KI

TWEDI
STRI
CTEDUCATI
ONALBOARD

NATURALSCI
ENCE

AGRI
CULTURALSCI
ENCE
REVI
SIONWORK–GRADE10,
11&12

VI
SION:“
100%PASSRATE”
Pat
r on:KaomaA,KitweDi
str
ictEducati
onalBoardSecret
ary
.
Coor di
nat
or:
SokoJ.
Authors:Mayi
ngaO.
,Mweet
waJ, Nyi
rendaM, ChandaE,
MubangaKGandOt
her
s.

1
GRADE10
1.AGRI
CULTUREI
NZAMBI
A
I
mpor
tanceofagr
icul
tur
e
St
atet
hei
mpor
tanceofagr
icul
tur
e

 Foodsecur
it
y

 Pr
ovi
desr
awmat
eri
alsf
oragr
o-basedi
ndust
ri
es

 Pr
ovi
desf
oodt
othef
ami
l
y,nat
ionandt
hewor
ld

 Pr
ovi
desempl
oymentt
othemaj
ori
tyoft
hepopul
ati
on

 Sour
ceoff
orei
gnexchanget
hrought
heexpor
tofagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
s
Cl
assi
fyagr
icul
tur
easanappl
i
edsci
enceorasat
echnol
ogy
Asasci
ence

 I
tinv
olv
esconduct
ingexper
iment
sforpr
obl
em sol
vi
ng

 I
tinv
olv
esconduct
ingresear
chwor ktoi
mpr
oveonway
sof
pr
oduci
ngcr
opsandkeepingl
ivest
ock

 I
temploystheknowl
edgeofothersciencesubject
ssuchas
Bi
ology
,Phy
sics,
Chemist
ry,
Soi
lScienceandEntomology
.
Asat
echnol
ogy

 I
tnecessit
atestheappli
cat
ionofpracti
ces/
skil
lli
keplant
ing,
pr
uning, f
erti
l
iser appl
i
cati
on, cast
rati
on, dehor
ning and
ar
ti
fi
cial
inseminat
ion.

 I
templ oystheuseofpest
ici
desf
orthecontrolofi
nsectpest
s,
herbi
cidesandimprov
edmachiner
ytoincreaseonagricul
tur
al
producti
on.
Expl
ainwhyt
heski
l
lsofpeopl
etr
ainedi
nagr
icul
tur
eisneeded
Ther
ei si
ncr
eased v
olumeofcropsand l
i
vestockbecausefar
mersare
equi
ppedwi
thknowl
edgeandski
l
lsofgr
owi
ngcropsandkeepi
ngli
vest
ock.
Agri
cul
tur
alproduct
swil
lbeofhi
ghqual
i
tybecausef
armer
sar
eequi
pped
wit
hknowledgeandski
l
ls.
Forsust
ainabi
l
ityoft
heenv
ironment

I
mpor
tanceoft
hef
armer
Expl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceoft
hef
armer

 Foodpr
oduct
ion

2
  Contr
ibut
es to economic dev
elopmentas t
heyear
nincome and
becomeselfsuf
fici
ent.

 Sour
ceofr
awmat
eri
alf
oragr
o-basedi
ndust
ri
es

 Sourceofforei
gn exchanget
hrough t
hepr
ovi
sion ofagr
icul
tur
al
producef
orexpor
t.

 Theyencour
agetr
adewit
hint
hecount
ryt
hrought
hesal
eofcr
ops
andli
vest
ockpr
oduct
s.

 Theyarecaretakersoflandthr
oughpr
operagr
icul
tur
alpr
act
ices
suchasconser
vati
onfar
ming.
Env
ironment
ali
nfl
uenceofagr
icul
tur
e
Thet
hreeagr
o-ecol
ogi
cal
zonesofZambi
a
ZoneI:desi
gnedasav
all
eyf
oundi
nthewest
ernandsout
her
npar
toft
he
count
ry
ZoneII
:cov
erst
hecent
ralpar
toft
hecount
ryext
endi
ngf
rom eastt
hrought
he
west
.
ZoneI
II
:cover
sthenort
her
npar tofZambiai
nt hi
szoneawi despectr
um of
cr
opsar
egrownsuchasmaize,
groundnut
s,mi
l
let
,tobacco,
riceandcot
ton.

MapofZambi
a:Thet
hreeagr
o-ecol
ogi
cal
zones

3
 Descr
ibet
heannual
rai
nfal
lforeachoft
heagr
o-ecol
ogi
cal
zonesZambi
a
ZoneI
:lesst
han700mm/
annum
ZoneI
I:800mm t
o1000mm/
annum
ZoneI
II
:1000t
o1500mm/
annum
St
atet
hedur
ati
onofr
ainf
all
inZambi
a
Ther
ainseasonst
art
sinear
lyOct
oberandendi
near
lyMar
chi
.e.si
xmont
hs.
Descr
ibet
hemean annualt
emper
atur
esoft
het
hreeagr
o-ecol
ogi
calzonesof
Zambia
Cool
season;
15°
Cto27°
C
Hotseason;
27°
Cto35°
C

Expl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceofdayl
engt
htocr
ops
I
tenables gr
een plant
sto manuf
act
uret
hei
rown f
ood byt
he pr
ocess of
phot
osy
nthesi
sduringtheday
.
Cl
assi
fycr
opsaccor
dingt
odayl
engt
h

Longdaycr
ops Dayneut
ral
crops Shor
tdaycr
ops

Wheat Mai
ze Soy
abeans

Bar
ley Sor
ghum Ri
ce

Oat
s Beans Somet
obaccov
ari
eti
es

Sweetpot
atoes

Gr
oundnut
s

Cassav
a

St
ater
ainf
all
andt
emper
atur
erequi
rement
sofcr
ops

Cr
ops Rai
nfal
l
(mm) Temper
atur
e Cr
ops Rai
nfal
l Temper
atur
e
(mm)

Sugar
cane 1500 20 Tobacco 760 18–22

Mai
ze 650–1145 18–25 Pawpaw 1000 21–24

Tea 21–24 Cassav

a Var
iabl
e 22–25

4
Cot
ton 510-1115 25 Fi
ngermi
l
let 900 20–24

Pi
neappl
es 1000–1500 >20 Sor
ghum 750-1250 25–20

Gr
oundnut
s 500-1000 25 Ri
ce 1500 – 20–30
2000

Sunf
lower 750 18–25

750ormor
e 20–25

2.SOI
LSCI
ENCE

Ty
pesofr
ocksandmi
ner
als
I
dent
if
ydi
ff
erentt
ypesofr
ocks
Sedi
mentar
y–formedbydeposi
ti
onofrocksedimentsthatar
etr
ansport
ed
bywater
,wi
ndorseawav
estoval
leyst
herebysol
i
dif
yingandforml
ayers.
Igneous–f or
medwhenmolt
enlavafr
om t
hevol
canoorcr
acki
ntheear
th’
s
crustpour
soutovert
hel
andbecomeshar
dandsol
idi
fy.
Metamor phic–f or
medfr
om ei
thersedi
mentar
yorigneousrockst
hathave
undergonechangesi nf
ormati
onbeneaththeear
th’
scr ustduetoint
ense
heatandpr essur
e.
Li
stsomemi
ner
alsf
oundi
nrocks
Pot
assi
um
Phosphor
us
I
ron
Cal
ci
um
Magnesi
um
Descr
ibesoi
lfor
mat
ionf
rom par
entr
ock
Weat
heri
ngi stheprocessbywhi
chr
ocksbr
eakdowni
ntosmal
l
erpar
ti
clest
o
f
orm soi
l
.Itconsi
stsof:
Chemi
cal
weat
her
ing

 Sol
ublechemi
calsinthepar
entrockaredissol
vedi
nrai
nwat
erwhi
ch
weakenst
herockscausi
ngt
hem t
odisi
ntegr
ate.

 Somechemical
sint heparentrockcombi
newi
thoxy
genandbecomes
oxi
disedwhi
chweakenstherock.

 Decay
ing or
gani
c mat
terr
eleases chemi
cal
s whi
ch r
eacti
nthe r
ock

5
 causi
ngt
hem t
oweakenanddi
sint
egr
ate.

 Aci
drai
nsr
eactwi
thchemi
cal
sint
her
ockcausi
ngt
hem t
odi
sint
egr
ate.
Bi
ologi
cal
weat
her
ing

 Microor
gani
smsform chemi
cal
sint
hedecomposi
ti
onofor
gani
cmat
ter
whichweakent
herock.

 Thr
oughcult
ivat
ion,mi
ningandr
oadconst
ruct
ionaswel
lasgr
azi
ngof
ani
malsandsett
lement
s.

 Plantrootsgrowingandexpandi
ngint
orockscrackandr
eleasechemi
cal
substancesthatdecomposeandbreakdowntherock

 Termit
e,molesand eart
h wormsand ot
herbur
rowi
ng ani
malsmake
tunnel
sint
hesoilt
herebyai
dingaer
ati
onwhi
chbri
ngsaboutqui
ckr
ock
decomposi
ti
on.

Phy
sical
/Mechani
cal
weat
her
ing

 Changeint emperat
urecausesexpansi
onandcontr
actionofther ock
resul
ti
ng int
o weakeni
ng and di
sint
egr
ati
on oft
he rock i
nto small
er
parti
cl
esformingsoi
l
.

 Heav
yr ai
nfal
lcauseserosi
onwhi
ch movesweather
ed rockpi
ecest
o
moveandknockeachot
herandbreaki
ntosmal
l
erpart
icl
es.

 Heav
ywindcausessandpart
icl
est
omov
ewi
thal
argef
orcet
hathi
tthe
r
ockstobr
eakofft
hepart
icl
es.
Expl
aint
heef
fect
sofweat
her
ing

 Causest
hef
ormat
ionandr
eleaseofmi
ner
alel
ement
sint
othesoi
l
.

