas,
cables, connectors, interfaces, computer with peripheral facilities,
software and any other equipment to be installed in site to collect,
decode, correct, pre-process and store the data gathered by the
instruments described in this specification.
D.P.S.: the Data Processing System, consisting of a computer with

peripherals and of adequate software to be installed in site or in
the Contractor’s office in the site, to process the data gathered
by D.A.S.
Shall: “Shall” is an absolute requirement. Non-compliance with a “shall”

requirement shall be approved in writing by the Company.
Should: “Should” is a recommendation. Alternative solutions having the

same functionality and quality are acceptable to the Company.
2.2 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
PVD Prefabricated Vertical Drain

OCR Over Consolidation Ratio
VC Vibro Compaction
SN Suitability Number
VCC Vibro Concrete Column
GEC Geotexile Encapsulated Columns
3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
This document refers to measurement units as per the international system.

In case additional units of measurement are necessary, these shall comply with Company
Standard 20183.VAR.GEN.STD “Units of Measurement”.
4 REFERENCE CODES

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4.1 COMPANY DOCUMENTS AND STANDARDS

Reference shall be made to the following Company documents:
• 20547.ENG.CIV.STD Geotechnical Investigation and Laboratory Testing -On Shore Civil
Works.
• 28753.ENG.PLI.STD Onshore Positioning
• 20183.VAR.GEN.STD Units of Measurement.
4.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

The present section lists the applicable references and standards to be used for the soil
improvement works. The latest edition of each publication shall generally be used, together with
any amendments/supplements/revisions thereto. Nevertheless, new revisions/updates during
an activity or project will not be considered unless associated to safety/environmental impacts.
ENV 197-1:2011 Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for
common cements
EN 1008:2002 Mixing water for concrete - Specification for sampling, testing and
assessing the suitability of water, including water recovered from
processes in the concrete industry, as mixing water for concrete
EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures General rules and rules for
buildings
EN 1997-1:2004 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design - Part 1: General rules
EN 12716:2018 Execution of special geotechnical work
FHWA-NHI-16-027 Ground Modification Methods
ASCE Soil Improvement-History, Capabilities, and Outlook. J.K Mitchell, Editor,
ASCE, New York, NY, 182p
USACE Guidelines on Ground Improvement for Structures and Facilities.
Technical Letter No. 1110-1-185, Department of the Army. U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Washington, D.C., 42p.
USACE Compaction Tests and Critical Density Investigation of Cohesionless Materials
for Franklin Falls Dam. U.S. Engineer Office, Boston, MA.
Different reference codes may be proposed to Company and adopted only prior approval by the
Technical Authority.
4.3 ITALIAN LAWS & DECREES

For works carried out in Italy, reference shall be made to the latest edition of Italian “Technical
Rules for Construction” (NTC), together with any amendments/supplements/revisions thereto.
4.4 ORDER OF PRECEDENCE

In conjunction with this specification, the codes, standards and regulations listed in sections
from 4.1 to 4.3 shall be applicable. Reference to any standard or code shall mean the latest
edition of that standard or code including addenda, supplements or revisions, unless otherwise
stated in this document.
The order of precedence shall be as follows (descending order):

i. Local Regulations of the country where the works are performed.

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ii. Project Specifications and Data Sheets.

iii. Company General Specifications.
iv. International Codes & Standards.
International Standards are at the lower level of hierarchy. Their contents, assumed as
reference, is developed and detailed within the Company Specifications considering the specific
application and the area of business in which Eni SpA is operating. On top of those there are the
Local Regulations, the Project Specifications than the Company Specifications.
Any applicable local mandatory rule prevails on this specification. In case of a perceived conflict
between this standard and other referenced standards, or lack of clear definition as to the
applicability of any specification or standard, the Facilities Technical Units owner of the Standard,
shall seek guidance to the Standard Team.
5 GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS
In order to correctly design soil improvement works, a geotechnical investigation shall be

undertaken in accordance with the requirements and recommendations of EN 1997-1:2004 and
of Company Standard: 20547.ENG.CIV.STD “Geotechnical Investigation and Laboratory Testing
-On Shore Civil Works”.
Specific requirements in terms of geotechnical investigations are covered for each soil
improvement technique in Section 7.
Special consideration shall be given to the following geotechnical conditions:
• firm or stiff cohesive layers or lenses;
• high organic content;
• swelling soils;
• highly sensitive or quick clays;
• cemented layers or lenses;
• position of water table(s);
• presence of artesian or confined aquifer conditions;
• high hydraulic gradients;
• aggressive soil or water;
• relative density of granular layers;
• cobbles and/or boulders;
• large voids or high permeability;
• chemical wastes or deposits.
In addition to the lithology and structure of the ground in accordance with EN 1997-1:2004, the
following features and parameters shall also be determined, through laboratory and/or in situ
tests, as applicable:
• grain size distribution, moisture content, Atterberg limits;
• density, by direct or indirect measurement;
• shear strength, by direct or indirect measurement.
In situ mechanical testing of the soil shall be used to identify variations of density.
Where personnel are required to enter pits for taking samples or hand excavation etc. the
excavation sides shall be safe or made safe against potential collapse and associated temporary
support measures shall be provided.
The support system shall consist of a purpose-built fabricated steel trench box, sheet piling or a
combination of both. Alternatively the pit sides shall be excavated by battering the sides to a
safe profile or by benching the sides to a safe profile (minimum 2:1 slopes).

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During excavation topsoil shall be removed separately and replacement undertaken in the
reverse order of excavation.
Under no circumstances shall personnel enter into unsupported or non-profiled pits that have
been excavated deeper than 1.2 meters.
If trial pits are to be left open for any reason, then these shall be clearly marked with high
visibility tape and barriered/fenced off until such time that these are backfilled.
Once completed, the trial pit shall be closed, topsoil and turf (if any) replaced, and the site left
tidy.
6 GENERAL: SOIL IMPROVEMENT METHODOLOGIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Soil improvement construction methods are used to improve poor/unsuitable subsurface soils
with respect to the loads to be applied, and/or to improve the performance of embankments or
structures.
These methods are used when replacement of the in-situ soils is impractical because of physical
limitations, environmental concerns, or is too costly. Ground improvement methodologies have
the primary function(s) to:
• Increase bearing capacity, shear, or frictional strength

Here the function of the ground modification is to increase the soil’s strength, which in
turn increases the bearing resistance for foundations and embankments. Increases in soil
strength and bearing resistance can be accomplished by densifying loose cohesionless
soils, consolidating soft clay soils, or the addition of cementing agents to the soil.
• Increase density
This function generally applies to the densification of loose sands through technologies
that add energy to the soil through a vibration or dynamic process. The imparted energy
changes the loose sand into a denser state. The denser soil has increased strength and
bearing resistance and increased resistance to liquefaction. In cohesive soils increasing
the density is accomplished through consolidation processes that remove water from the
void spaces thus reducing the amount of settlement that will occur when loads are applied
to the soil.
• Control deformations
Controlling deformation includes reducing total settlement, heave, and distortion caused
by differential settlement. Methods include those that densify or consolidate the
foundations soils or strengthen the soils through grouts or binders to control
deformations. Deformation control can also be accomplished through the use of columns
to transfer loads to more competent materials. Expansive soil heave can be treated using
binders that mitigate the effects of water.
• Accelerate consolidation
Accelerating consolidation reduces the time involved for settlement in foundation soils to
occur. Consolidation can be accelerated by reducing the drainage path length for cohesive
soils in combination with embankment loading or fill preloading. This can be accomplished
through the use of prefabricated vertical drains or other columns that allow water an
easier flow path.
• Decrease imposed loads
Decreasing imposed loads using lighter weight fill materials reduces loads on weak soils
reducing settlement and stability issues.
• Provide/increase lateral stability
Change in grade requirements can be accomplished by use of a number of earth retaining
systems that provide lateral support and stability to site soils, in both cut and fill
situations. Such support can be provided for both vertical and sloping cases.

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• Increase resistance to liquefaction

The resistance of cohesionless soils to liquefaction can be accomplished by densifying the
soils through vibratory or dynamic methods that increase the density of the cohesionless
materials. Other means of increasing resistance to liquefaction include the addition of
grouts and binders to the soil matrix, increased drainage of the soils, and isolation of the
potentially liquefiable soils.
• Transfer embankment loads to more competent layer
Here, vertical loads – typically embankments or fill retaining structures – are transferred
through loose or weak soils by columns that transfer the embankment loads to more
competent layers. This technique helps control settlement, particularly differential
settlement, and stability of the highway feature on the unstable soils.
7 TECHNOLOGY CLASSIFICATION AND ELEMENTS
Table 7.1 shows the main ground improvement techniques classified by function. Considerable
overlap exists between the different techniques, as the same function can often be achieved by
means of different methods.
Category Function Method

Consolidation Accelerate consolidation and increase 1.) Prefabricated (or sand)
shear strength Vertical Drains
2.) Surcharge
Load Reduction Reduce load on foundation and reduce 1.) Geofoam
settlement 2.) Foamed Concrete
3.) Lightweight fill
Densification Increase soil strength and decrease 1.) Vibro-Compaction
compressibility (granular soils) 2.) Dynamic Compaction
Reinforcement Increase soil strength and decrease 1.) Stone Columns
compressibility (all soils)
Deep Soil Mixing Physio-chemical alteration of 1.) Wet mixing methods
foundation soils to increase their 2.) Dry mixing methods
tensile, compressive, and shear
strength; decrease compressibility;
and/or provide lateral stability and
confinement
Grouting Increase soil density, as well as 1.) Permeation Grouting
improving their mechanical properties 2.) Compaction Grouting
(increase in tensile and compressive 3.) Jet Grouting
strength)
Load Transfer Transfer load to deeper bearing layer 1.) Column Supported
Embankment
Table 7.1: Main Ground Improvement Techniques
7.1 PRE COMPRESSION OR PRELOADING

Pre compression or preloading technique consists in placing a surcharge fill on the top of the soil
that requires large consolidation settlement to take place before construction of the structure
(see Figure 7.1). Once consolidation level has reached the design target, the fill can be removed
and construction process takes place.
In general, this technique is used in clayey soil. Since clayey soils have low permeability, the
desired consolidation takes very long time to occur, even with very high surcharge load.