 Hel
pinsoi
lfor
mat
ion.

 Weakenst
her
ockssot
hatmi
ner
alscaneasi
l
ybeaccesseddur
ing
mi
ning.
3.
CROPPRODUCTI
ON
Cr
oppl
ant
s
I
dent
if
ydi
ff
erentt
ypesofcr
op
Annual
s – completetheirl
ife cy
clef
romseed t
o seed i
n one y
ear
.E.
g.
gr
oundnut
s,maize,
mill
et,
cott
onandsunf
lower
.
Bienni
als–gr ow inthefi
rsty
earandpr
oducef
lower
sandf
rui
tsanddi
eint
he
secondy ear
,e.g.car
rot
sandturni
p.
Per
enni
als– cr
opswhichgrow bey
ondtwoyearsandconti
nuet ogrow f
or
sev
eral
year
s.Theypr
oducef
lower
sandfr
uit
sev
eryyear
,e.
g.mangoes.

6
 Descr
ibet
heext
ernal
andi
nter
nal
mor
phol
ogyofpl
ant
s
i
)Root
s
Ty
pesofr
oot
s

 Tapr
ootsy st
em –consi
stsofasi ngl
emai nrootwhichgrowsst
rai
ght
downinthesoilwi
thsmallsi
derootsari
singf
rom i
t.Thisi
scommoni n
di
coty
ledonouspl
ant
s,e.
g.beans.

 Fibr
ousr
ootsy stem – hasmoret hanonemai nrootar
isi
ngfr
om t
he
samepointwi t
hsideroot sbr
anchingf
rom them.Thisiscommonin
monocot
yledonouspl
ants,e.
g.mai
zeandfingermil
l
et.
Ext
ernal
str
uct
ureoft
her
oot

I
nter
nal
str
uct
ureoft
her
oot

7
Di
cotRoot
Funct
ionsoft
her
oot
s

 Absor
bsmi
ner
ali
onsandwat
erf
rom t
hesoi
landt
ranspor
tthem t
othest
em.

 Pr
ovi
deanchor
aget
othepl
antsot
hati
tisf
ir
mlyhel
dint
hesoi
l
.

 Usedasst
orageor
gansi
nsomepl
ant
s.

 Usedasv
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ionmat
eri
al
i
i
)St
em
I
nter
nal
str
uct
ureoft
hest
em
Monocotst
em Di
cotst
em

Funct
ionsoft
hest
em

 Hol
dt heupperpartofthepl
anti
.e.l
eav
esf
lower
sandf
rui
tssot
hatt
heycan
per
for
mt hei
rfunct
ion.

 Suppor
tthel
eav
esf
ort
hepr
ocessofphot
osy
nthesi
s.

 Conductmi
ner
alsal
tsandwat
erf
rom t
hesoi
ltoot
herpar
tsoft
hepl
ant
.

 Hol
dthef
loweroutt
ofaci
l
itat
epol
l
inat
ion.

 Usedasv
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ione.
g.sugar
cane.

8
  Usedasst
orageor
gans

 Al
l
owt
hepr
ocessofphot
osy
nthesi
stot
akepl
ace
Leav
es
Ext
ernal
str
uct
ure

I
nter
nal
str
uct
ureofal
eaf

Funct
ionsofpar
toft
hel
eaf
:

 Lami
nacont
ainschl
orophy
llt
oabsor
bli
ght

 Vei
nssuppor
tlami
naandconduct
snut
ri
ent
sandwat
erwi
thi
nthel
ami
na
andcol
l
ectsf
oodfr
om l
amina

 Midr
ibsuppor
tslami
naandconduct
swat
erandnut
ri
ent
sfr
om t
hest
alk
t
olaminaandfoodfr
om l
ami
natostal
k
9
  Stal
kconductsfoodf
rom t
hel
eaft
othest
alkandmi
ner
alsal
tsandwat
er
fr
om thest
alktothel
eaf
Funct
ionoft
hel
eaf

 Manuf
act
uref
ooddur
ingt
hepr
ocessofphot
osy
nthesi
s

 Hel
pindi
ff
usi
onofcar
bondi
oxi
der
equi
redf
orphot
osy
nthesi
s

 Hel
pint
hepr
ocessoft
ranspi
rat
ion

Thef
lowerandpol
l
inat
ion
St
ruct
ureoft
hef
lower

St
amen=ant
herandf
il
ament
Car
pel
=st
igma+st
yle+ov
ary
Funct
ionsofpar
tsofaf
lower
:Ref
ert
ofunct
ionsofst
amensandcar
pel
.
St
amens–f
ormt
hemal
epar
tsofaf
lower
.Itconsi
stsof
;

 Fi
l
ament-hol
dst
heant
her

 Ant
her-cont
aint
hemal
erepr
oduct
ivecel
l
s.
Car
pel
-ar
efemal
epar
tsofaf
lowermadeupof
;

 St
igma–r
ecei
vest
hepol
l
engr
ain

 St
ylepassagewayf
ort
hepol
l
ent
ube

 Ov
arycont
ainf
emal
erepr
oduct
ivecel
l
s

 Ov
ulesbecomeseedsaf
tert
heyhav
ebeenf
ert
il
ised

10
I
nter
nal st
ruct
ure of t
he seed

I
dent
if
ypar
tsofaseed.
Funct
ionsoft
hepar
ts

 Test
a:pr
otect
stheseed

 Micropy
le:i
sasmal lporeintest
awhi
chal
l
owsmoi
stur
etor
eacht
heembr
yo
duri
nggerminat
ionprocess.

 Radi
cal
:istherootoftheembr
yowhi
chwi
l
lgr
owanddev
elopi
ntoapl
antr
oot
syst
em af
tergerminat
ion.

 Plumul
e:isthe embr
yo shootwhi
ch wi
l
lgr
ow i
ntot
he pl
antshootaf
ter
germi
nati
on.

 Cot
yledon:itcont
ainsf
oodr
eser
veswhi
char
euseddur
ingt
heear
lyst
ageof
ger
mi nat
ion.

i
x)Expl
aint
headv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofusi
nghy
bri
dseed.
Adv
ant
ages:

 I
ncr
easedcr
opy
iel
ds

 Pl
ant
sar
ephy
sical
l
yuni
for
m whi
chf
aci
l
itat
esmechani
cal
har
vest
ing.

 Pl
ant
sof
tenexhi
bitgr
eat
erv
igourandf
ast
ergr
owt
h.

 Pl
ant
sar
eresi
stantt
opest
sanddi
seases.

Di
sadv
ant
ages:

 Seedscannotbeprocuredforpl
ant
ingf
rom pr
evi
ouscr
opsgr
ownf
rom hy
bri
d
seeds.They
iel
disdepr
essed.

 Hy
bri
disexpensi
vet
obuy
.

11
  Whencondit
ionsar
enotopt
imum,
hybr
idmaysuf
fermor
ethanpl
ant
sgr
ownf
rom
monohy
brid.

Veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion
Veget
ati
vepropagati
onistheformat
ionofanew pl
antwi
thoutf
usionoft
hemaleand
femal
egamet es.Theparentpl
antgr
owsanew plantwhi
cheventual
l
ydevel
opsi
ntoa
newindi
vi
dual.
Descr
ibedi
ff
erentmet
hodsofv
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion.
Nat
ural
veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion

 Suckers–arenewgrowthswhichoccuratthebaseoft
heparentplant
.Thesenew
growthsincr
easei
nsizeuntilt
heyhavef or
medanewst em withanewsetofof
root
sr oundt
hebase.Sucker
sarecutoffandpl
antedel
sewhere,
e.g.bananas.

 Bulbs–budsdev el
opi
ntheaxil
softheleav
esthatmakeupthebul
b.Asthebuds
enl
argetheybecomesepar
atedfrom t
heparentpl
antgr
owi
ngnewr oot
sfrom t
he
base.E.
g.oni
on

 Corms–arethi
ckenedunder
groundstemswhi chser
veasst or
ageorgans.New
gr
owthoccur
swhenabuddev elopsont hesideoftheparentpl
antcorm and
gr
adual
l
yanewindivi
dual
devel
ops.Cocoyam i
sanexample.

 Stem t
uber–isaswol l
enundergroundstem bear
inganumberofreducedscale
l
eaves.Theseorganspr oducebudsandcanbepr opagat
edbycut
tingthetuber
i
ntosecti
onswitheachsect i
oncontai
ningonebud.Whenplant
edar ootsy
stem
andashootdevelop,
e.g.I
rishpot
ato.

 Roott
uber
– exampl
esincl
udecassav
aandsweetpot
atoesbuti
nthei
rnat
ural
st
atet
heydonotcar
ryoutv
eget
ati
vepropagat
ion.

 Rhi
zomes– isahorizont
alunder
groundst
em.New shoot
sandar
ootsy
stem
dev
elopati
nter
val
sfr
om budsontherhi
zome,e.
g.gi
nger

 Runners–isast em whi
chgrowsalongtheground.Rootsandashootdevel
opat
i
nterv
als and t
he stem conti
nues gr
owing i
n diff
erentdir
ect
ions,e.
g.sweet
potat
oesandgrasses.
Ar
ti
fi
cial
veget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion
Budding–i sthearti
fi
cial
lysecuri
ngabudf r
om oneplantontothestem orst
ock
ofanot her
.Abudi scareful
l
yr emovedbycut ti
ngitfr
om thestem l
eavi
ngagood
soundofbar kincl
udi
ngt hexylem.ThenaT- shapedcutismadeinthebarkofthe
rootstockandthebudiscarefull
yinser
ted.E.g.i
ncit
rusplant
Gr
aft
ing–inv
olv
estheunit
ingoftwocambi
um layer
st ogetafusi
onofgrowt
h
gi
vi
ngapl
antwit
hthegoodqual
it
iesoft
wodi
ff
erentparent
s.e.
g.t
eaplant
s.
Layeri
ng–i nv
olv
espeggingt hebranchesofat r
eeorshrubdowntotheground.
Contactwit
hthesoili
nthi
swaycausest hebranchtodev
eloproot
sathepoi
ntand
eventual
l
yanewpl anti
sestabli
shed,e.
g.cof
fee

12
 Cutt
ings–i nvol
vescut
ti
ngthest em i
ntoset
tsofabout45cm l
ong.Thesett
sare
pl
acedhorizontal
lyi
nsmallt
renchesinthesoi
landnewgrowthdevel
opsfrom t
he
nodes.e.
g.cassavaandsugarcane.
Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofv
eget
ati
vepr
opagat
ion
Adv
ant
ages

 Thepl antsareident
icaltot hei
rparentsinter
msofgr owt
hrateanddisease
resi
stance,pr
oducti
onpot enti
alhei
ght,col
our
,prov
idedt
heyaregi
venthesame
conditi
onsasthei
rparentplants.