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Therefore, depending on the construction schedule milestones, preloading may not be a feasible
solution. Hence, sand or prefabricated vertical drains may be used to accelerate consolidation
process by reducing the drainage paths length (see Section 7.2).
Figure 7.1: Preloading
7.2 VERTICAL DRAINS

Drains are mainly used in the consolidation of extensive areas of loading.
Two main types of vertical drains are typically adopted in industry practice: Prefabricated Vertical
Drains (PVDs) and Sand Vertical Drains.
PVDs, commonly referred to as ‘wick’ drains, shall consist of thin plastic strips about 1/8 inch
(3.175 mm) thick by 4 inches (101.6 mm) wide, with a rigid core sheathed in filter fabric. PVDs
are generally driven in the soil by means of hydraulic vibrators. The vibrating element is situated
at the head of the driving tube. In special cases a vibrating chuck can be employed with the
vibration being applied at various tube depths. Vibration driving allows rapid crossing of any
compacted layers above the layer to be drained. Average production can be between 200 to 500
linear meters (m) per hour. Depending on soil characteristics, driving speeds of up to 1.5 m/sec.
can be obtained. Average lengths are around 25 to 30 m, with the possibility of reaching depths
in the order of 40 m.
Figure 7.2 shows the typical installation scheme for PVDs.
Figure 7.2: PVDs Installation

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Sand drains involve the excavation of a vertical shaft filled with graded sand to act as a filter.
Average sand drain diameters vary from 25 to 40 cm and depths of 40 to 45 m can be reached.
Average production can be from 70 to 100 linear m per hour, depending on soil characteristics.
Due to the numerous advantages of PVDs with respect to sand drains, including lower cost,
higher installation speed, better control of drain continuity and lower displacement, sand drains
have been generally replaced by PVDs in current industry practice.
Applicability
PVDs are typically applicable to soil deposits having the following characteristics:
• Moderate to high compressibility (e.g. Liquid Limit greater than 30)
• Low permeability
• Fully saturated
• Final embankment loads must exceed maximum pre-consolidation stress
• Secondary compression must not be a major concern
• Normally to slightly over-consolidated (OCR < 1.5)
Design Principle
The primary purpose of a vertical drain is to reduce the length of the drainage path, thereby
decreasing the time required for the consolidation of low permeability soil layers. To accelerate
the rate of settlement, drains shall be installed on a regular grid pattern, either triangular or
rectangular, to reduce the flow distance for dissipation of excess pore water pressures associated
with the placement of a surcharge.
Prior to installation of vertical drains, theoretical predictions of the magnitude and rate of
settlement, both during and after construction, are typically needed to ensure the proposed
design meet the performance criteria required by project specifications. Vertical drains design
includes the dimensioning and assessment of the stability of the surcharge embankment.
In-situ testing (SPT, CPT and/or DMT) in the intervention area shall be carried out to determine
the need of pre-drilling for drain installation.
The design of the ground improvement intervention by means of vertical drains consists of the
determination of the type, spacing and length of the drains to meet the required performance
criteria (e.g. target degree of consolidation) within a specified time (see Figure 7.3).
The relationship between consolidation time, drain diameter and drain spacing for a given soil
can be expressed as follows:
(1)
And
(2)
Where:
t = Time required to achieve desired average degree of consolidation

Ūh = Average degree of consolidation due to horizontal drainage
D or de = Diameter of the cylinder of influence of the drain (drain influence zone)

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Ch = Consolidation Coefficient for horizontal drainage

F(n) = Drain spacing factor
d = Equivalent circular drain diameter
FS = Factor for soil disturbance
Figure 7.3: PVD scheme
7.2.2.1 Determination of FS
Soil disturbance is typically ignored (Fs=0) except for highly plastic (PI > 21), sensitive (St >5)
soils. For these soils an Fs=2 shall be used. Sample disturbance is typically more pronounced at
drain spacing lower than 5 feet or when large anchor plates are used.
7.2.2.2 Determination of Ch
The horizontal Consolidation Coefficient (Ch) can be obtained by means of laboratory
consolidation testing of high-quality samples. However significant uncertainty exists on the
determination of Ch, thus a typical approach is to set Ch equal to a given percentage of Cv
(which can be measured with higher reliability by means conventional oedometer tests).
In cases where the soil to be treated shows no or limited evidence of horizontal laminations or
layering, Ch can be taken as 1.2 to 1.5 times Cv.
In presence of substantial silt or sand lenses or laminae within the finer soil matrix, Ch can be
taken as 2 to 4 times Cv.
Where possible a robust estimate of the horizontal Consolidation Coefficient Ch can be derived
by the interpretation of CPT in-situ dissipation tests.
7.2.2.3 Determination of d
In the case of sand drains, the circular drain diameter (d) is taken as the nominal diameter of
the excavated shaft, while the equivalent circular drain diameter of a PVD typically varies

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between 1.6 to 5.5 inches (40.64 to 139.7 mm), the most commonly adopted being 2.4 inches
(60.96 mm).
7.2.2.4 Determination of D
When using an equilateral triangular pattern, the diameter of the cylinder of influence (D) can
be determined as 1.05 times the drains spacing. Similarly, when adopting a square pattern, D
can be determined as 1.13 times the drain spacing.
Construction Considerations
Sand drains are typically installed by means of a technique involving the use of a water jet under
pressure for drilling and displacement of the soil. The excavated material is carried to the surface
in suspension by the rising flow of water, which at the same time keeps the shaft open until it is
filled with sand. In alternative, subject to the Company approval, the continuous auger technique
can be adopted, consisting of introducing a continuous auger into the soil to the desired depth
and then introducing the sand through the hollow shaft of the auger at the same time, as the
auger itself is withdrawn with a rotary movement.
PVDs are installed using equipment similar in size and characteristics to pile driving or foundation
drilling equipment. A typical installation rig for PVDs is shown in Figure 7.4. A clean sand layer
with minimum thickness of 0.3 m shall be placed at the top of the PVDs to excess pore pressures
relief. Furthermore, in some cases it may be appropriate to install horizontal strip drains across
the ground surface to remove the draining water from the treated area. Such drainage layer can
be installed as a part of the working platform necessary to make the site accessible to PVD
installation equipment.

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Figure 7.4: PVD Installation operations
Quality Assurance
Quality control during installation consists of recording depths and locations of each drain,
observing splices and verticality of the installation equipment and taking material samples for
inspection and testing.
To ensure proper performance, the drains shall be installed in accordance with the plans and
project specifications. It is important that field inspection personnel know the procedures and
possible implications of any deviation from the installation plan.
The construction monitoring personnel shall have access to the project drawings and
specifications and shall have experience in the general functioning of ground improvement
through PVDs installation, including site preparation, fill placement, and other items that might
influence the performance of PVDs.
In case of any variation to the pre-determined installation plan, the modifications and their
implication shall be discussed and approved by the Company.
The presence of obstructions within the treatment area could require offset of one or more drains
(in case of relatively small obstacles), while larger obstacles may typically require predrilling or
removal.

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Installation of trial drains to evaluate the installation equipment is recommended. A Company

representative and field inspection personnel shall be present during the trial drain installation.
Variations in installation procedures, potentially necessary to penetrate to the required depth,
shall be addressed during the trial program.
Other aspects, such as the drainage blanket material quality, embankment placement and
compaction, and surcharge loading rate, shall also be monitored during construction.
7.2.4.1 Site Preparation

Site preparation includes any excavation and grading to prepare the site for installation of PVDs.
This may include site clearing, excavation and/or filling operations to bring the site to grade, and
construction of a working platform and drainage blanket. Such drainage blanket shall be
continuous throughout the area and care shall be taken to ensure that surface drainage does
not erode the blanket to the extent where it is no longer continuous.
During construction of a working platform or drainage blanket, the field inspection personnel
shall monitor for any unusual soil movements, which may be indication of mud waving or a
potential failure.
7.2.4.2 Material
Prior to installation, the PVD material shall be visually inspected to verify compliance with the
samples previously submitted and tested, the core and filter jacket shall be continuous and meet
the specified size. Moreover, potential damages during handling or storage shall also be avoided.
Other tests might be required be carried out on PDV material prior to installation according to
project specifications.
7.2.4.3 Equipment
Inspection personnel shall verify installation equipment to comply with project specification
requirements. In particular, the following aspects shall be checked:
• Penetration method
• Mandrel shape, size, and stiffness
• Details of PVD anchorage
• Method to measure and determine penetration depth
• Method to measure and record installation force
• Means and procedures for pre-drilling, where necessary
• Size, type, weight, maximum pushing force, vibratory hammer rated energy, and
configurations of the installation rig
• Drains splicing methodology
7.2.4.4 Documentation
The following documentation shall be produced for PVD installation:
• PVD Data Sheet, including technical specification and fabrication data

• Installation procedure
• Certification of Drain material

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7.3 VIBRO-COMPACTION
Vibro-compaction (also known as vibro-flotation) is a ground improvement method that uses a
specialized vibrating probe for in-situ soil densification at depths beyond which surface
compaction equipment is ineffective.
The vibro-compaction process uses crane-mounted depth vibrators which are lowered into the
ground under their self-weight and thanks to their vibrating action. The vibrator is hung from a
crane cable or, in some instance, it is mounted to leads in a similar fashion as foundation drilling
equipment. The vibrator penetrates under its self-weight (or crowd of the machine if mounted
in leads). If needed, based on the soil characteristics, the water jets shall be used to aid
penetration. Once the probe has reached its target depth, backfill material is fed into the hole
to re-confine the probe. The backfill material is then forced aside radially by the vibrating action
of the probe, further densifying the surrounding soil. This operation may need to be repeated
multiple time at the same depth.
When operating below the water table, the vibrating action of the probe other than directly
displacing the soil around itself, causes the generation of excess pore pressure which may
ultimately overcome the acting vertical effective stress and hence induce a liquefied state in the
surrounding soil. Following the cease of probe induced vibration (or when the probe is pulled-up
to shallower depth), the induced excess pore pressure dissipates causing re-consolidation of the
soil to a denser state with respect to initial conditions.
Generally, vibro-compaction can be used to achieve the following:

• Increased soil bearing capacity
• Reduced soil compressibility (settlement reduction)
• Increased resistance to liquefaction
o Stabilization of pile foundations driven through liquefiable granular materials
o Densification of liquefiable soils in correspondence of buildings, abutments and piers
foundations
• Increased shear strength
• Reduced permeability
Figure 7.5 shows the typical installation scheme for VC.
Figure 7.5: Vibro-Compaction

Pag. 19 of 57
The main features of the Vibro-Compaction technique are the follows:

• As an alternative to deep foundations, vibro-compaction is usually more economical and often
results in significant time savings.
• Foundation loads on a treated area are spread from the footing elevation.
• Effective liquefaction mitigation measure for loose saturated granular soils.
• As an alternative to removal and replacement of poor load-bearing soils, vibro-compaction
is typically more economical and often results in significant time savings.
• Effective densification of granular soils down to depths of up to 35-45 m.
• The vibro-compaction system is effective both above and below the natural water level.
• Applicability limited to clean granular soils. The realignment of the sand grains, and therefore
proper densification, generally cannot be achieved when the soil contains more than 12 to
15 percent silt or more than 2 percent clay.
• Ineffective beyond 35-45 m depth.
Applicability
The applicability of vibro-compaction intervention shall be assessed based on the grain-size
distribution of the soils to be treated, as shown in Figure 7.6.
Soil compaction through the rearrangement of soil particles, as achieved in the vibro-compaction
process, is not possible in fine-grained soils (Zone D in Figure 7.6), since the cohesion between
the particles prevents rearrangement and compaction from occurring. For these soils the vibro-
replacement method (i.e. ‘stone columns’) is recommended.
For soils falling in Zone C, gravel (instead of sand) shall be used as backfill during the compaction
process. This is because gravel improves the contact between the vibrator and the treated soil,
resulting in increased compaction.
Figure 7.6: Soil Range Treatable by Vibro-Compaction
As indicated previously, the vibrations induced by vibro-compaction cause the inter-granular

forces acting between soil grains to reduce to zero allowing the soil particles to shift under the
action of the vibrations and gravity into a denser state. The reduction in void ratio is a direct
indicator of the performance of vibro-compaction interventions and depends on grain shape, soil
composition (gradation), and vibration intensity. Another performance indicator is the diameter
of the densified column around the vibrator. This is also a function of the soil grain-size
distribution, the initial soil density, as well as the vibrator characteristics.

Pag. 20 of 57
Design Principle
7.3.2.1 Preliminary Design

The performance parameter of a vibro-compaction intervention is expressed in terms of soil
densification. Given that measuring the in-situ unit weight of a soil poses several challenges, the
Relative Density (DR) shall be used as reference, to measure the effectiveness of soil
improvement operations by vibro-compaction.
The performance of the vibrator shall be controlled by adjusting the rate of advancement and
withdrawal, and hence the application time of the vibrating action. Nevertheless, the maximum
performance of each vibrator in terms of target relative density is typically expressed as function
of the tributary area per compaction point and soil type.
For a given soil type, the larger the tributary area, the lower is the maximum relative density
that is achieved with that vibrator. Figure 7.8 provides an example of a vibrator performance
chart. The target DR is generally limited to 85 percent since this density level typically guarantees
increasing bearing capacity and resistance to liquefaction as required by design calculations.
Figure 7.7: DR variation vs. Tributary area.
7.3.2.2 Spacing and grid

Different compaction point spacing, and patterns shall be used when designing a vibro-
compaction intervention. The distance between compaction points is a critical parameter, as the
achievable density generally decreases as the distance from the probe increases. For given soil
conditions stronger vibro-probes generally allow for wider spacing.
Other than compaction point spacing, their distribution (compaction point pattern) also affects
the performance. An equilateral triangular pattern is generally recognized to be the most
efficient, in particular for large areas. The use of a square pattern in place of an equilateral
triangular pattern requires from 5 to 8 percent more points to achieve the same target density.

Pag. 21 of 57
Figure 7.8 shows an example of equilateral triangular compaction point grid, considering a
tributary area per compaction point of 3.14 m2 (equivalent column diameter of 2 m) and a target
relative density of 80%. Vibro-compaction can be used to treat limited areas targeting individual
footings. Figure 7.9 shows typical patterns adopted for this type of application.
Figure 7.8: Typical Compaction Point Spacing for Area Layouts
Figure 7.9: Typical Compaction Point Layouts for Column Footings
7.3.2.3 Backfill Material

The increase in density of the surrounding soil causes a downward movement around the
vibrator, which results in a surface manifestation in the form of a cone shaped depression. Such
depression shall be constantly filled with granular backfill material. The adopted backfill material

Pag. 22 of 57
shall consist of sand or sand and gravel, with less than 10 percent by weight passing the #200
sieve and containing no clay.
Backfill material shall be rated based on its grain size distribution using the Suitability Number
(SN). This parameter can be calculated as:
(4)
Where:
• D50 = Grain size diameters for 50 percent passing in millimeters

Table 7.2 defines the rating of backfill material based on SN.
Table 7.2: Backfill material rating criteria
Equipment
Typical high-powered, probe-type, vibrators range between 0.3 m to 0.4 m inches in diameter
and 3 m to 4.5 m in length. The maximum dynamic force imparted by the vibrator ranges
between 150 kN and 450 kN, with vibrating frequencies ranging from 1800 to 2300 revolutions
per minute (rpm). Lower frequency and larger amplitude of vibration typically result in better
densification, since the natural frequency of loose cohesionless soil is typically lies closer to the
lower end of the operating range.
Table 7.3: Typical Vibrators Specifications
Quality Assurance
The quality assurance plan and inspection activities shall be developed well in advance of the
vibro-compaction work.
The inspection process shall include the following:

• Verification of the probe penetration depth
• Verification of the probe withdrawal rate
• Monitoring of the probe penetration rate

Pag. 23 of 57
• Verification of compaction points location

• Monitoring of the backfill volume
• Verification of compliance of the backfill gradation
• Monitoring of hydraulic pressure readings
• Verification of the probe operating frequency
• Verification that induced vibrations do not cause damage to existing adjacent structures
Continuous monitoring of the above parameters is essential since the duration required to
achieve a given target density can vary significantly from depth to depth and from location to
location, depending on local soil conditions. Generally, the finer the soil, the longer the time
required to achieve a target degree of compaction. A data logger shall be used for monitoring
and recording of the above parameters. In addition, the current absorption by the electric motor
can also be correlated to soil density and shall therefore also be monitored.
During the compaction process, the compaction shall periodically be verified for quality control
and acceptance purposes. A number of methods can be used for QC purposes of vibro-
compaction interventions, including in order of increasing accuracy:
• Standard Penetration Testing (SPT)
SPT resistance can be correlated with relative density and with the soil properties needed
to estimate settlement and bearing capacity. Data shall not be obtained before pore
pressures have dissipated, in order to avoid the penetration resistance to be not
representative of the actual degree of soil improvement. SPT data are usually taken at
1.5 m intervals.
• Cone Penetration Testing (CPT)
CPT testing overcomes most of the SPT weaknesses. The CPT is relatively inexpensive
and can be correlated directly to expected settlements in compacted areas. The cone
resistance, however, will underestimate the degree of improvement if excess pore
pressures are present.
• Measurement of surface subsidence
This method allows monitoring of the average increase in relative density when the fill
material is obtained from the compacted area. This method shall be preferred when
compaction is to be checked over large areas and the quantity of imported fill is known.
• Density measurements on undisturbed samples
This method allows a precise estimate of the density and hence compaction, however it
requires the collection of undisturbed sampling which is seldom achievable in
predominantly granular deposits.
• Downhole nuclear densimeters
This method allows a precise estimate of in-situ density, overcoming the challenges of
obtaining undisturbed samples. A small diameter aluminum pipe shall be placed in the
ground prior to compaction, reaching down to the planned treatment depth. A site-
calibrated nuclear probe shall be lowered down the casing before and after compaction,
to obtain a continuous density/moisture-content profile. The main limitations of this
technique are related to the limited radial penetration of the probe (150 mm) and to the
fact that requires specialized equipment and personnel, which are typically difficult to
source.
During vibrocompaction works, a document shall be produced for each compaction-point, with
the following minimum content:
• Compaction point reference number

• Top and bottom elevation of treatment area
• Operations time log (covering both penetration and operation phases)
• Details of obstructions, delays, and any unusual ground condition encountered
• Digital data log of electrical motor amperage as a function of depth

Pag. 24 of 57
7.4 DYNAMIC COMPACTION (HEAVY TAMPING)

Dynamic Compaction is a ground improvement technique whereby loose soils are effectively and
economically densified to improve their mechanical characteristics and allow construction of
structures directly on compacted soil, without need of deep foundations or soil replacement. The
method involves dropping heavy steel pounders repeatedly on the ground at regularly spaced
intervals. The weight and height of pounding depend on the degree of compaction desired. The
usual range of pounder weight is between 12 Ton to 25 Ton and the drop height can be up to
25m.
Applicability
Dynamic Compaction method is applicable for a wide variety of soil conditions including
saturated/unsaturated loose sands, even with the presence of silty pockets, dune sands,
inorganic fill, reclaimed soils with variable characteristics and sizes even with the presence of
large sized boulders, landfill deposits and collapsible soils. Dynamic Compaction has been
extensively used to compact loose soils to depths of up to 10m, in order to increase the bearing
capacity, decrease post construction settlement and mitigate liquefaction risk in case of seismic
events.
Key features:
• Applicable for wide range of soils with fines content up to 35%, down to significant depths
up to 10m.
• Very fast production (more than 50,000 sq.m/crane/shift/month).
• Well adapted to large scale projects ‐ Increases the bearing capacity of soils, reduces the
post-construction settlements and eliminates the risk of soil liquefaction in case of seismic
events.
• With a global treatment, Dynamic Compaction can be undertaken ahead of the foundation
design.
• Very sustainable technique: no disposal, no aggregate, no cement.
• Process somewhat invasive, the surface of the soil may require shallow compaction with
possible addition of granular fill following dynamic compaction.
Figure 7.10: Dynamic Compaction Intervention Scheme

Dynamic Compaction technique is well suited for a wide range of applications and projects with
different sizes up to several million sq.m, covering Industrial buildings, oil & Gas facilities,
Infrastructure constructions, Platforms and logistics facilities, commercial and residential

Pag. 25 of 57
buildings, tanks, artificial islands, road and railway embankments, land reclamations. Dynamic
Compaction technique was implemented as value engineering alternative to deep foundation or
soil replacement for a large number of structures throughout the world.
Dynamic compaction equipment only requires:
• A lifting crane able to lift and to drop the pounder from the design height
• A bulldozer to backfill and level out the created print craters
• A pounder of a pre-established weight and contact area
Execution of dynamic compaction work shall be started with a trial area to calibrate and verify
the design, especially when the job is carried out on soil layers where there is no prior similar
experience. The minimum size of the trial area is 2D x 2D square grid, where D represents the
required improvement depth.
Design Principle
Dynamic compaction design shall start by determining the required depth to be improved. The
purpose of the treatment (e.g. liquefaction mitigation, improving the soil’s bearing capacity) is
the governing factor in determining the required improvement depth. Once D is determined, the
next step is to estimate the pounder weight, height of drop, and cumulated energy necessary to
achieve the target improvement depth. The weight and the drop height of pounder shall be
estimated by using the following empirical formula:
𝐷𝐷 = 𝑛𝑛 ∙ √𝑊𝑊 ∙ 𝐻𝐻
where D is the target improvement depth (m), W is the pounder mass (ton), H is the height of
drop (m), and n is an empirical factor varying from 0.3 to 0.9. Figure 7.11 shows the influence
of coefficient n for different soil types.
Figure 7.11: Influence of coefficient n for different soil types

Pag. 26 of 57
It shall be noted that different combinations of W and H can be associated to a given target
depth D for a given soil type. Typically, given a pounder of mass M the height of drop is adjusted
to achieve the required performance.
The average energy (Ea) required to compact a given area down to a given target depth shall be
estimated as follows:
𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸𝑐𝑐 ∙ 𝐷𝐷
Where Ec is the empirical dynamic compaction cumulative energy and represents an estimate of
the energy required for compaction of a cubic meter of soil. Table 7.4 summarizes suggested
values of Ec for different soil types.
Soil Type Applied energy (t.m/m3)

Pervious Soil Deposits - Granular Soil 20-25
Semi Pervious Soil Deposits, Clay fills above water table 25-35
Saturated Carbonate Silty Sand 60
Table 7.4: Suggested values of parameter Ec for different soil types.
The estimated number of blows (Nunit) required to densify per unit area of the ground shall be
determined as:
𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 = 𝐸𝐸𝑎𝑎 /(𝑊𝑊 ∙ 𝐻𝐻)
The poundings are normally carried out in a square grid pattern with a pounding point centre to
centre distance, herein denoted as S. Note that the pounding point is usually termed as print.
The distance S typically varies between 1.5 to 4 times the pounder diameter. Hence, the total
number of blows at every print shall be estimated as:
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 = 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝑁𝑁𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
In actual dynamic compaction execution, the number of N blows calculated above shall not be
carried out at one go. At every print point, the pounding is stopped when the cumulative blow
energy has reached saturation stage. The pounding saturation stage shall be defined as follows:
a) When the depth of the crater created by the blows has reached the height of the pounder
plus 25cm. This is meant for the ease of pulling up the pounder out of the crater.
b) When the ground around the print started to show heaving phenomenon. This is normally
due to the increase of pore water pressure.
In case a, the blow can be directly restarted after the crater is backfilled or flatten out. In case
b, the blow is restarted when the excess pore water pressure has been dissipated and the crater
is backfilled or level out. This second stage of pounding series is restarted/repeated at the same
print point as the previous stage, the pounding series is named as pass two, while the previous
series of blows is named as pass one. Subsequent stages of blows on the same print points, if
any, are named accordingly.
Note that the above criteria shall serve as general guidance only. A more accurate estimate of
saturation stage can be obtained by measuring directly the crater volume (Vd) and side heave
(Vh) after each blow of the pounder. Pounding shall be stopped when compaction efficiency (Ef)
reduces below 40%, with Ef given by:
𝐸𝐸𝑓𝑓 = (𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑 − 𝑉𝑉ℎ )/𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑
Considering that this operation is time consuming, it is typically carried out on trial areas.