 I
thel
pspr
oducecr
opst
hatcannotpr
oduceseedst
hatar
enov
iabl
ee.
g.bananas.

 Pl
ant
scomei
ntobear
ingear
li
ert
hant
hosepl
ant
edbyseed.

 I
thel
pswher
eseedsofsomecer
tai
ncr
opsexhi
bitpr
olongeddor
mancy
.

 Theof
fspr
ingi
sst
rongandhar
dcompar
edt
otheseedl
i
ngobt
ainedf
rom t
heseed.

 Themul
ti
pli
cat
ionofpl
ant
sisf
ast
er.

 Daughterpl
ant
sobtai
nfoodfrom t
heirpl
antpl
ant
sunt
ilt
heyar
est
rongenough
unl
ikeseedswhi
chhavel
imi
tedfoodreser
ve.
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Mat
eri
alsf
orpl
ant
ingar
eusual
l
ybul
ky.

 Veget
ati
vemat
eri
almayr
oti
fpi
l
ledt
oget
her
.

 I
tmayneedspeci
ali
sedski
l
ls.

 Veget
ati
vemat
eri
alsar
edi
ff
icul
ttomechani
set
hei
rpl
ant
ing.

 I
tcanl
eadt
oov
ercr
owdi
ngsi
ncet
heygr
owf
ast
er

 Asmallar
eacanbepl
ant
edwher
easwi
thseeds,onecanpl
antal
argear
eana
gi
vent
ime.

 Duet
olackofvar
iat
ion,
ifonepl
antissuscept
ibl
etoapar
ti
cul
ardi
sease/
pest
,the
whol
ecropwi
ll
beaffect
edsimil
arl
y.

Di
str
ibut
ionofcr
ops
Expl
aint
hedi
ff
icul
ti
esl
i
mit
ingt
hegr
owi
ngofcer
tai
ncr
opsi
nsomepar
tsofZambi
a

 Cl
i
mat
e:
Rainfal
l:l
owrai
nfallr
esul
tsi
nlow y
iel
dsf orsomecr opswhichr
equireal
otof
rai
nfall
forthei
rgrowt
hsuchasmai
ze,groundnut
s,sor
ghum,andmil
let
.

13
 Temperature:
crops var
yinthe amountof t
emperatur
e whi
ch they r
equi
re
for
growth.Somecr opsgr
ow wel
linhight
emper
atureswhil
eothersarecool
seasoncrops.

 Soi
l
s:acidrai
nsmaket
hesoi
laci
dic.Aci
dsoi
l
sret
ardcr
opgr
owt
hleadi
ngt
o
l
owy i
elds.

 Poorlandtenur
esyst
em i
nthecount
ry,f
armersdonoteasil
yaccesstheland
forgr
owingcropsascommuni
tyl
eadersi
nter
fer
ewit
hthefreeaccesst
oland.

 Somelandowner
soptt
ousi
ngt
hel
andf
orl
esspr
ofi
tabl
emeanssuchas
gamearea

 Lowdemandf
orcer
tai
ncr
opsi
nsomear
easl
i
mit
sthei
rpr
oduct
ion.
I
nfer
ti
lesoi
li
nsomepar
tsoft
hecount
ryl
i
mit
sthegr
owi
ngofcr
ops.
Compar
ethecl
i
mat
icr
equi
rement
sofv
ari
ouscr
ops(
Ref
ert
orai
nfal
l
,temper
atur
e
andwi
nd)

 Beansrequi
rehighrai
nfal
ldur
ingthegrowingper
iodandadr yspel
ltowardsthe
maturi
ngstagewhichreducesdiseasesandpest
s.Itrequi
reswarm condit
ions.
Heavywindscandamagethecrop.

 Cassavai
sdroughtresi
stantcr
opbuthighyi
eldsar
eobt
ainedwhent
her
eisgood
rai
nfal
l
.Heav
ywi ndscandamagethecrop.

 Sugarcanerequir
eshighrai
nfal
lthr
oughoutt
hegrowingper
iodandwar
m cl
i
mat
e
forhi
ghy i
elds.Windcandest
roythegr
owingstems.

 Gr
oundnut
s;gooddi
str
ibut
ionofr
ainsandadr
yspel
ldur
ingr
ipeni
ng.

 Bananasrequi
rehi
ghr
ainf
all
,war
m cl
i
mat
e.Wi
ndsdamagebananast
emsand
bunches.

 Cottonrequir
esmoder aterai
nfal
landdryspel
ldur
ingmatur
ingst
age.Hi
ghr
ainf
all
result
sindiseases/
pests.Highwinddamagesthecrop.

 Fi
ngermi
l
letr
equi
resmoder
ater
ainf
all
andwar
m cl
i
mat
e.Wi
nddamagest
hecr
op.

 Bul
rushmill
eti
sdroughtr
esist
antbutforgoodyi
eldmoder
ater
ainf
alli
srequi
red
andwarm cl
imat
e.Heavywindsdest
roythecr
op.

 Maizerequi
reshighr
ainf
all
,dryspel
ldur
ingmat
uri
ngst
ageandwar
m cl
i
mat
e.
Heavywindsdest
royt
hecrop.

 I
ri
shpot
atoesr
equi
remoder
ater
ainf
all
andcool
cli
mat
e.

 Sor
ghum r
equi
resmoder
ater
ainf
allandwar
m cl
i
mat
e.Heav
ywi
ndsdest
royt
he
cr
op.

 Sweetpot
atoesr
equi
reav
erager
ainf
all
andwar
m cl
i
mat
e.

 Tobaccorequi
reswelldi
stri
but
edrai
nfal
landwarm cl
i
mat
e.Hi
ghr
ainf
alll
eadst
o
di
seases/
pests.Heav
ywi ndsdamagethecrop.

14
  Tear
equi
resadequat
erai
nfal
landwar
m cl
i
mat
e.Heav
ywi
ndsdamaget
hecr
op.

 Pi
neappl
erequi
resr
eli
abl
ewel
ldi
str
ibut
edr
ainf
all
coupl
edwi
thwar
m cl
i
mat
e.

 Sunfl
owerrequi
resmoder
atewel
ldi
str
ibut
edr
ainf
allandwar
m cl
i
mat
e.Heav
y
winddamagesthecr
op.

 Pawpaw r
equi
resmoder
ater
ainf
allandwar
m cl
i
mat
e.St
rongwi
ndsdest
royt
he
pawpawtr
ee.

 Mangoesrequi
remoderater
ainf
allandwarm cl
imate.St
rongwi
ndr
educest
he
pr
oducti
onoffr
uit
sbecauset
hisdropst
hefl
owersoff
.

 Ar
abi
ccoff
eer equi
resrel
iabl
eandwel
ldi
str
ibut
edr
ainf
allandcoolcl
i
mat
e.Heav
y
wi
ndscanbreakcoffeetr
ees.
Descr
ibet
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofsoi
lsui
tabl
efort
hepr
oduct
ionofcr
ops
Physi
calandchemi
calchar
act
eri
sti
csofsoi
l
s(t
il
th,mi
ner
alcont
ent
,dept
hofr
oot
sof
pl
ants)

 I
tshoul
dbewel
ldr
ainedandnotwat
erl
ogged.

 Itshoul
dbewel laer
atedtoensur
egoodsuppl
yofsoi
lairr
equi
redbyplantr
oots
andsoilorgani
smst obreat
heandtohel
pintheoxi
dat
ionofsoilor
gani
cmat t
er
andprocessofnit
ri
fi
cati
on.

 I
tshoul
dhav
epr
opersoi
lpHf
orgoodcr
opgr
owt
h.

 I
tshoul
dhav
egoodwat
erhol
dingcapaci
ty.

 I
tmustbef
reef
rom di
seasesandpest
s.

 I
tshoul
dbedeepenought
opr
ovi
depr
operanchor
aget
ocr
opr
oot
s.

 I
tshoul
dhav
esuf
fi
cientmi
ner
alsandnut
ri
ent
s.

 I
tshoul
dbeofgoodt
il
tht
oal
l
owf
orpr
operger
minat
ion.
Expl
aint
hef
act
orsaf
fect
ingcr
opgr
owt
h
Fact
ors:
Light
,wat
er,
air
,temper
atur
e,al
ti
tude

 Lightisr equiredforphotosynthesis.Carbondi oxi

deintheai randwaterfr
om
thesoi lwiththehelpofchlorophylltoabsorblightenergyf
r om t
hesunresul
tin
thef ormat i
onofcar bohydr
atesi nthel eav
esofgr eenpl ants.Therat
eof
phot osynthesisisdi
rectl
yproportionaltotheli
ghtintensi
ty.Thehighert
heli
ght
i
nt ensitythehighertherat
eofphot osynt
hesis

 Wat
eri
sessent
ial
for
:

- Di
ssol
vi
ngt
hemi
ner
alnut
ri
ent
sforeasyabsor
pti
onbyt
her
oot
s.