Pag. 27 of 57
Pounding shall not be directly applied in one phase with S by S square grid but spread over two
phases or more. If the poundings are spread over two phases, then the execution pattern shall
be as presented in Figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12: Pounding Grid Scheme
Quality Assurance
The ground shall be periodically tested during the progress of the compaction works for control
purposes, to assess the effectiveness of the treatment and confirm that the specified level of
compaction will achieve the degree of improvement required. Quality control testing during
treatment shall involve in-situ penetration tests (e.g. CPT or SPT) which shall form part of the
final assurance testing. The frequency of testing will be affected by factors specific to each
project, as for example, the variability of the ground before treatment, the nature of the
structure to be supported and its sensitivity to post-treatment movements.
7.5 STONE COLUMNS

Stone columns are constructed adopting a similar vibratory technique to vibro-compaction
method (see previous Section), although in this case stone or other materials are used to fill the
cavity created by the vibrating probe, forming a structural element (i.e., a column).
Stone columns are used to improve the stability of slopes, increase bearing capacity, reduce
total and differential settlements, and decrease the time for these settlements to occur. In
addition, Stone columns can be used to improve the stability of a slope by creating discrete
zones of high strength material that will provide more resisting force along the potential failure
surface.

Pag. 28 of 57
The stone columns will also provide a conduit for the flow of ground water, thus decreasing the
time for settlement similarly to PVDs. Lastly, stone columns are used to mitigate the potential
for liquefaction through densification of the in-situ materials and by providing pore pressure
relief zones, because the stone column will have a greater hydraulic conductivity than the in-
situ sands.
Other than conventional stone columns, this section also discusses other variations of the
methodology such as:
• vibro-concrete columns (VCCs)
• geotextile-encased columns (GECs)
• Geopier® Rammed Aggregate Pier™ (Geopiers)
Stone columns allow to replace deep foundations with shallow foundations. Stone columns also
provide a less expensive option to cut and replace, particularly on large sites with shallow
groundwater. In developed areas where high-vibration methods such as dynamic compaction,
deep blasting, or pile driving would have an impact on adjacent properties, low-vibration stone
columns may provide a viable alternative of ground improvement. The use of stone columns
could decrease the time required for construction by allowing construction to proceed
immediately instead of waiting for the placement of surcharge. In areas that have a potential
for liquefaction, the installation of stone columns can improve the cyclic resistance ratio. In
addition, stone columns can provide vertical drainage and storage capacity to dissipate excess
pore pressures induced by a seismic event.
However, stone columns have limited applicability in terms of soil conditions. In addition, stone
column construction can be hampered by the presence of dense capping layers, boulders,
cobbles or other obstructions that may require pre-drilling prior to installation of the stone
column.
Applicability
Stone columns are a natural development of vibro-compaction methods, extending vibro-system
applications beyond the limited application to clean granular soils (Figure 7.13). Since the
strength and settlement characteristics of stone columns are controlled by the mechanical
properties of surrounding soil, their application shall be avoided in soil profiles including layers
of very soft clay or peat with thickness larger than the diameter of the column.
Figure 7.13: Applicable Grain-Size Distributions for Stone Columns

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Stone columns are constructed using either vibro-replacement or vibro-displacement techniques.
Vibro-replacement refers to the wet, top feed, process in which jetting water is used to aid
penetration of the vibrator within the ground. Due to the jetting action, part of the in-situ soil is
washed to surface and then replaced by backfill material. The sequence of operations of a vibro-
replacement intervention shall be as follows:
• A high-pressure water jet is used to open a hole for the vibro-probe to follow into
• Once the tip elevation is obtained the vibro-probe is retracted and stone is then placed
into the hole from the top
• The vibro-probe is then turned on and inserted into the stone to densify the stone
• The last step is repeated at different levels until the stone column is formed
The vibro-replacement method shall be used limited to sites with soft to firm soils having
undrained shear strength ranging between 10 and 50 kPa, and shallow groundwater table.
Vibro-displacement refers to a dry, top or bottom feed process; almost no in-situ soil appears at
the surface, being displaced aside by the backfill material. This method is typically used when
environmental impact (i.e. groundwater contamination) is of particular concern. This is because
the vibrator is inserted into the ground without the use of jetting water, thanks to the vibrating
action of the probe in conjunction with its deadweight, air jetting and/or pre-augering, depending
on the specific application. The top feed method (Figure 7.14) shall be preferred for short stone
columns, while for deeper columns, or where the potential for hole collapse exists, the bottom
feed method (Figure 7.15) shall be preferred.
Figure 7.14: Vibro-replacement - Top Feed Construction Method

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Figure 7.15: Vibro-replacement - Bottom Feed Construction Method
7.5.2.1 Vibro-concrete columns (VCC)

Vibro-concrete columns (VCC) are used as an alternative in soil profiles including significant very
soft clay or peat layer(s). In the VCC methodology, concrete is pumped through an auxiliary
tube to the bottom of the hole, gradually filling the cavity as in conventional bottom feed
methods.
Concrete shall be pumped through the vibrator assembly during initial withdrawal. The poured
concrete shall then be re-penetrated by the vibrator, displacing it into the surrounding soil to
form a high capacity, enlarged column base. The vibrator shall then be slowly withdrawn as
concrete is pumped and maintained at a pressure to form a continuous shaft of concrete up to
the ground level. At ground level, a slight ‘mushrooming’ of the concrete column shall be allowed
to aid load transfer to the vibro-concrete column.
This method combines the ground improvement advantages of the vibro-systems, with the load
carrying characteristics of a deep foundation. The installation of VCCs is a quiet process and
induces minimal vibrations into the in-situ soils allowing for installation immediately adjacent to
existing structures. Since this is a dry displacement process, there is no spoil to remove and no
water requiring detention. VCCs have the additional advantage of being able to extend through
thick very soft clays and organic materials.
7.5.2.2 Geotextile-encased columns (GEC)

Geotextile-encased columns (GEC) consist of inserting continuous, seamless, high strength
geotextile tubes into soft soil with a mandrel. The tube is then filled with either sand or fine
gravel to form a column with a high bearing capacity and have a diameter of 0.6-0.8 m.
GECs can be installed using either the replacement or the displacement methods. The
replacement method consists of driving an open-ended steel pipe pile to the bearing stratum.
The soil within the pile shall then be removed by means of an auger, then the tube inserted into
the pile and filled with sand or fine gravel.
The displacement method uses a steel pipe with two base flaps which close upon contact with
the ground surface. The close ended steel pipe shall be vibrated to the bearing layer, displacing
the soft soil. The geotextile casing shall then be installed and filled with sand or fine gravel.

Pag. 31 of 57
In both methods the steel pipe shall ultimately be vibration extracted. During this process the
sand or gravel within the geotextile is densified.
The major advantage of GECs over stone columns is that they can be used in soft soils with
undrained shear strengths as low as 2 kPa. The geotextile provides the lateral constraint that
the surrounding soils must provide for stone columns. GECs provide excellent vertical drainage,
which may result in very rapid construction, due to the dissipation of pore water pressure.
7.5.2.3 Rammed Aggregate Pier

Rammed Aggregate PierTM (Commonly referred as Geopiers®) are a variant of stone columns
applicable for soft to stiff cohesive soils, characterized by undrained shear strength ranging from
15 kPa to 200 kPa, as well as for loose to medium dense silty and clayey sand profiles.
For this technique to be successfully applicable, the hole shall be stable without internal support
(i.e., casing). Gravel shall be placed in relatively thin lifts with the first lift of gravel forming a
bulb at the bottom of the pier.
Once gravel from the bottom lift is in place, the soil underneath and around the base of the pier
shall be pre-stressed and pre-strained by a ramming process. High energy (3500 kN/m to 10000
kN/m) beveled tamper are typically used for ramming, to densify the gravel as well as force it
laterally into the sidewalls of the hole. This action increases the lateral stress in the surrounding
soil, further stiffening the stabilizing the composite soil system.
Geopiers have similar advantages to stone columns. The main disadvantage Geopiers is that this
type of ground improvement relies on proprietary, patented, technologies.
Design Principle
According to current industry best practice the design of stone columns is still largely empirical;
however, general design guidelines have been developed and are discussed in this section.
The soils surrounding the columns shall provide lateral support to prevent bulging under the
applied axial loads. In addition, the columns shall terminate in a dense formation to prevent
bearing failures.
Stone columns are typically stiffer than surrounding soil, thus the applied load mostly distributes
among the columns themselves. Soil arching allows for load transfer in between columns.
Ultimately equilibrium is reached when the acting load has been transferred to the columns to
prevent further settlement of the surrounding soils.
Bearing capacity analyses shall be carried out based on industry standard analytical methods
(i.e. according to the Priebe method), considering equivalent strength parameters for the soil-
column system.
7.5.3.1 The unit cell concept

For purposes of settlement and stability analyses, it is convenient to associate to each column
its tributary area of soil. In the case of an equilateral triangle pattern (Figure 7.16), the tributary
area has the shape of a hexagon. However, it is typically approximated by an equivalent circle
having the same total area. The resulting equivalent cylinder of material having a diameter (De)
including the tributary soil and the associated stone column is known as ‘unit cell’ (Figure 7.17).

Pag. 32 of 57
Figure 7.16: Stone Column Equilateral Triangular Pattern
The geometry of the unit cell shall be pre-defined based on the characteristics of the soil to be
improved and of the equipment to be adopted. This can be achieved by estimating the following
parameters:
• Area Displacement Ratio

• Stress Ratio
The definition of these parameters is given in the following sections and their estimate is
generally based on the experience of the designer and/or on results of filed trial tests.
Figure 7.17: Unit Cell Idealization
7.5.3.2 The Area Displacement Ratio

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The Area Replacement Ratio (αs) is a parameter depending on the area of the soil replaced by
the stone column. αs is calculated as the ratio of the tributary area of the unit cell to the area of
the stone column. The more soil is replaced by the stone column, the higher its performance.
Typical values of αs range from 0.10 to 0.40.
(5)
(6)
Where:
• αs = Area replacement ratio
• As = Area of the stone column
• A = Total area within the unit cell
• as = Area improvement ratio
7.5.3.3 Stress Ratio

The transfer of the applied load to the stone columns from the in-situ soils depends on the
relative stiffness of the stone column to the in-situ soils, as well as the spacing and diameter of
the columns themselves. Because the stone columns and the in-situ soils settle (strain)
approximately equally, the stone columns generally carry a larger portion of the load (stress)
than the surrounding soils.
This assumption, known as the ‘equal strain assumption’, has been validated by both field
measurements, as well as numerical simulations. The ratio of the stress in the stone column to
the stress in the in-situ soil is known as ‘Stress ratio’:
(7)
Where
σs = Stress in the stone column
σc = Stress in the surrounding soil
Measured values of n typically vary between 2.0 and 5.0. Furthermore, theory indicates that n
increases with time. A high n-value (3 to 4) shall be achieved in very weak soils, to avoid
excessive bulging of the columns. Lower values of n (2 to 2.5) are acceptable when the
surrounding soil is stronger and/or the column spacing is wider. For preliminary design, a
conservative n-value of 2.5 shall be targeted.
Quality Assurance
A comprehensive stone column Quality Assurance (QA) assessment program usually consists of
several QA methods, and concerns both the backfill material as well as installation operations.
For what concerns the fill material, gradation, specific gravity, minimum and maximum density
tests shall be run on the fill material to be adopted, typically with a frequency of one test every
5,000 tons of material.
In-situ testing shall be specified to assess the effect of the stone columns on the native soil.
However, the in-situ test method shall be selected based on its ability to measure changes in
lateral pressure in cohesive soils.