- Cool
i
ngt
hepl
ant
saf
tert
ranspi
rat
ion.

- hel
pingi
nseedger
minat
ion,

15
 - Enabl
ingpr
ocessesl
i
ket
ranspi
rat
ionandt
ransl
ocat
iont
otakepl
acei
n
pl
ants.
- Pr
ovi
dinghy
drogenr
equi
reddur
ingphot
osy
nthesi
s.

 Temper atur
ei nf
luencebiologi
calandbiochemicalpr ocessestotakeplacein
plantcell
.Plantshav eminimum andmaxi mum temper atur
esaboveandbelow
whichgr owth,developmentandpr oduct
ionpotentialstop.Theli
feprocessin
plantsgrowswhent emperatur
esabov etheminimum cont inuet
oincreasebut
theincreaseintemper at
ureabovethemaximum r esult
sindeathoftheplant
.

 Ai
risr
equi
redbyt
hepl
ant
sfort
hef
oll
owi
ng;

 Forrespi
rat
ionbypl
antr
oot
s,soi
lli
vi
ngor
gani
smsandf
ort
hepr
ocessof
ni
tr
if
icati
on.

 I
tisnecessar
yforseedger
minat
ion

 I
tisr equi
red i
nthe oxi
dat
ion ofor
gani
c mat
terwhi
ch l
i
ber
ates pl
ant
nut
ri
ents
Alt
it
udeandt emperat
uregohandi nhand.Somecr opsl
ikewheatgr
ow wel
lathigh
al
ti
tudebecausetheyrequi
recooltemperat
ureswhil
eother
sli
kemaizeperf
orm wel
l
atl
owalti
tudebecausetheyrequi
rehi
ghtemperat
ures.
Seedpl
ant
ing
Descr
ibet
hepr
ocessofl
andpr
epar
ati
onf
orcr
oppr
oduct
ion
Landpr
epar
ati
oni
nvol
ves

 Cleari
ngthepieceofl
andbyremovi
ngtreestumpsandveget
ablesusi
ng
vari
ousmet hodssuchashandhoes,ox-dr
awnimplement
stractor
sand
ploughs.

 Cult
ivat
ingthepieceofl
andwhi
chincl
udesburyi
ngweeds,
diggi
ngdeep
foreasypenetr
ationofr
oot
sandgoodaerat
ion

 Spr
eadi
ngor
gani
cmanur
eont
hesoi
lsur
face.

 Braki
ngbigcl
odsoft
hesoi
lbyhar
rowi
ngt
opr
oduceaf
inet
il
thsui
tabl
e
forseedpl
ant
ing.
I
dent
if
ycondi
ti
onsnecessar
yforger
minat
ionofseeds

 Temperatur
e:di
ffer
entcropsr equi
redif
fer
enttemper
aturerangesandeach
type of seed has i t
s own opt i
mum t emperat
ure for germinat
ion.
Temperatur
eaffectsthemet aboli
crateofseedgerminati
onandi tact
sin
associ
ati
onwithotherprocesses.

 Water:i
stakenbyseedst hrought
hemi cr
opyl
eanddissolvesf
oodreserv
es
i
nthecot y
ledonmaki ngthem act
ivebytr
ansfor
mingthem int
omobileand
nut
ri
tivesubstances.Thi
st akespl
acewi t
hthehelpofenzy mesresul
ti
ng
i
ntotheswelli
ngoft heseedwhichspli
tsopenall
owi
ngt heembry
opar t
sto
emerge.

16
  Air(oxy
gen)– isrequi
red to oxi
dise t
he seeds so t
hatener
gy f
or
germi
nati
onpr
ocessi
sli
berat
ed.

Pr
epar
eseedbedssui
tabl
eforger
minat
ionofseeds
Pr
epar
ati
onofseedbeds(
Pract
icepl
ant
ingf
ort
hecr
opst
udi
ed)
Pl
ant
ing/
sowi
ngacer
eal
andl
egume

 Plantingmaize:maizeshouldbeplantedattheonsetoft herai
ns.Theseedbeds
shouldbepr eparedwell
aheadofplanting.Manur
ecanbespr eadont opofthesoi
l
anddugi ntot hesoilduri
nglandpr eparat
iontoi mproveonsoi lfer
til
i
ty.The
planti
nghol esshouldbewel lplaced,therowsshoul dbe90cm apar tandt he
planti
ng holes45cm t o 75cm spacing.Thehol esshould be10cm t o 20cm.
Cer t
if
ieddressedmaizeseedsshouldbepl acedi
nt othehol
esandcov eredwitha
l
ay erofsoi
l.CompoundRcanbeappl iedasbasaldressi
ng.

 Plant
inggr oundnut s:Groundnutsshouldbepl ant
edi nwellprepar
edseedbeds,
freeofweeds.Useseedsdr essedwit
hf ernasanDandt hi
ram/ BHCtopr ot
ectthe
germinat
ingseedsagai nstsoilbor
nediseases.Plantedatt hedepthof5cm and
row spacingof45cm t o75cm,10cm f rom onepl anttoanot her
.Singlesuper
phosphatef ert
il
iseratt herateof125t o250kg/ haoror ganicmanurecanbe
appli
edbef orepl
antingtoimpr ovet
heyield.

Pr
act
icecr
opr
otat
ion

 Cropr otat
ionisthegr owingofdiffer
entt
ypesofcropont hesamepi eceof
l
andi nasequencey earafteryear
.Cropsaregr
owni nanorderl
ysequencein
di
ffer
entpl otsindifferentseasonsbutont hesamepi eceofland.Thisis
i
ll
ustratedusingdif
ferentcropsasshowninthetabl
ebelowwithafal
low( r
est
)
peri
odf ordif
fer
entplots.

Pl
ot Year1 Year2 Year3 Year4

1 Gr
oundnut
s Mai
ze Rest Cassav
a

2 Cassav
a Gr
oundnut
s Mai
ze Rest

3 Gr
oundnut
s Mai
ze Rest Cassav
a

4 Mai
ze Gr
oundnut
s Rest Cassav
a

5 Cassav
a Gr
oundnut
s Mai
ze Rest

Fer
ti
li
serAppl
i
cat
ion
Descr
ibet
hedi
ff
erentmet
hodsofappl
yi
ngf
ert
il
iser
sforcr
opsst
udi
ed
Met
hodsoff
ert
il
iserappl
i
cat
ion

17
  Br
oadcast
ing-f
ert
il
iseri
sspr
eadont
hesur
faceoft
hesoi
lbef
orepl
ant
ing.

 Bandplacement:f
ert
il
iseri
sputi
nbandsononesideorbot
hsi
desofeachr
ow
about5cm beneat
htheseedand4cm awayf
rom t
heseedorpl
ant
.

 Ri
ngmet hod:f
ert
il
isersar
eplacedar
oundt
hecr
opsast
opdr
essi
ngbutnoti
n
di
rectcont
actwit
ht hepl
ants.
Cal
cul
atet
hequant
it
yoff
ert
il
iserf
orcr
ops
Quant
it
iesoff
ert
il
iser
sforcr
ops

 Formai ze:Abasedressi
ngofcompound‘ R’atarat
eof200kg/hashouldbe
appli
edinamai zef
iel
dbef or
eplant
ing.Whenmaizeplant
sareaboutknee-
high
(40cm to60cm)ammoni um ni
trat
eisappliedastopdressi
ngatt herat
eof
200kg/ha,bandmethodisrecommended.

 Forgroundnuts:groundnut
sareleguminousplant
sthatfi
xni
tr
ogenint
othesoil
,
addingfert
il
iserisnotnecessarybutbasedressi
ngofsingl
esuperphosphate
atther at
eof125t o250kg/hacanbeappl i
edbef or
eplant
ingt
oencour age
growthandgoody i
eld.
Ty
pesoff
ert
il
iser
srecommendedf
orcr
ops

 Fert
il
iserscont
ainingNitr
ogen,PhosphorusandPotassi
um i
ntheirri
ghtamounts
aremostr ecommendedf orcropsbecausegrowi
ngcr opsuti
l
isemor eofthese
thr
eeel ementsthananyot hersoilnutr
ient
s.Fer
ti
li
sersaresuppli
edinbagsof
whichNPKar eprinted.
Bel
owar
eexampl
esofNPKper
cent
agesasr
ecommended:

%N %P %K

CompoundA 2 18 15

CompoundC 6 18 12

CompoundD 10 20 10

CompoundX 20 10 5

 Ferti
l
iserscontai
ningNPKi
nther
ightpr
opor
ti
onsasr
ecommendedt
heNat
ional
Standardse.g.ZABS
Ef
fect
soff
ert
il
iseront
heenv
ironment

 Conti
nuousappl
i
cati
onoff
ert
il
iseri
nlar
gequant
it
ieschanget
hepH oft
hesoi
l
causi
ngitt
obeacidi
c

 Sol
ublefer
ti
liseraf
terappl
i
cati
oncanbeleachedeasi
l
yresul
ti
ngi nt
opoll
uti
onof
l
akes,ri
versst r
eamsand undergr
ound water
.Insand soi
lleachi
ng i
ncreases
pol
lut
ionoftheenvir
onment.

 Fr
equentheav
yappl
i
cat
ionofni
tr
ogenf
ert
il
iser
sresul
tsi
ntheaccumul
ati
onof

18
 sal
tscausi
nganov
ergr
owt
hofmi
croscopi
cmar
inepl
ant
s.Thi
sisknownas
eut
rophi
cat
ion.

 Fr
equentuseoff
ert
il
iser
sonl
i
ghtsoi
l
s(sandy
)dest
roy
scr
umbst
ruct
ure.

 Soi
laci
dit
y:f
erti
l
iser
sthatcontai
nsulphat
esmakethesoi
laci
dic.Theaci
dicsoi
l
candamagetheroot
softhecropsandkil
lthemi
croor
gani
smsinthesoi
l.