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The electric cone penetrometer test (CPT), the flat plate dilatometer test (DMT) and the
pressuremeter test (PMT) represent the best in-situ testing methods to measure the change, if
any, in lateral stress following stone column construction.
Stone column performance is dependent upon the integrity of the column. It is important to
comply with the specified minimum column diameter and stone density, in order to ensure the
desired performance. During construction stone consumption shall be continuously monitored
by logging the subsequent dumps of known volume as a function of the achieved depth, to
estimate the achieved column diameter based on the adopted fill volume and the in-place stone
density.
For any group of 50 consecutively installed stone columns, the average diameter over the total
length shall not be less than the target value reported in the project specifications.
No stone column shall have a diameter less than 90% of the minimum diameter reported in the
project specifications.
Verticality of the rig shall be monitored, and no stone column axis shall be inclined from the
vertical by more than 5 cm in 3 m.
During construction of the column, each lift shall be re-penetrated until the specified current
consumption of the vibrator’s motor is achieved, thus indicating good input energy from the
vibrator probe to the stone. Typically, the target current consumption shall be taken equal to
the vibrator free-standing current reading plus at least 40 Amperes.
For projects requiring the improvement of large areas, it is desirable to subdivide the total area
into approval or acceptance zones of the order of 100x100 feet.
During stone columns installation works, a document shall be produced for each column, with
the following minimum content:
• Stone column reference number

• Measurement of rig verticality
• Elevation of top and bottom of each stone column
• Number of buckets of stone backfill in each stone column
• Time to penetrate and time to form each stone column
• Details of obstructions, delays, and any unusual ground conditions
• Digital data log of amperage, depth, and stone consumption
7.6 DEEP SOIL MIXING

Deep soil mixing is a ground improvement technique that mixes reagents into the soil at a
specific depth to improve the in-situ soil properties without requiring excavation or removal.
Deep soil mixing is used for a variety of applications including excavation support, soil
stabilization, settlement reduction, foundation support, and mitigation of liquefaction potential.
Deep soil mixing is performed under many proprietary names, acronyms and processes
worldwide. However, the basic concepts and procedures are similar for all techniques. Different
techniques exist differing in the following main aspects:
• Method of reagent injection: Wet (W) or Dry (D)

• Method of reagent mixing: by means of Rotary Energy (R) or High-pressure Jets (J)

Pag. 35 of 57
• Location of the mixing action: at the end of the drilling tool (E) or along the shaft (S)
Irrespectively of the technique adopted, deep soil mixing uses the in-situ soil, making this
method typically more economical than removal and replacement. This is because little to no
spoil is generated, thus eliminating the high cost of spoil disposal. Thanks to these
characteristics, this method provides an economic benefit when compared to other conventional
soil improvement methods. However, costs involved in this type of application depend on several
project factors including size, weight, and flexibility of the structure, depth, and shear strength
of the compressible layer, the risks, and consequences of failure and the effects of lowering the
groundwater table.
The limitations of wet deep soil mixing are the relative high cost of mobilization of the mixing
equipment plus the cost of the associated auxiliary batch plants. Because of this reason, wet
deep soil mixing is generally uneconomical for small projects. Extensive geotechnical exploration
of the area is generally required prior to wet deep soil mixing operations. Bench scale testing
must be conducted and may require several months to complete.
On the other hand, a possible limitation in the application of dry methods is that the full strength
of the columns is not mobilized when the pH of the groundwater is acidic, or the content of
carbon dioxide (CO2) is high.
Low strength development shall also be anticipated when mixing non-reactive cohesive soils
(clays lacking pozzolans). The air-driven injection process may accumulate large quantities of
air in the ground potentially causing heave of the adjacent ground surface. This problem can be
eliminated by adding mixing paddles to the mixing tool and/or substantially increasing the mixing
time. The creep strength of the columns and the shear strength of the stabilized soil is time
dependent. Therefore, several months may be required to perform the laboratory bench scale
testing target.
The average shear strength of the stabilized soil shall be at least three to five times the initial
shear strength for dry deep soil mixing to result economical.
In general, there is a lack of well-developed design methodologies available for both wet and
dry deep soil mixing, as well as no standardized method of quality control testing, making design
verification difficult and subjective.
Applicability
7.6.1.1 Wet methods

Wet deep soil mixing are adopted to depths down to 30 m and can, conceptually, be used for
most subsurface conditions, from soft, plastic clays to medium dense sands and gravels with
cobbles. However, this method is primarily used to improve soft cohesive and loose to medium
dense cohesionless soils.
Wet deep soil mixing methods have been used to stabilize soil to provide an improved foundation
bearing capacity and for seismic stabilization. The most common usage is for settlement control
and/or shear strength improvement under embankments.
The problems associated with disposal of the waste material are generally considerably reduced
with respect to other methods. Although this depends to the percentage of additives used and
the moisture content of the in-situ soils. Spoil generation can range from thirty to one hundred
percent depending on project specifics, equipment and methods used, and in-situ moisture
content.

Pag. 36 of 57
7.6.1.2 Dry methods

Dry deep soil mixing methods such as lime, cement, or lime-cement columns have been used to
improve soft, cohesive soils. These types of columns are typically used to reduce total and
differential settlements using rationale similar to stone columns.
These columns are stiffer and relatively less compressible than the surrounding soil; therefore,
carry a greater portion of the applied load thus reducing total and differential settlement. The
amount of settlement reduction is a function of the area replacement ratio and the stress
concentration ratio, which is a function of the column stiffness compared to the untreated soil.
Dry deep soil mixing columns are also used to reinforce existing soils by increasing the mass
shear strength, thus increasing the stability of embankments and slopes. Typically, the columns
are placed in a grid pattern under the embankments and in interconnected rows under the slope
to provide resistance to bending.
Another typical application of lime, cement, or lime-cement columns is to increase the stability
of anchored sheet pile walls. The columns increase the passive earth pressure at the toe of the
wall. In addition, columns placed behind the wall can reduce the lateral earth pressure acting on
the sheet piles.
Using lime or lime-cement columns can reduce the consolidation time required beneath a
roadway embankment by increasing the permeability or stiffness of the columns.
The construction process is similar to a drilling process, which is ideal in noise and vibration
sensitive areas. However, specific and detailed considerations about the soil’s chemical
composition and preliminary testing of the soil-reagent mixtures are required for the correct
application of this technique.
7.6.2.1 Soil-chemistry factors

For the application of deep soil mixing the following site-specific information is required:
• Evaluation of the subsurface: predominant soil type; existence of any obstruction

• Existence and percentage of organic matter
• Natural moisture content
• Engineering properties: strength and compressibility
• Classification properties: moisture-plasticity relationship and grain-size distribution
• Chemical and mineralogical properties to include assessment for the presence of pozzolanic
materials, including soluble silica and alumina, which can affect lime reactivity
• Ground water levels
Following Table 7.5 reports threshold values of soil chemical parameters:
Table 7.5: Threshold values of soil chemical parameters: Favorable Soil-Chemistry Factors

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7.6.2.2 Preliminary or Bench Scale Tests

After assessing the viability of soil for deep soil mixing, samples shall be prepared to determine
the water, soil, reagent ratios as well as determining the time required for mixing.
The samples shall then be tested for unconfined compressive strength at various curing times to
determine strength gains with time.
Test results shall be compared to the typical results presented in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6: Typical Improved Engineering Properties

It is important to note that very important variables associated with equipment mixing
capabilities, such as rate of penetration and withdrawal, mixing energy, and vertical circulation
of materials, cannot be modeled by the laboratory testing program and will have to be optimized
on site.
Design Principle
Deep soil mixed columns are designed similarly to stone columns, based on the ‘unit cell’
concept. When used for settlement reduction, area replacement ratios on the order of 0.2 to 0.3
shall be targeted for triangular or square column patterns, respectively. Larger area replacement
ratios are indicative of more stringent settlement criteria.
Large area deep soil mixing columns are suitable to support structures provided that stability
(bearing, sliding and overturning) and performance (total and differential settlement)
verifications are satisfied.
Deep soil mixing columns are suitable to mitigate the potential for liquefaction by either confining
the liquefiable material in-between columns, or by increasing the Cyclic Resistance Ratio (CRR)
of the treated soil.
The transfer of the applied load to the soil mixed columns to the in-situ soils depends on the
relative stiffness of the soil mixed columns to the in-situ soils as well as the spacing and diameter
of the soil mixed columns themselves. Because the stone columns and the in-situ soils settle
approximately equally (‘equal strain assumption’), the stone columns generally carry a larger
portion of the load than the surrounding soils.
The total undrained shear resistance of the stabilized soil is assumed to correspond to the sum
of the shear strengths of the column and the soil between the columns and is evaluated based
on the following formula:
(8)
Where:
τf = Undrained shear strength of soil mixed column
Cu = Undrained shear strength of soil between columns

Pag. 38 of 57
αs = Area replacement ratio according to eq. (5)
Area replacement ratios of 0.20 to 0.33, and stress ratios of between 4 and 6, are typically
adopted for either block or column-type patterns (see Figure 7.18).
Figure 7.18: Deep soil mixing typical patterns
Quality Assurance
The properties of the improved ground require verification to ascertain whether the requirements
of the project are being met.
Laboratory (bench scale) testing shall be conducted to verify that proposed construction methods
and mixes comply with project specifications. After completion of the mixing, either in-situ
testing or laboratory testing on retrieved cores shall also be performed.
The in-situ testing shall consist of cone penetrometer testing (CPT), dilatometer testing (DMT),
standard penetration testing (SPT), or pressuremeter testing (PMT).
7.7 JET GROUTING

The jet grouting process consists of the disaggregation of the soil or weak rock and its mixing
with, and partial replacement by, a cementing agent; the disaggregation is achieved by means
of a high energy jet of a fluid which can be the cementing agent itself.
Jet grouting improves soil mechanical and permeability properties by using high‐speed jets of
water/cement mixtures injection treatment. Jet grouting is advantageously used in the following
conditions:
• difficult logistic conditions
• confined spaces
• presence of obstacles to cross
• high‐depth treatment with crossing of voids
The jet grouting technique allows to improve a wide range of soil types. As it is based on soil
erosion, soil erodibility is crucial to the final result. The more consistent the soil to be treated,
the smaller the column diameter. Therefore, larger columns are obtained in loose soft soils and
smaller ones in cohesive soils.
The soil treatment is carried out downhole with the jet grouting equipment advancing in vertical,
horizontal or inclined direction. The most common types of treatments are:
• jet grouted columns: a cylindrical jet grouted element (Figure 7.19a);
• jet grouted panels: a planar jet grouted element (Figure 7.19b).