 Leachi
ngoff
ert
il
isercannecessi
tat
emoreappli
cat
ionoff
ert
il
iseri
nthesamef
iel
d
andthi
scanl
eadt omakingthesoil
mor
eacidic.
Mi
nimi
singef
fect
soff
ert
il
iseront
heenv
ironment

 Recommendedr
atesoff
ert
il
isershoul
dbeadher
ed

 Far
mer
sshoul
dregul
atet
her
ateatwhi
cht
heyappl
yfer
ti
li
ser

 Far
mer
sshoul
duseor
gani
cmanur
e
Weedcont
rol
Met
hodsofweedcont
rol
int
hecr
ops
Mechani
cal
cont
rol

 Handweedi
ngi
nvol
vest
hepul
l
ingofweedsbyhand.

 Hoei
ngi
sthet
radi
ti
onal
wayofweedi
ngbet
weent
her
owsofacr
opusi
ngahoe.

 Culti
v at
ion i
s when weeds ar
e cont
rol
led byploughi
ng,harrowing and hand
culti
vati
on.Thismethod isusefulduri
ng l
and prepar
ati
on befor
et hecrop is
planted.
a)Bi
ologi
cal
cont
rol

 Weedsarecontr
oll
edbytheint
roduct
ionofi
nset
sint
othef
iel
dsot
hatt
heyf
eed
onthel
eavesandstemsoft
heweeds.
b)Chemi
cal
cont
rol
I
stheuseofchemical
scall
edherbi
cidest
ocont
rolweeds.Ther
ear
ethr
eeway
sin
whi
chherbi
ci
descanattackweeds.

 Bycontactift
heleavesandshoot
softheweedsarespray
ed,t
heher
bici
desmay
ent
ertheplantbydi
ff
usionthr
oughthel
eav
eski
ll
ingof
ftheweeds.

 Bytransl
ocat
ion–systemi
cherbici
desgeti
ntot
heweedt
hrought
heleav
es,st
em
orrootsandar ecar
ri
edthroughoutthepl
antwit
hit
sfoodsuppl
yandi tsoon
poi
sonstheweed.

 Throught
hesoil–herbici
deswhi
char
espr
ayedont
othesoi
lmayhav
eal
ast
ing
eff
ectonweedsbypreventi
ngt
hei
rgr
owthf
orsomet
ime.
Descr
ibeway
sinwhi
chdi
ff
erentchemi
cal
scont
rol
weeds
Sel
ect
iveher
bici
des–ki
l
lonl
ycer
tai
nweedspeci
esandl
eav
eot
her
s.
Non-sel
ect
iveher
bici
des–ki
l
lal
ltheweedsi
ncl
udi
ngt
hecr
op.
19
Ty
pesofsel
ect
iveandnon-
sel
ect
iveher
bici
des
Sy
stemi
cher
bici
des–ar
ereadi
l
yabsor
bedbypl
antpar
ts,
e.g.r
oot
s,st
emsandl
eav
es.
Cont
acther
bici
des–ki
l
lonl
ythepar
tst
heycomei
ntocont
actwi
th.
St
atet
headv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofchemi
cal
andmechani
cal
weedcont
rol
Chemi
cal
Adv
ant
ages

 Reducesear
lyweedcompet
it
ioni
ncr
ops

 I
ncr
easescr
opy
iel
d

 Gi
vesaf
armermor
eti
met
opl
anf
ort
hef
arm

 Enabl
esaf
armert
ocul
ti
vat
elar
gepor
ti
onsandmanagei
t.

 Cr
opr
oot
sar
enotdi
stur
bedasi
nmechani
cal
weedi
ng

Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Her
bici
desar
eexpensi
ve

 I
trequi
resski
l
l

 Theyar
enotr
eadi
l
yav
ail
abl
einsomear
eas

 Theypol
l
utet
heenv
ironment

 Theyar
epoi
sonoust
ohumansandl
i
vest
ock

Mechani
cal
cont
rol
Adv
ant
ages

 I
tdoesnotr
equi
real
othumanl
abour

 Weedsupr
oot
edandbur
iedi
ntot
hesoi
li
ncr
easesoi
lor
gani
cmat
ter

 I
timpr
ovessoi
laer
ati
on
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Unabl
etocont
rol
weedsbet
weent
hecr
ops

 I
mpl
ement
susedcandamaget
hecr
ops

 Fr
equentmechani
cal
weedcont
rol
candest
royt
hesoi
lst
ruct
ure

 Machi
ner
yusemul
ti
pli
est
heper
enni
alweedast
heyscat
tert
hem

20
  Pr
evi
ousbur
iedweedscangr
owupf
rom t
hesoi
l
.
I
dent
if
ythenegat
iveef
fect
sofher
bici
desont
heenv
ironment

 Theykil
lbenef
ici
alsoilmi cr
o-organi
smsl
i
keni
tr
ogenf
ixi
ngbact
eri
a,ni
tr
if
ying
bact
eri
aandotherbenefi
ciali
nsect
s

 Theypoll
utet
hesoilandwat
ert
her
ebyki
l
li
ngt
heor
gani
smst
her
einsuchasf
ish
andothermar
inel
i
fe.

 Theycanbeabsor
bedbyharvestabl
ecr
opswhi
cht
racet
hei
rwayi
ntot
hef
ood
chai
nandbecomeaheal
thhazar
d
Way
sofmi
nimi
singnegat
iveef
fect
sofher
bici
desont
heenv
ironment

 Useofot
hermet
hodsofweedcont
rol
othert
hanher
bici
des

 Usi
ngr
ecommendedr
atesofappl
i
cat
ion

Pest
sanddi
seasesofcr
ops
Descr
ibet
hechar
act
eri
sti
csofcommonpest
sofcr
ops

 Theyar
eabl
etomov
efr
om onepl
acet
oanot
her

 Theyhav
emout
hpar
tswhi
char
eadapt
edt
othemodeoff
eedi
ng.

 Theyhav
eashor
trepr
oduct
ivecy
cle

 Adult
slaymanyeggsatati
meandl
aysev
eralt
imesi
nal
i
fet
imet
her
eby
i
ncreasi
ngt
hepopul
ati
on.
I
dent
if
ysi
gnsofpestat
tackoncr
ops

 Hol
esont
heat
tackedpar
tsoft
hecr
op

 Yel
l
owi
ngofl
eav
es

 Def
oli
ati
onofcr
oppl
ant
s

 Sheddi
ngoff
rui
tsorber
ri
es

 Spot
sont
hel
eav
es

 Br
eaki
ngofst
ems

 Wi
l
tingoft
hecr
op

 Lossofwei
ghti
nthest
oredcr
op

 Lowerger
minat
ioncapaci
tyoft
hecr
op,

 Lowerqual
i
tyoft
hecr
oppr
oduce,

 Lowcr
opy
iel
d

21
 Si
gnsofdi
seaseat
tackoncr
ops

 Tot
aldeat
hofpl
ant
s

 Yel
l
owi
ngofl
eav
es

 St
unt
edgr
owt
h

 Dev
elopmentofspot
s

 Mot
tl
ingandcur
li
ngofl
eav
es
Pr
event
ionandcont
rol
ofpest
sanddi
seasesoncr
ops
Cr
oppest
sanddi
seasecont
rol
met
hods

 Pract
icecr
opr
otat
iont
obr
eakt
hel
i
fecy
cleofi
nsectpest
sandcausat
ive
agent
s

 Ti
mel
yorear
lypl
ant
ingofcr
ops

 Cont
rol
weedswhi
chhar
bourpest
sanddi
seases

 Pl
ant
ingpest
-fr
eemat
eri
alsorr
esi
stantseedv
ari
eti
es.

 Pr
operdr
yingofhar
vest
edcr
opsbef
orest
orage

 Remov
alofpesti
nfest
edpl
ant
s

 Upr
oot
ingandbur
ningofcr
opr
esi
duesaf
terhar
vest
ing

 Legi
sl
ati
ononal
l
owi
ngpest
-f
reecr
opmat
eri
alsi
nthecount
ry.

 Spr
ayi
nganddust
ingcr
opswi
thchemi
cal
sint
hef
iel
dori
nst
orage.

 Appl
i
cat
ionofmanur
esot
hatpl
ant
sgr
owv
igor
ousl
ytowi
thst
andpestat
tack

 Seeddr
essi
ngofpl
ant
ingseed

 Heatt
reat
mentonseedsandot
herpl
ant
ingmat
eri
al

Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofbi
ologi
cal
pestcont
rol
Adv
ant
ages

 I
tdoesnotpol
l
utet
heenv
ironment

 I
tacheapmet
hodofcont
rol
l
ingpest
s

 I
tdoesnotr
equi
respeci
ali
sedski
l
lini
tsuse

 I
tisasaf
emet
hodofpestcont
rol

 Cr
opsar
epr
otect
edef
fect
ivel
yfr
om pestdamageandar
eenabl
est
oyi
eld

22
 wel
lwhi
l
ethenat
ural
ecol
ogi
cal
bal
ancei
smai
ntai
ned
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 I
trequi
rescar
eful
resear
chandt
echnol
ogy

 Thebiol
ogi
calagentusedt
ocont
rolpest
scani
tsel
fbecomeaser
iouscr
op
pest

 Di
stur
banceoft
heecosy
stem canr
endert
hebi
ologi
cal
agenti
nef
fect
ive


Har
vest
ing
a)I
dent
if
ycr
opst
hatar
ereadyf
orhar
vest
Si
gnsofcr
opsr
eadyf
orhar
vest
Somecr
opsl
oset
hei
rleav
es
Changi
ngoft
hecol
ourofl
eav
esf
rom gr
eent
oyel
l
ow
Somecr
opsdr
yup
Ri
peni
ngofcr
opseeds
I
ncr
easei
nthesi
zeoft
hecr
op
Somecr
opscausecr
acksont
hesoi
lasasi
gnofmat
uri
ty
b)Har
vest
ingt
hecr
opst
udi
ed

 Groundnut
s–canbeharvestedbyhandpull
i
ngifthesoi
lisl
ightandmoi
st.Ahoe
canbeusedwher ethesoilishar
d.Onl argescal
eoxdr awnort r
act
ordrawn
i
mpl ement
scanbeused.

 Mai ze–ishar
vest
edbyhandswherecropsarer
emovedbyhandsf
rom t
he
stalkwhensti
llgr
eenordry.Onlargescalemaizecobsar
eremovedby
usingacombinedhar
vest
er
c)Met
hodsofcr
opst
orage

 Whenpr oper
lydr
ymai
zecanbest
oredi
nacr
ibwhi
chshoul
dbewel
l
vent
il
ated

 Cobsofmai
zeshoul
dbedust
edwi
thpest
ici
des

 Onl
argescal
emai
zecanbest
oredi
nsi
l
os

 Gr
oundnut
sar
est
oredi
ngr
anar
ieswhenpr
oper
lydr
y
4.FORESTRY
Tr
ees

 Descr
ibef
orest
ry

23
  Tr
eef
armi
ng(nur
ser
y,weedi
ng,
pruni
ng)
Forestr
yi st he sci
ence,ar tand craf
tof cr eat
ing,managi
ng,using,
conservingandrepai
ri
ngf or
estsandassoci
atedresourcest
omeetdesir
ed
goals,needs and values forhuman benefi
ts.Forestryi
s pr
act
ised i
n
pl
ant at
ionsandnatur
alstands.
I
dent
if
yther
olepl
ayedbyt
reesi
ntheenv
ironment

 Maintaini
ngbal
anceofnat
ure.Regul
atecar
bondioxideandoxy
genin
theat mospher
e,cont
rol
li
ngsoilerosi
on,reser
voirforwater
,wind
breaker.

 Tr
ees are mostl
y used as source offood,fuel
,shel
ter
,paper
pr
oduct
ion,t
reesareusedasherbalmedi
cines,
etc
Usesofwood
i
) St
atet
hedi
ff
erentusesofwood

 Woodcanbeusedf
orf
urni
tur
e

 Fl
oor
ing

 Const
ruct
ionandshi
pbui
l
ding

 Ar
t

 Musi
cal
inst
rument
s

 Making dishesand utensi

l
s,t
ool
s,spor
tsequi
pment
sand
t
oys,
providecell
ulose

 Maki
ngofper
fumesandot
herf
lav
our
s.
i
i
) Usesofsof
twoodandhar
dwood
Sof
twood

 Usedi
nconst
ruct
ionandj
oiner
y

 Maki
ngf
urni
tur
e

 Maki
ngofst or
ageunits,cur
vedshel
terst
ruct
uresonbui
l
dings,chi
l
drent
oys,
t
imber
,paper
,boxesandmodels
Har
dwood

 I
s used f
orf uel
,tool
s,const
ruct
ion,boatbuil
ding,furni
tur
e maki
ng,musi
cal
i
nst
ruments,
floor
ing,
cooki
ng,manufact
uri
ngofcharcoaletc
Agr
o–f
orest
ry
Expl
aint
hemeani
ngofago-
for
est
ry.

 Agrof
orestr
yisthedel
i
ber
atelandmanagementunitwher
eby,woodyperenni
als
ar
edeli
berat
elygr
ownonthesamepieceoflandal
ongwithagri
cul
tur
ecropsand

24
 l
ivestocki
nsomeform ofpar
ti
alar
rangementort
empor
alsequence.I
nter
pol
ati
ng
oftreesandcr
ops.
I
dent
if
yvar
ioust
reespeci
est
hatwi
l
limpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

 Treeswhi
chi
mpr
ovef
ert
il
it
y:ni
tr
ogenf
ixi
ngt
reesl
i
keSesbani
aTef
rosi
a,pi
geon
pea

 Deci
duoust
rees,dr
opl
eavesri
chi
nnut
ri
ent
s,t
reest
hatf
ormt
hewoodl
andsl
i
ke
mukushi
,mutondo,
mut
oboetc.

 Kal
ahar
iwoodl
andt
reesl
i
kemuzaul
i
,museshi
andkany
imbi

 Munga woodlands t
ree li
ke acaci
at r
ees,Mopaniwoodl
and l
i
ke Mopaniand
baobabandexoti
cforestwoodlandtr
ees
Pl
ant
ingofappr
opr
iat
etr
eesi
mpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
tyandr
educesoi
ler
osi
on.

 I
mpr
ovi
ngsoi
lfer
ti
li
tyandr
educi
ngsoi
ler
osi
onbypl
ant
ingt
rees.
St
atet
headv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofagr
ofor
est
ry.
Adv
ant
ages

 Pr
otect
ionofi
ntercr
opsandani
mal
sbyt
het
reeswhi
chhav
eawi
ndbr
eakef
fect
,
pr
ovidi
ngshel
ter
.

 Recov
eryofsomeoft
hel
eachedordr
ainednut
ri
ent
sbyt
hedeepr
oot
soft
het
rees.

 I
tcr
eat
esempl
oyment
.

 I
mpr
ovest
hequal
i
tyofwoodpr
oduced.

 Guar
ant
eedf
oll
ow-
upandt
reecar
eduet
othear
abl
eint
ercr
oppi
ngact
ivi
ty.

 I
mpr
ovest
hequal
i
tyofnat
ural
resour
ces.

 Bet
tercont
rol
ofcul
ti
vat
edar
ea.

 Creat
ionofor
igi
nall
andscapest
hatar
eat
tr
act
ive,openandf
avourr
ecr
eat
ion
acti
vi
ties.

 Pr
otect
ionofsoi
landwat
er
Di
sadv
ant
agesofAgr
o-f
orest
ry

 Thedaytodayf ar
mingissuesar
efarmor
ecompl
ext
hani
nast
rai
ghtf
orest
oper
ati
onormonocult
uref
arm.

 Agro-f
orest
ryoft
enseesreducedyiel
dsasthesmal
lcr
opscompet
ewi
tht
het
rees
forl
ight,
waterandnut
ri
entsfrom t
hesoi
l.

5.CONSERVATI
ONFARMI
NG
Or
gani
cfar
mingandSoi
lFer
ti
li
ty

25
 Or
gani
cfar
ming

 Organicfarmingisf ar mingwi t
houtusingi ndustri
all
ymadef ert
il
isers.Organic
manur eisusedtomai ntai
nsoilfer
ti
li
tyandi mpr ovesoilpr
oduct iv
ity.Manureli
ke
farmyardmanure,compost ,greenormul chesar eappliedtof erti
li
set hesoilfor
higheryi
eldi
ng.Organicf armingisaform ofagr icult
urethatreliesont echni
ques
suchascr oprot
ati
on, greenmanur eandbiologicalpestcontr
ol.
Ther
oleofor
gani
cfar
mingi
nsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty

 I
ncr
easessoi
lor
gani
sms’
act
ivi
ti
est
obr
eakor
gani
cmat
eri
alst
orel
easenut
ri
ent
s

 Soi
lor gani
sms pr
omot e soi
lstr
uct
ure byr
eleasi
ng chemi
cal
sthatbi
nd soi
l
par
ti
clestoget
heri
ntoaggregat
es.

 I
tincr
easessoi
lor
gani
cmat
ter

 Whenmi
crobi
alact
ivi
tyi
ncr
eases,
soi
lti
l
thi
mpr
oves

 Addit
ion ofmanur
e nat
uralfert
il
iser
sr esul
ti
ng i
nto a bui
l
d up ofav
ail
abl
e
phosphor
usinor
gani
cfar
mf i
eldsovert
ime.

 Acr
opr
otat
ionpr
ogr
ammei
srequi
redt
omai
ntai
n/i
mpr
ovesoi
lor
gani
cmat
ter
,

 Pr
ovi
def
orpestmanagementandcont
rol
soi
ler
osi
on.

 Or
gani
cfer
ti
li
ser
smi
ner
ali
seandr
eleasenut
ri
ent
satav
erysl
owr
ate

 Cr
opsequences,cov
ercr
opandsur
facecr
opr
esi
duesr
educer
unof
fandl
eachi
ng
l
ossesofsol
ublenut
ri
ent
s.

 Nut
ri
ent
sfr
om gr
eenmanur
eandcov
ercr
opsaddnut
ri
ent
stot
hesoi
l
.
Or
gani
candConv
ent
ional
met
hodsoff
armi
ng
Organi
cmatt
er-Organi
cmatt
erisdecay
ingpl
ant
sandani
malmateri
alsconsi
sti
ngof
fal
lenl
eav
es,remai
nsofpl
antsandanimalsi
ncl
udi
ngani
malwastematterli
kedung
anduri
ne.
I
mpor
tanceofmai
ntai
ningori
ncr
easi
ngor
gani
cmat
terf
orcr
ops

 Mai
ntai
ninghumusi
nthesoi
l
.

 Animport
antsourceofplantnut
ri
ent
sli
keni
tr
ogen,phosphor
us,pot
assi
um,
sul
phuraf
terdecomposi
ti
on.

 I
thel
pst
hesoi
lret
ainwat
erandmi
ner
alsal
ts.

 I
tbi
ndssoi
lpar
ti
clest
oget
hert
husi
mpr
ovesoi
lst
ruct
ure.

 I
thel
psabsor
bgasesl
i
keni
tr
ogeni
ntot
hesoi
l
.
Conv
ent
ional
far
mingmet
hods

 Conventi
onalf ar
mingmet hods:
-isthefarmingmethodwhereveget
ati
onis
cl
earedandt henall
owedtodecomposeabi tandthenincor
por
atedint
othe
soi
ltoincreasesoilor
gani
cmat t
er.Deepcul
ti
vati
oni
sdonetoremoveroot
sof

26
 weeds.Pl
anti
ngofseedisthendone.Inthi
smet hodri
dgi
ngandmoul di
ng
f
oll
owsploughi
ngandhar
rowi
ngwhichhel
pstoconserv
ethesoi
landwat
er.
I
mpor
tanceofor
gani
cmet
hodsoff
armi
ng

 Theydonotpol
l
utet
heenv
ironment
.