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Figure 7.19: Jet grouted column (a) or panel (b)

An assembly of jet grouted elements (partially or fully interlocked) leads to the following possible
geometries:
• jet grouted diaphragm: a wall structure (Figure 7.20a);
• jet grouted slab: a horizontal structure formed by essentially vertical jet grouting (Figure
7.20b);
• jet grouted canopy: a structure formed by horizontal jet grouting (Figure 7.21);
• jet grouted block: a three-dimensional structure.
a) b)
Figure 7.20: Jet grouted diaphragm (a) or slab (b)

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Figure 7.21: Jet grouted canopy

The following information shall be determined prior to design or execution activities:
• detailed description of the ground profile and its geotechnical properties within the
intended extent of treatment;
• hydrogeological conditions;
• boundary conditions (e.g. adjacent structures, buried structures and services, overhead
power lines and other working restrictions, access to site);
• environmental requirements (in particular disposal of spoil return);
• acceptable deformation of the structures/facilities to be underpinned or adjacent to the
jet grouting treatment area.
Design assumptions according to EN 1997-1-1:2004 - clause 2 shall be verified, and modified if
necessary, according to information obtained during the execution phase.
Design and execution of jet grouting works shall include, as appropriate, the activities listed in
following Table 7.7. The order shown does not necessarily represent a time sequence.

Pag. 41 of 57
Table 7.7: Design and Execution Activities

Depending on the number of fluids used, the European standard EN 12716 has identified three
main techniques:
• Single fluid (Diameters usually range from 0.4 to 1 m).
• Double fluid (Diameters usually range from 0.8 to 2.5 m).
• Triple fluid.
The following sections describe the different techniques.
7.7.1.1 Single fluid system

The jet grouting process in which the disaggregation and cementation of soil are achieved by a
high energy jet of a single fluid, usually a cement grout, is typically called “single fluid system”
Figure 7.22 shows the main two steps of this technique: (i) downward borehole execution, (ii)
upward injection of grout (disaggregation and cementation) with single fluid monitor.

Pag. 42 of 57
Figure 7.22: Jet grouting single fluid system: main steps and monitor details
7.7.1.2 Double fluid (air) system

In double fluid (air) systems, the jet grouting process is carried out using a high energy fluid
(usually a cement grout) assisted by an air jet shroud as a second fluid. Execution steps are
similar to single fluid systems, but the equipment (monitor) has two separate circuits for air and
grout (Figure 7.23).
Figure 7.23: Jet grouting double fluid (air) system: main steps and monitor details
7.7.1.3 Double fluid (water) system

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In a double fluid (water) jet grouting system the disaggregation of the soil is achieved by a high
energy water jet while cementing is simultaneously obtained by a separate grout jet (Figure
7.24).
Figure 7.24: Jet grouting double fluid (water) system: main steps and monitor details
7.7.1.4 Triple fluid system

In a triple fluid jet grouting process, the disaggregation of the soil is achieved by a high energy
water jet assisted by an air jet shroud while cementation is simultaneously obtained by a
separate grout jet (Figure 7.25).
Figure 7.25: Jet grouting triple system: main steps and monitor details

Pag. 44 of 57
7.7.1.5 Key parameters and nomenclature

• Jet grouting rig. Rotary rig able to automatically regulate the rotation and translation of
the jet grouting string and tool.
• Jet grouting string. Jointed rods, with simple, double or triple inner conduit, which convey
the jet grouting fluid(s) to the monitor.
• Monitor. Tool mounted at the end of the jet grouting string to enable jetting of the fluids
into the ground.
• Nozzle. A specially manufactured device fitted into the monitor and designed to transform
the high-pressure fluid flow in the string into high speed jet directed at the soil.
• Radius of influence. Effective distance of disaggregation of soil by the jet, measured from
the axis of the monitor.
• Spoil return. The surplus mixture of soil particles and fluids arising from the jet grouting
process, and normally flowing to the ground surface via the annulus between the borehole
and the string.
• Horizontal jet grouting. Treatment performed from a horizontal or sub-horizontal
borehole (within ± 20° from the horizontal plane).
• Jet grouting parameters. Key jet grouting parameters are:
o pressure of the fluid(s) within the jet grouting string;
o flow rate of the fluid(s) within the jet grouting string;
o grout composition;
o rotation speed of the jet grouting string;
o rate of withdrawal or insertion of the jet grouting string.
• Prejetting or prewashing or precutting. The method in which the jet grouting execution
is facilitated by a preliminary disaggregation phase of the soil with a jet of water and/or
other fluids.
• Fresh-in-fresh sequence. The sequence of work in which the jet grouted elements are
constructed successively without waiting for the grout to harden in the overlapping
elements (Figure 7.26).
Figure 7.26: Fresh-in-fresh sequence

• Primary-secondary sequence. The sequence of work in which the execution of an
overlapping element cannot commence before a specified hardening time or achievement
of predetermined strength of the adjacent elements previously constructed (Figure 7.27)
is obtained.

Pag. 45 of 57
Figure 7.27: Primary-secondary sequence

• Jet grouted material. The material which constitutes the body of a jet grouted element
(e.g. treated volume).
• Reinforced jet grouting. Jet grouted columns reinforced with steel or other high strength
materials (e.g. bars, beams, pipes). Reinforcement is typically added soon after jet
grouting operations.
Materials
Unless otherwise specified, the properties of the materials shall comply with European standards
(e.g. EN 1008, ENV 197-1).
Mixtures composed of water and cement are usually adopted. Hydraulic binders other than
cement can also be used. In water/cement mixes the water/cement ratio by weight shall range
between 0.5 and 1.5. Water reducing, stabilizing, plasticizing, waterproofing or anti-washing
admixtures can be added to the water/cement mix. Other materials, such as bentonite, filler and
fly-ash can also be added to the mix. When bentonite is to be used in the mix, a water/bentonite
suspension shall be prepared before adding cement.
Any recognized potable water is acceptable for the preparation of jet grouting mixes. Water from
sources other than recognized potable water suppliers shall be analyzed in order to ensure that
it will have no adverse effect on the setting, hardening or durability of the mix and, where
applicable, will not promote corrosion of the reinforcement.
If the cement does not comply with the standard ENV 197-1, appropriate tests shall be performed
to ensure that the setting time, hardening, strength and durability requirements, as stated by
design specifications, are met.
Care shall be taken to ensure that no large particles are present in the jetting materials, as they
can block the nozzles.
Acceptance criteria and water testing methods shall conform to EN 1008.
Where reinforcement consists of steel bars, the material shall comply with EN 1992-1-1- clause
3 and 6 as appropriate. Where material other than steel bars is used for reinforcement, it shall
comply with national standards or with design technical specifications.
Design Principle
7.7.3.1 General
Typical jet grouting applications include:
• providing foundations for structures;
• underpinning existing foundations;
• creating low permeability barriers;
• creating retaining or supporting structures;
• complementing other geotechnical works;

Pag. 46 of 57
• reinforcing a soil mass.

The purpose of jet grouting works shall be clearly defined in the design. The required physical
properties and geometry of jet grouted elements or structures shall be duly documented in
design documentation.
The design of jet grouting works shall consider the following key points:
• the anticipated stresses in the jet grouted element and the effects of variability of the
soil on the strength of the elements;
• the overall stability of jet grouted elements/structures used for underpinning or as
retaining walls, according to EN 1997-1 unless noted otherwise.
Design parameters shall take account of construction difficulties which may reduce the
effectiveness of the jet grouting. The technical conditions which may influence the working
sequence of the elements shall be specified. When relevant, the detailed execution sequence
shall be shown on the execution drawings.
If the design of the jet grouting works cannot be completed due to lack of site investigation data,
and it is not possible to obtain the missing information by further soil investigations, an
appropriate preliminary field test shall be specified.
Where no comparable previous experience (e.g. jet grouting in similar hydro-geomechanical
conditions) is available, representative preliminary field trials shall be carried out, using the
equipment, materials and techniques proposed for the main jet grouting works.
To ensure a consistent result in the preliminary in-situ trial, at least one jet grouted element
shall be constructed with a given working procedure. In significantly heterogeneous soil
conditions, more trial elements and different working procedures shall be considered.
Where the jet grouted material is to be subjected to onerous conditions, such as high stresses
or aggressive environments, the preliminary in-situ trials shall be preceded by specific laboratory
tests on soil samples and on the grout mixed in proportions encompassing the working range
envisaged. Details regarding mechanical tests on jet grouted material and the criteria for
acceptance shall be duly specified in the design. Tolerances on specified performance parameters
shall consider the accuracy of the proposed test methods, especially when these methods are
indirect. Whenever acceptance is defined on the basis of tests on core samples, the criteria for
positioning and timing of the proposed cores in the jet grouted structure shall be specified in the
design.
Whenever possible, the design of jet grouting works shall specify that borehole collars are to be
located above the water table. If the borehole collars will be located below the water table or
artesian head, special measures shall be considered, in order to avoid piping through the
boreholes.
Sequence and rate of execution, setting and hardening time, and diameter of columns shall be
considered in order to avoid local soil failures or unacceptable settlement or uplift. The design
shall define the acceptable limits of settlement, heave, distortion of structures and services likely
to be affected by the jet grouted works. If required, the design of a real-time monitoring system
(e.g. displacements, rotations and/or deformations) of nearby structures shall be developed.
7.7.3.2 Geometry
The cross-sectional dimensions of a jet grouted element depend on the jet grouting system, on
the jetting parameters and on the soil type and its heterogeneity.
Unless noted otherwise within the project specifications, the design shall consider the
construction tolerances indicated in paragraph 7.7.4.3and 7.7.4.4.
The following shall be clearly shown on design drawings:

Pag. 47 of 57
• minimum cross-sectional dimensions of jet grouted elements to be achieved in the

different soil layers that will be encountered;
• tolerances on the position and inclination of the element axes.
Maximum cross-sectional dimensions shall also be defined and related to the element spacing to
ensure the integrity of a jet grouted structure.
If any identified underground obstruction cannot be removed, the relevant area shall be marked
on the design drawings, and the adjacent jet grouting treatment shall be designed so as to avoid
damage.
7.7.3.3 Strength and Deformation Characteristics

The strength/stiffness of a jet grouted material depends on the jet grouting system selected
and, on the parameters, employed, and also on the soil type and its heterogeneity.
The design documentation shall indicate the strength parameters to be measured during
acceptance tests (e.g. direct or indirect measurements of strength and stiffness) and the
acceptance criteria.
In underpinning applications, stability and deformation of the jet grouted columns beneath
foundations in temporary conditions (e.g. prior to grout hardening) shall be duly evaluated in
the design and checked during execution.
7.7.3.4 Permeability
Where jet grouting works are employed to control groundwater, the results depend on the
geometric accuracy of the elements and on the permeability of the jet grouted material.
Permeability requirements shall be defined in the design in terms of type of tests to be performed
at site and acceptance criteria. The design shall specify requirements both on the jet grouted
material permeability, and of the overall jet grouted structure (e.g. diaphragm wall)
permeability. The overall permeability of a jet grouted structure shall be evaluated considering
the effects of deformation due to excavation or other loading conditions at full scale.
The most common jet grouting execution methods consist of:
• Jet grouted column execution method. The phases of execution usually consist of:
o drilling a borehole of a predetermined length;
o introducing to the end of the borehole a monitor connected to the jet grouting
string. This is unnecessary in some cases as the string and monitor may be used
for drilling;
o jetting of the disaggregating and cementing fluid(s) through the monitor,
simultaneously withdrawing and rotating the rods, with pre-established
withdrawal and rotational speed, pump pressure and flow rate for each fluid.
• Jet grouted panel execution method. For a jet grouted panel, the phases of execution are
the same as defined for jet grouted columns, with the exception that during jetting the
rods are withdrawn without rotation or rotated of limited angles.
If required by soil conditions, based on the findings of the geotechnical report, alternative
execution methods may be adopted, both for column and panel processes. Among alternatives
the most used method is pre-jetting. It should be noted that an element can also be executed
in sequential steps: the treatment for a given length from the borehole collar is completed first
and allowed to gain strength. Then, after redrilling the treated soil, the process is repeated at a
deeper section, and so on, until the design length of the treatment is reached.