 Theyincreasesoi
lfer
ti
li
tysi
ncet
heor
gani
cmat
eri
alsdecomposeandr
elease
nutr
ient
s.

 Theyi
ncr
easesoi
lmi
crobi
alact
ivi
ti
esandpopul
ati
onofsoi
lmi
croor
gani
sms.

 Theyi
mpr
ovesoi
lst
ruct
ure.

 I
timpr
ovessoi
lwat
err
etent
ionandi
nfi
l
trat
ion.

 Theycont
rol
soi
lpHbymai
ntai
ningaci
d-basebal
ancei
nthesoi
l
.

 I
t’
scheapert
ousehencer
educef
armi
ngcost
s.
Conser
vat
ionf
armi
ngandCr
opRot
ati
on
Conser
vat
ionf
armi
ng

 Conservati
onfar
mingisasystem orpr
act
icewhichai
mst oconser
vesoiland
waterbyusi ngasurfacecov ertomini
misewat errunoffanderosi
ont o
i
mpr ov
et hecondi
ti
onsforest
abli
shmentandgrowthofcrops.
Benef
it
sofconser
vat
ionf
armi
ngmet
hods

 Theyhel
pint
her
educt
ionofsoi
ler
osi
on

 Theyimpr
ovesoilst
ruct
urebecausesoi
lisprot
ect
edbymul
chandusi
ng
mini
mum ornot
il
lagetechni
quesandcr
oprot
ati
on

 I
thel
psi
mpr
over
aini
nfi
l
trat
ionandmi
stef
fi
ciency

 I
tlower
smachi
ner
y,l
abourandmai
ntenancecost
sbecausemi
nimum t
il
lage

 I
tleadst
ohi
ghy
iel
ds
Expl
ainwhenconser
vat
ionf
armi
ngmet
hodsar
etobeused

 Whenf
inesoi
lti
l
thi
snotr
equi
redf
orcr
oppl
ant
ing

 Usedonst
eepsl
opessoast
oreduceonsoi
ler
osi
onhazar
ds

 Used i
n per
enni
alcrop pr
oduct
ion t
o maint
ain soi
lst
ruct
ureand cont
rol
er
osiontomini
misecul
ti
vat
ionswhichcandamagecroproot
s,l
eadi
ngtolow
yi
elds.

 Appl
i
edt
omai
ntai
nandi
mpr
oveonsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.
Cr
opr
otat
ion
Thisist
hegr
owingofdi f
ferentcr
opsont
hesamepi
eceofl
andseasonaf
ter
seasoni
napl
annedsequence.

27
 I
mpor
tanceofcr
opr
otat
ion

 I
treducest
hei
nci
dencesofcr
oppest
sanddi
seasesont
hef
arm

 I
tincr
easessoi
lfer
ti
li
tyandi
mpr
ovessoi
lst
ruct
uredur
ingt
her
est
ing
per
iod

 Ther
eisbet
teruseofsoi
lnut
ri
ent
sbyt
hegr
owi
ngcr
ops

 I
tincr
easescr
opy
iel
ds
I
mpor
tanceofl
egumesi
ncr
opr
otat
ion

 Theyhav
enodul
esont
her
oot
sthathel
pfi
xni
tr
ogeni
ntot
hesoi
l

 Theypr
otectt
hesoi
lagai
nster
osi
on

 Thef
all
i
ngl
eav
esoft
hepl
antpr
ovi
dehumust
othesoi
l
I
nter
croppi
ng
Thisi
st hepl
anti
ngofanothercropbetweentherowsofawidel
yspacedmai
ncr
op.For
example,t
hegrowingofbeansbetweentherowsofmaizepl
ant
s.

I
mpor
tanceofi
nter
croppi
ngcr
ops.

 I
tcont
rol
ssoi
ler
osi
on

 Ther
eisbet
terut
il
isat
ionofsoi
lmi
ner
alsal
ts

 Legumesgr
owi
ngi
nthesy
stem f
ixni
tr
atesi
nther
ootnodul
eswhi
chenr
ich
thesoi
l
.

 I
tenabl
esf
armer
stohar
vestdi
ff
erentt
ypesofcr
opsf
rom t
hesamef
iel
d.
Expl
ainwhataf
armerconsi
der
swheni
nter
croppi
ngcr
ops

 Spat
ialar
rangement–growingtwoormor
ecr
opsatt
hesamet
imewi
that
l
eastonecropplant
edi
nr ows.

 Plantdensi
ty–theseedi
ngofeachcr
opi
nthemi
xtur
eisadj
ust
edbel
owi
ts
ful
lrat
et oavoi
dover
crowdi
ng

 Maturi
tydate–plant
ingcr
opsofdiff
erentmaturit
yperi
odstakesadv
ant
age
ofpeakresour
cesdemandf ornut
ri
ents,
water
, andsunl
ight
.

 Plantar
rangement–all
owsonememberoft
hemi
xtur
etocapt
uresunl
i
ght
thatwouldnotot
her
wisebeavai
l
abl
etoot
her
s.
Demonst
rat
eint
ercr
oppi
ngofcr
ops
Thef
oll
owi
ngcanbecombi
nat
ionf
ori
nter
croppi
ng
Bananas/beans; cassav
a/groundnut
s; bananas/
coffee; mai
ze/
beans;
cassava/beans; pot at
oes/maize/
beans; sunfl
ower/beans; mai
ze/mi
ll
et;
maize/sorghum/beans.

28
Conser
vat
iont
il
lage
Thi
si swher
ethereisnocul
ti
vat
iondonebutonlyher
bici
desar
eappli
edtoprepar
ethe
l
and.Thisi
sinordert
oavoi
ddist
urbi
ngthesoilasmuchaspossibl
esothatt
hesoi
land
waterar
econser
ved.
Expl
aint
hebenef
it
sofnot
il
lageorconser
vat
iont
il
lage

 I
treducessoi
ler
osi
onbecauset
hesoi
li
snotdi
stur
bed.

 Soi
lst
ruct
urer
emai
nsst
abl
ebecausemul
choft
hesol
remai
nsundi
stur
bed.

 Costsuchasl
abour
,pl
oughi
ngandhar
rowi
ngar
eel
i
minat
ed.

 I
tleadst
ohi
ghpr
ofi
tsbecauseofl
owi
nit
ial
cost
sincur
red

 I
mproves nutri
ent retent
ion because of r
educed cul
ti
vat
ion and
mai
ntenanceofsoi
lsurf
acecover
.
Gr
eenmanur
e
Greenmanurei
sagroupofcropsgrownpart
icul
arl
ytobeploughedbacktothesoi
lwhi
l
e
st
illgr
eent
oimprov
esoil
fer
ti
lit
y.Legumesareusedasgreenmanurecrops.
I
mpor
tanceofgr
eenmanur
ecr
ops

 Theypr
ovi
det
hesoi
lwi
thor
gani
cmat
terondecomposi
ti
on.

 Theypr
ovi
denut
ri
ent
ssuchasni
tr
ogenandphosphor
us.

 I
timpr
ovessoi
laer
ati
onandwat
err
etent
ioncapaci
ty.

 Iti
mpart
sdarkcol
ourt
othesoi
lwhi
chabsor
bsandr
etai
nheatr
equi
redf
or
seedger
minat
ion.
Usi
nggr
eenmanur
etogr
owcr
op

 Itshoul
dbei
deal
l
ylegumi
nouscr
opst
opr
ovi
denut
ri
ent
ssuchasni
tr
ogent
othe
soil

 Itshoul
dbeploughedordugint
ot hesoilandcover
edcompl etel
yatf
lower
ing
stagewhenni
tr
ogencont
enti
ntherootnodul
esissuf
fi
cientenough.

 I
tshoul
dbedugintothesoilandagoodperiodoftimemustel
apsebet
ween
i
ncor
por
ati
onofgr
eenmanureint
othesoi
landcroppl
anti
ng.
6.LI
VESTOCKPRODUCTI
ON
Economi
cImpor
tanceofLi
vest
ock
Cat
tl
e

 Pr
ovi
demanur
eusedt
oimpr
ovesoi
lfer
ti
li
ty

 Sour
ceoff
arm power

 Cat
tl
ehi
desi
ncr
easeonagr
icul
tur
alexpor
t

29
  Pr
ovi
deempl
oymentt
othef
armer
s

 Pr
ovi
deempl
oymentt
opeopl
einagr
obasedi
ndust
ri
es

 Sour
ceofi
ncomedai
rypr
ocessi
ngcompani
escr
eat
easenseofi
ndust
ri
ali
sat
ion

 Sour
ceoff
ood

 Gov
ernmentgett
axesf
rom cat
tl
efar
mer
s
Poul
tr
y(l
ayer
s)

 Pr
ovi
dehi
ghcl
assmanur
eusedt
ofer
ti
li
zet
hesoi
l

 Pr
ovi
deeggsandmeatwhi
char
easour
ceofpr
otei
n

 Giv
equickerret
urnsbecauset
heygr
owandmat
uremor
equi
ckl
ythanot
hert
ypes
ofl
ivest
ock.

 I
tdoesnotr
equi
real
otofspace.

 Pr
ovidesemploy
menttofar
mersandwor
ker
sont
hef
arm,hat
cher
iesandpoul
tr
y
pr
ocessingandmar
ket
ingbodi
es.

 Sour
ceofi
ncomet
othef
armert
husupl
i
fti
ngt
hei
reconomi
cst
andar
ds.