Pag. 48 of 57
The following sections provide requirements and recommendations for the various construction
phases of a jet grouting process.
7.7.4.1 Method statement

A method statement shall be prepared and submitted to Company for approval before starting
the jet grouting works. This method statement shall contain the following information as a
minimum:
• identification, objective and scope of the jet grouting works;
• soil description;
• shape of the jet grouted element required;
• jet grouting system;
• design of the jet grouting treatment;
• working procedure (drilling, jetting, sequence of execution);
• jet grouting parameters;
• materials (for drilling and jetting);
• precautions to be taken to avoid unacceptable settlement or heave, especially in silty and
clayey soils;
• site installation and working areas;
• plant and equipment;
• spoil management;
• quality control procedures;
• the measures taken to ensure the boring accuracy;
• procedures regarding possible interruptions during the jetting operations;
• the measures to be taken to ensure that the finished level of grouting is maintained
during the initial set of the jet grouted material;
• possible modifications of the jet grouting parameters during the works;
• the testing methods;
• working documents (drawings, reports).
The ranges of the jet grouting parameters usually adopted for the different systems are listed
in Table 7.8 below.
Table 7.8: Jet Grouting Parameters

Pag. 49 of 57
7.7.4.2 Preliminary works

A stable and dry working platform shall be provided. The position of each jet grouting hole shall
be accurately located and identified. A system of collection and disposal of the spoil return shall
be provided.
For horizontal treatment, measures to maintain the stability of the working face shall be taken.
The design assumptions concerning the geometry and structural condition of nearby structures
shall be accurately verified before the jet grouting works are carried out.
7.7.4.3 Drilling
Drilling can be performed with air or water or muds or grouts or foams as flushing media. If
required for hole stability, casing shall be used.
The deviation of the drilling starting point from the theoretical location shall be less than 50 mm,
if not otherwise stated by the design specifications.
Drilling shall not exceed an inclination of 2% from the theoretical axis, if not otherwise stated
by the design specifications.
The annular space between the drilled hole and the jet grouting string shall allow a free flow of
the spoil return to the borehole collar.
7.7.4.4 Jetting
Jet grouting operations shall be executed and supervised by trained and experienced personnel.
In underpinning applications, it shall be ensured that contact is formed between the top surface
of the jet grouted column and the underside of the foundation.
Jet grouting shall be executed with a thickness between the upper nozzle and the ground surface
ranging from 0.5 m for vertical columns to 2.0 m for horizontal jetting, to avoid possible local
hydrofracturing, and shall be reduced only in the presence of a restraint to the surface, such as
a slab or a wall.
For horizontal jet grouting the collar of the borehole shall be plugged as soon as jet grouting is
completed.
In case of jet grouting interruptions, the re-start shall be undertaken using procedures (to be
detailed in the execution method statement) that are intended to ensure the continuity of the
element.
7.7.4.5 Spoil Return

During jetting, a visual observation of the flow and features of the spoil return at hole collar shall
be maintained. Further control may be achieved by testing specific physical or chemical
properties of the spoil return as specified in the design.
If, during the jet grouting, unexpected behavior of the spoil return is observed, the jet grouting
parameters and/or execution method shall be reviewed.
An unexpected reduction in spoil return shall be investigated and dealt with immediately because
it may be an indicator of loss of grout in very permeable strata or cavities or, if caused by
clogging of the annulus of the jetting borehole, it may cause consequences on adjacent
structures/facilities.
7.7.4.6 Placing the reinforcement

Reinforcement can be installed in the fresh jet grouted material during or immediately after the
completion of the jet grouting operations. Alternatively, it can be installed in a borehole drilled
into the element after hardening.

Pag. 50 of 57
Equipment
The jet grouting equipment usually comprises:
• the drilling rig;
• the jet grouting rig (often same as drilling rig) provided with the jet grouting string, the
monitor and the devices able to drive the jet grouting string at predetermined rotation
and translation speeds;
• the mixing and pumping plant supplying the jet grouting fluid (or fluids);
• the high pressure lines connecting the jet grouting pump to the rig;
• equipment to monitor pressures, fluids flow rates and volumes, rate of rotation and
withdrawal, depth.
The jet grouting equipment shall be able to perform the jet grouting operations assuring:
• the translational and rotational movement of the jet grouting string with the designed
speed;
• the supply to the jet grouting string of the fluids coming from the plant, at the required
pressure and rate of flow.
The length of the jet grouting string, and the height of the relevant mast, shall not be shorter
than the length of the designed jet grouted element. If required by the large depths or by access
limitations, the string shall be divided into a number of elements, in order to minimize the need
to interrupt the jet grouting operation.
The jet grouting string shall include:
• for the single fluid system: one conduit conveying the high-pressure cement mix to the
monitor;
• for the double fluid system: two conduits separately conveying the two fluids (air and
cement mix, or water and cement mix respectively) to the monitor;
• for the triple fluid system: three conduits to allow for the high-pressure water, the
compressed air and the cement mix to the monitor.
The monitor shall comprise:
• for the single fluid system: one or more circular nozzles for jetting the grout. Multiple
nozzles are located at the same level or at different levels, with constant mutual
staggered angles;
• for the double fluid (air) system: one or more double nozzles (located at the same level
or at different levels, with constant mutual staggered angles) to allow the simultaneous
jetting of air and grout. The air nozzle is an annulus around the circular nozzle for grout;
• for the double fluid (water) system: one or more nozzles for high pressure jetting of water
and one or more deeper nozzles for sending the cement mix;
• for the triple fluid system: one or more double nozzles to allow the simultaneous jetting
of air and water and one or more simple nozzles located at a deeper level to allow the
grout injection.
In general, the air-water and grout nozzles for each couple are set at 180° apart. Multiple couples
are installed at constant mutual angles.
The jet grouting mixing and grouting plant, for the different systems, typically comprises:
• for the single fluid system: cement and other materials storage, colloidal mixing plant,
agitator tanks, high pressure grout pump;
• for the double fluid (air) system: as for the single fluid system plus an air compressor;

Pag. 51 of 57
• for the double fluid (water) system: as for the single fluid system plus a high pressure
water pump;
• for the triple fluid system: as for the double fluid (water) system plus an air compressor.
Quality Assurance
7.7.6.1 General
The following characteristics of jet grouted elements shall be monitored for control purposes:
• geometry;
• strength, deformability, permeability or density of the jet grouted material.
It is generally impractical or impossible to measure the dimensions and material properties
directly on a statistically significant number of jet grouted elements. The minimum quality control
of jet grouting shall consist of reporting the jet grouting parameters and observing the spoil
return on all elements.
In jet grouting works, after the first few elements have been produced, measures of the
dimensions and material properties shall be taken on a limited number of elements to establish
the relationship between the jet grouting parameters and the element properties.
Where comparable experience (as defined by EN 1997-1- clause 1.5.2) on the same jet grouting
system in similar ground conditions is available, testing after execution may be omitted, if the
design specifications do not require it and provided that monitoring of jet grouting parameters
is applied to the jet grouted elements of the work.
7.7.6.2 Preliminary field trials

Where comparable experience is not available, an appropriate preliminary field trial shall be
designed and performed. It shall cover all relevant conditions likely to be encountered at site, in
order to:
• enable a selection of the most effective system and jet grouting parameters;
• verify that the results satisfy the design requirements using the selected system and jet
grouting parameters.
Where preliminary trials are performed, if excavation is possible, assessment of the geometric
and mechanical characteristics of the jet grouted elements shall be made by visual inspection of
the exposed jet grouted elements and by laboratory tests on samples recovered by coring or
excavation.
Where preliminary trials are performed, if the jet grouted elements cannot be exposed, the
assessment of the results (mainly the size of the elements) shall be made by coring or by direct
measurement prior to setting, or by indirect tests.
If coring or indirect tests are applied to check the "as built" geometry of the elements of the
main works, and visual inspection of preliminary elements is possible, the same coring or indirect
tests shall be applied also to the preliminary elements and their results shall be compared with
visual inspection, to check the reliability of the coring or indirect tests.
Indirect tests and mechanical/chemical laboratory tests performed on samples recovered by
coring shall be selected with care considering their practical limitations and reliability.
Possible indirect tests to be performed during trials are:
• Cross-hole geophysical test. This technique is useful to check the continuity of a series of
interlocked jet grouted elements. When high geometric accuracy is required, the
alignment of the boreholes for geophysical tests (or coring) may require borehole
deviation measurements. Both p-wave and s-wave velocities shall be measured when

Pag. 52 of 57
performing cross-hole tests. Small strain (e.g. strains < 10-4) stiffness moduli (E and G)
can be directly obtained from the velocity measurements from cross-hole tests with a
good reliability;
• Static cone penetration test (CPT). The geometry of a jet grouted element can be
assessed by CPT's performed through the element before grout hardening. This method
applies mainly to jet grouted elements created in soil with high penetration resistance
compared with the low resistance of the fresh grouted material;
• Other test methods. In specific cases and following design specifications, SPTs (standard
penetration tests), dynamic cone, or pressure meter may be used to check jet grouting
results.
7.7.6.3 Supervision and process testing

Pressure gauges and other monitoring equipment to be used during jetting shall be calibrated
before commencement of the works.
The pressure of the fluids is commonly measured as pump pressure. Head losses shall be
considered in cases where long lines or very deep treatment is necessary.
The inclination of the jet grouted elements shall be assessed by measuring the inclination of the
jet grouting string at the surface before and during drilling, if not otherwise stated by the design.
The spoil return flow and features shall be visually observed and the description recorded field
logs.
The density of the spoil return shall be periodically measured and recorded. The reasons for any
unexpected results shall be explored.
Representative samples of the spoil return shall be taken and submitted for compression tests.
The following tests on the grout mix shall be performed:
• preliminary field trials:
o density;
o bleed (3 hours on 1000 cm3, 60 mm diameter, cylinder);
o marsh viscosity;
o setting time;
o unconfined compression tests on cylindrical samples (height/diameter ratio 2.0)
at 3, 7, 28 days (or 56 days if slowly hardening mixes are used);
• tests during work execution:
o density (minimum twice a shift);
o Marsh viscosity (daily);
o bleeding (daily).
7.7.6.4 Testing on the constructed elements

Testing to be performed on constructed elements shall be detailed in the design and described
in the method statement.
Description of typical approaches and recommendations to assess jet grouting geometry are
listed below:
• Visual inspection and direct measurement are the most effective ways of assessing the
dimensions. This requires large excavations preferably down to the full depth of the
element and therefore is rarely feasible on elements to be incorporated in the work;
• Wherever visual inspection is not possible, information about the cross-sectional
dimensions of an element can be obtained from coring or drilling with measurement of
drilling rate, inclined to the element axis;
• The length of an element can be detected by coring or drilling or penetration testing
parallel to its axis. This is increasingly difficult with slenderness, and is practically
excluded where the ratio of length to diameter exceeds 15.

Pag. 53 of 57
• When coring is performed, the inclination of the coring axis shall be measured, and the
location and inclination of the jet grouted element axis shall be previously measured.
Coring shall be performed only after that hardening of grout has completely occured. The
method of coring, the equipment used and the size of the cores shall be selected with the
final aim of recovering representative samples. Special precautions are necessary when
coring jet grouted elements in clayey/silty soils, in heterogeneous soils (containing
cobbles for instance) or if the jet grouted material is of low strength.
Recommendations for mechanical tests are listed below:
• Where in situ tests are used to measure the mechanical characteristics of the jet grouted
material (e.g. pressuremeter or any other test requiring drilling), the position of the
measuring tool shall be defined referring to the element geometry and lay-out;
• Compression tests shall be performed on samples with height to depth ratio of 2.0;
• Compressive strength of jet grouted structures shall be assessed by testing four samples
taken from the structure for each 1000 m3 of its volume, if not otherwise specified by
the design;
• Where mechanical properties are obtained from tests on cores, impact of sampling
technique, trimming and test procedures shall be considered in results interpretation;
• Brazilian tests and shear tests on jet grouting cores can be an alternative to compressive
tests if duly motivated;
• Mechanical tests shall be performed after set of the jet grouted material, considering both
the construction requirements and the influence of the nature of the soil on the hardening
time of the jet grouted material (longer hardening time in clayey soils is typically
experienced);
• Samples taken for mechanical tests shall be stored under controlled moisture and
temperature conditions and not exposed to direct sunlight.
Recommendations for permeability tests are listed below:
• The overall watertightness of jet grouted structures shall be assessed by pumping tests
and/or piezometric readings;
• The overall watertightness of a jet grouted structure around and/or below an excavation
in Geotechnical Categories 2 and 3 (EN 1997-1:2004) shall be assessed by pumping tests
and piezometric readings before any excavation below the original ground water level is
undertaken;
• The permeability of the elements shall be measured by borehole water tests.
7.7.6.5 Monitoring
Monitoring of the jet grouting parameters during the performance of jet grouting works is
essential for the quality control of the results.
For applications in geotechnical categories 2 and 3 (EN 1997-1:2004), the following parameters
shall be recorded:
• pressures and flows of the fluids;
• translation and rotation speed of the monitor.
When jet grouting works have to be performed in situations where there is a high risk of
unacceptable deformations of adjacent structures, a real-time monitoring (e.g. displacements,
rotations and/or deformations) of structures and an alarm system shall be designed and
implemented.
For underpinning applications, the buildings to be underpinned shall be monitored by repeated
levelling or by automatic settlement sensors.
The following documents shall be available on site prior to the main jet grouting works:

Pag. 54 of 57
• technical specifications;
• execution drawings;
• method statement;
• a geotechnical report describing the subsoil conditions;
• technical specification of the jet grouting plant;
• a description of the characteristics of the construction materials;
• a report on preliminary field trials (if any).
The jet grouting execution drawings shall contain the following information:
• the soil profile;
• the shape of the elements;
• the number of the elements, a clear reference number for each;
• the location and orientation of each element, and tolerances on position;
• the location of possible underground obstructions, services and drainage;
• the execution sequence, where relevant.
Records of the jet grouting execution shall be compiled for future reference. They shall cover,
for each element:
• the jet grouting injection parameters (possibly continuous monitoring vs time);
• comments on the spoil return;
• unexpected features;
• date and time of execution.
Where in-situ preliminary field trials have been performed, a detailed report shall be prepared,
including all the results obtained with reference to the prevailing soil conditions and the size of
the jet grouted elements to be constructed.
The jet grouting execution plan and all records shall be kept after the completion of the works.
7.8 OTHER INJECTION TECHNIQUES
Compaction Grouting
The technology of injection to consolidate and re‐compress soil, known in the technical literature
as compaction grouting, is a solution aimed at compacting and amassing soft or altered,
decompressed soil.
This technology was developed and used mainly to resist settling of structures and buildings;
today compaction grouting is a valid solution for application in situations such as:
• stabilizing, consolidating and recovery of existing foundations, structures and buildings
• consolidating soil characterized by poor load‐bearing capacity
• filling in cavities or blockage of soil that is particularly “open” or porous.

Pag. 55 of 57
Figure 7.28: Compaction Grouting
Permeation Grouting
Permeation grouting is used to improve the mechanical and permeability properties of soil, rocks
and brick or concrete work. From a functional point of view, two types of interventions can be
identified:
• temporary intervention, to make excavation possible in unstable soil or under water table;
• permanent intervention for the consolidation of foundation soils, the creation of
watertight structures, or the structural restoration of brick or concrete works.
7.8.2.1 Grouting Systems

From an operating point of view, grouting is divided into loose soil grouting and in rock grouting.
Rock fissure grouting is performed directly into the open borehole. In this case, downstage or
upstage methods can be used. In both cases, borehole inclination shall be defined depending on
the position of soil layers and the direction of discontinuities, so as to affect the highest number
of joints or fissures.
Grouting in weathered rocks or loose soil is performed by using tubes fitted with check valves,
which are driven into the ground after drilling. The valves are usually rubber sleeves that cover
lengths of the tube featuring holes: they inflate under pressure and force the grout through the
holes preventing it from flowing back.
7.8.2.2 Grouting mixtures

Cement‐based grouts (typically Portland or micro-fine cements depending on the application)
are usually the choice for rock formations or loose coarse‐grained soils. Prehydrated bentonite
can be used to increase stabilization of cement grouts, whereas they are made less cohesive and
more fluid by adding special formulations and deflocculating‐fluidifying additives (MISTRA
grouts).

Pag. 56 of 57
8 POSITIONING
All positioning tasks shall be carried out in accordance with company standard
28753.ENG.PLI.STD “Onshore Positioning”.
8.1 GEODETIC DATUM

See the “Functional Specification Onshore Positioning” (Doc. 28753.ENG.PLI.STD) Section 6.
8.2 SURFACE POSITIONING

See the “Functional Specification Onshore Positioning” (Doc. 28753.ENG.PLI.STD) Section 6.2.
8.3 VERTICAL DATUM

8.4 BENCHMARKS VERIFICATION

9 GENERAL DOCUMENTATION TO BE PRODUCED BEFORE COMMENCEMENT OF THE

WORK
Before the commencement of the works an Operating Procedure shall be submitted to Company
for acceptance one month prior to the start of mobilization.
The Operating Procedure shall include as a minimum the following:

• management systems;
• organization diagrams;
• communication protocol;
• scope of work;
• schedule;
• topographic equipment;
• positioning system instrumentation;
• instrument calibration;
• operating limits;
• method statements and standard operating procedures;
data reporting outline;
• HSE Plan;
• Logistic Plan and Operating Time schedule;
• Emergency Response Plan;
• Contingency Plan.
10 DOCUMENTATION TO BE PRODUCED DURING THE WORK
The documentation as indicated in the following sections shall be produced during execution of
the works.
10.1 SCHEDULES

Pag. 57 of 57
A Bar Chart Schedule showing manpower required by time interval for each activity and reflecting
percent of schedule completion by time interval. A detailed schedule, weekly, of day-to-day
operations showing planned manpower loadings for major activities shall be provided.
10.2 DAILY PROGRESS REPORTS (DPR)

Daily Progress Reports shall be issued to the Company at the end of each working day and shall
be included in the survey report.
The DPR shall include the following information:
• date;
• location (coordinates);
• diary of events (covering previous 24 hours operations);
• summary of hours (Hrs today, Hrs previous, Hrs to-date) clearly defining working time,
extra work, weather downtime, mechanical breakdown, standby equipment failures,
transit standby on Company’s request specified for the day and accumulated to date;
• works completed, estimated date of completion, date of data submission to Company and
date of Company acceptance;
• equipment on side;
• weather conditions, observed each 6 hours and forecast for 24 hours look ahead;
• personnel at site and personnel movements;
• material movement status;
• safety incidents;
• project HSE statistics;
• planned operations over the next 24 hours;
• copies of logs of monitored parameters (see section of specific methods for details);
• comments, if any.
10.3 WEEKLY COORDINATION MEETINGS

A weekly written report showing actual man-hours expended versus planned, and scheduled
progress versus actual progress giving details of work completed in relation to the approved
schedule, together with a two (2) week “look ahead” which provides details of how the work
shall be completed. This report shall be submitted to coincide with a mutually scheduled weekly
progress meeting to be held at the site offices. An updated schedule shall be submitted in the
event of an agreed schedule change.
10.4 MINUTES OF MEETING

If required by Company, daily meetings shall be held to evaluate progress, identify problems
and discuss other matters relevant to the work.
The minutes of each meeting shall be submitted to Company within 24 hours.


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eni spa

COMPANY TECHNICAL STANDARD

ABSTRACT The present standard defines material characteristics, the

E. Oldani (CIVI) F. Duclocher

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Rev. 00: 57 pages

Eni personnel can access company standard repository at:

External user shall refer to the Project Engineer Manager.

1. Local Regulations of the Country where the equipment is installed.

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Figure 7.5: Vibro-Compaction 18

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

1 SCOPE OF THE DOCUMENT

2 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Company: ENI S.p.A.

Bidder: the potential Contractor during the bidding phase.

Company Representative: any authority or person appointed in writing by the Company.

Contractual Documents: documents issued by Company (reports, specifications, data

Functional Specifications: documents issued by Company containing the minimum

Works: activities to be carried out in compliance with the contents of this

Vertical Datum: the reference surface or vertical level to which elevations or

Accuracy: degree of closeness of “true” value. When in this specification,

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

deviation is to be taken as the standard deviation, which means

Precision: precision is the degree of refinement in the performance of an

Original Data: the “raw” data as collected during the survey.

D.P.S.: the Data Processing System, consisting of a computer with

Shall: “Shall” is an absolute requirement. Non-compliance with a “shall”

Should: “Should” is a recommendation. Alternative solutions having the

2.2 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

PVD Prefabricated Vertical Drain

This document refers to measurement units as per the international system.

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

4.1 COMPANY DOCUMENTS AND STANDARDS

4.2 INTERNATIONAL STANDARD

4.3 ITALIAN LAWS & DECREES

4.4 ORDER OF PRECEDENCE

The order of precedence shall be as follows (descending order):

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

ii. Project Specifications and Data Sheets.

In order to correctly design soil improvement works, a geotechnical investigation shall be

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

6 GENERAL: SOIL IMPROVEMENT METHODOLOGIES AND CHARACTERISTICS

• Increase bearing capacity, shear, or frictional strength

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

• Increase resistance to liquefaction

7 TECHNOLOGY CLASSIFICATION AND ELEMENTS

Category Function Method

7.1 PRE COMPRESSION OR PRELOADING

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Figure 7.1: Preloading

7.2 VERTICAL DRAINS

Figure 7.2 shows the typical installation scheme for PVDs.

Figure 7.2: PVDs Installation

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

t = Time required to achieve desired average degree of consolidation

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD

Ch = Consolidation Coefficient for horizontal drainage

Figure 7.3: PVD scheme

ENGINEERING COMPANY STANDARD