 I
tdoesnotr
equi
real
otofcapi
tal
tost
art
.
Anat
omyandphy
siol
ogyofl
i
vest
ock
Expl
aindi
gest
ioni
nrumi
nantandnon-
rumi
nantani
mal
s
Di
gest
ioni
nar
umi
nant–Cat
tl
e

 I
nt hemouthfoodismixedwit
hsali
vatosof
tenitandmakeiteasyt
oswal
l
ow.
Foodischewedandswall
owedthr
ought
heoesophagust
other
umen.

 I
ntherumenbact
eri
a,pr
otozoaandfungiatonthecell
uloseinthegr
assbr
eaki
ng
i
tdownint
ofat
tyaci
dswhichareabsor
beddirect
lyi
ntotheblood.

30
 Intheret
icul
um,foodissiev
edsuchthatf
inerpar
ti
clesconti
nuet
otheomasum
whil
ecoarsemateri
ali
sregul
atedt
othemouthforf
urtherchewi
ngt
henswal
l
owed
again.

 I
ntheomasum thetoughl
eav
esgri
ndt
hef
oodandext
ractwat
erf
rom t
hef
ood
t
heni
tcont
inuestot
heabomasums.

 I
nt heabomasums,pepsi n actson t heproteinsand changesi tt
o prot
ease,
pepti
desandpolypepti
des.Hy drochlor
icaci
dpr ovidesconduci
veenvi
ronmentfor
pepsi
nactioni
tal
sodi si
nfectsthef oodbyki
ll
ingt hemicroorgani
smsinthefood/
foodcont
inuest
ot hesmallintesti
ne.

 I
ntheduodenum,thefir
stpar
tofthesmalli
ntest
ine,pancreati
cjui
cecont
aini
ng
t
heenzy
mesamy lase,
li
paseandt
rypsi
nconti
nuethechemi caldi
gest
ionoff
ood.

 Thesmal li
ntest
ineal
sopr oducesi
ntest
inalj
uicewhi
chcompl
etest
hedi
gest
ion
processoff
oodsubstances.
Di
gest
ioni
nanonr
umi
nant

 Int
hemouthfoodi schewedandmi xedwi
thsali
vawhi
chcontai
nst
heenzy
me
amyl
aser
esponsi
blefort
hebreaki
ngdownofst
archtomal
tose.

 I
nt he st
omach,gastr
icjuice cont
aini
ng the enzy
me pepsi
nis pr
oduced.
Hydr
ochl
ori
caci
disal
soproducedbytheli
ningoft
hestomach.

 Hy
drochl
ori
caci
dpr
ovi
desasui
tabl
eenv
ironmentf
orpepsi
ntoact
.

 Pepsi
nact
sonpr
otei
nst
opr
oducepept
idesi
nthest
omach.

 Thefoodcont
inuesi
ntot
heduodenum wher
ethepancr
easpr
oducespancr
eat
ic
j
uice.

 Pancr
eati
cjui
cecont
ainst
heenzymesthatbr
eakstar
cht
omaltose,t
rypsinact
s
onprotei
nstopr
oducepepti
desandl
ipasebr
eaksdownl
i
pidst
of at
tyacidsand
gl
ycer
ol.

31
  Bi
l
epr
oducedbyt
hel
i
veremul
sif
iesf
atsf
orbet
teract
ionbyl
i
pase

Bi
rd: Di
gest
ive Sy
stem of a chi
cken

 Thebeakpi
cksf
oodandt
akesi
ttot
hemout
hwher
eiti
smi
xedwi
thsal
i
vat
oeasy
swal
lowi
ng.

 Thef
oodi
nnotchewedbutj
ustswal
l
owedt
hrought
heoesophagust
othecr
op.

 The cr
op stor
es food tempor
ari
l
y and moi
stens i
t bef
orei
tist
aken t
o
prov
ent
ri
cul
us(stomach)
.

 I
nthest
omachpepsi
nbr
eaksdownpr
otei
ntopept
ides.

 Hy
drochl
ori
caci
disal
sopr
oducedi
nthepr
ovent
ri
cul
usf
orbet
terpepsi
nact
ion.

 Thefoodconti
nuestothegizzar
dwhi chconsi
stsofgr
it
sthatbr
eaksdownf
ood
i
ntosmal
lerpar
ti
clest
ofaci
l
itatefordi
gest
ion.

 Pancreati
cj ui
ce and intest
inaljui
ce cont
ains enzy
mes which break down
carbohydr
atestoglucose,protei
nint
oami noaci
dsandf at
sint
ofattyacidsand
gly
cerol.
Ci
rcul
ati
onsy
stem i
nani
mal
s:

 The cir
culat
ion system is exclusi
vel
yi mportantinthe physi
ologyofanimals
becauseitenablesallthebodycel l
stobesuppl iedwit
hoxygenandf oodi
norder
tofuncti
on,transpor
tsmanychemi cal
sr equi
redi nvar
iouspart
softhebodyand
removeswast eproductsofmet abol
ism outofthehear
St
ruct
ural
funct
ionoft
heci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem ofani
mal
s

32
  Oxygenat
edbloodmovefr
om thel
ungstothehear
tthent
oal
lpar
tsoft
hebody
whereoxygeni
susedbyt
heti
ssuest
oproduceener
gy.

 Deoxy
genatedbloodmov efrom theti
ssuesi
nthebodyt
othehear
tthent
othe
l
ungswhereiti
sreleasedoutasexpi
redair
.
St
orageofener
gyi
nani
mal
bodi
es

 Ener
gyi
nthebodyi
sst
oredasATP.ATPst
andsf
oradenosi
net
ri
phosphat
e.
Ener
gyr
eleaseandut
il
isat
ioni
nthebodyofani
mal
s

 ATPi
sbr
okendownt
oADPr
eleasi
ngener
gyf
orusebyt
hecel
l
soft
hebody
.
Br
eedi
ngcy
clesi
nani
mal
s
Br
eedi
ngcy
clesoff
arm ani
mal
s

Speci
es Dur
ati
on(
day
s)

Cow 19-
21

Ewe 15-
17

Sow 19-
21

Goat 19-
20

Char
act
eri
sti
csofbr
eedsoff
arm ani
mal
s
Dai
rycat
tl
e

 Theudderi
swel
ldev
elopedwi
thwel
lshapedf
ourt
eat
s.

33
  Theani
mal
hasal
eanangul
arf
ramebutnotv
eryf
at.

 I
tishumpl
ess.

 I
thasshor
t,wel
lsetl
egst
osuppor
tthebody
.

 I
tisagoodt
emper
ament
.

 I
thasal
argepr
omi
nentmi
l
kvei
n.
Beefcat
tl
e

 Theyar
ehumped.

 Theyhavelong and st
rong l
egsthatenabl
ethem t
o wal
klong di
stancef
or
sear
chi
ngofgoodpastureandwater
.

 Theyhav
ebl
ockconf
ormat
ion.

 Theyhav
elongdewl
apsandl
ongnar
rowf
aces.

 Theyhav
ehi
ghf
oodconv
ersi
onalef
fi
ciencyt
oenabl
ethem r
eachsl
aught
erwei
ght
qui
ckl
y.

 Theyhav
epoor
lydev
elopedudder
.

 Theyar
eadapt
edt
ohi
ghambi
entt
emper
atur
e(28-
44°
C).

 Theyar
eusual
l
yresi
stantt
opest
sanddi
seases.

Sel
ect
ingbr
eedi
ngani
mal
s
Cr
it
eri
ausedi
nsel
ect
ingbr
eedi
ngani
mal
s

 Ananimali
ssel
ect
edaccor
dingt
othecapaci
tyt
oadaptt
olocalenv
ironment
al
condi
ti
ons.

 I
ncr
easedpr
oduct
ionpot
ent
ial
.

 Ther
eresi
stancet
opest
s/di
seases.

 Howl
ongi
tcanst
ayal
i
ve(
accor
dingt
oit
slongev
ity
).

 Thebr
eedi
ngr
ecor
dcanbeusedf
orsel
ect
ion.
I
mpor
tanceofcr
oss-br
eedi
ngandi
n-br
eedi
ngi
nli
vest
ockpr
oduct
ion
Cr
ossbr
eedi
ng

 Thisi
st hemati
ngofdi
ff
erentpur
ebreedse.
g.mati
ngapureGuernseybul
lwi
tha
pureBrownSwisscow.Themainaim ofcr
ossbr
eedingi
stoint
roducenewgood
genesi
nt heher
d.

34
 I
mpor
tanceofcr
ossbr
eedi
ng

 Theof
fspr
inggr
owf
ast
ert
hant
hepar
ent
s.

 Theof
fspr
ingadaptf
ast
ert
othel
ocal
env
ironmentt
hant
hepar
ent
s.

 Reducest
ransmi
ssi
onofi
nher
it
abl
edi
seasesi
ntheher
d.

 Cr
oss-br
eedsar
emor
eresi
stantt
odi
seases.

 Cr
oss-br
eedi
ngi
ncr
easespr
oduct
ionpot
ent
ial
.
I
n-br
eedi
ngi
nLi
vest
ock

 Thisisthemati
ngofcl
oselyr
elat
edanimal
ssoastoconcentr
atethenumberof
pair
s ofsimil
argenes f
ora parti
cul
artr
aiti
nthe of
fspri
ng’
s e.g.hi
gh egg
product
ion.

 I
n-br
eedi
ngl
eadst
opoorbr
eeds.

 Themainadvantagesofin-br
eedi
ngarethati
tmai
ntai
nsgoodchar
act
eri
sti
csi
n
l
ivest
ockandusedtoproducepurebr
eed.
Ar
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
ion

 Arti
fici
alinsemi
nati
on i
sthetechni
queofintr
oduci
ng semen i
ntot
hefemale
reproduct
ivesyst
em,usual
lyt
hev aginaort
hroughcer
v i
xrat
heroftheut
erus
arti
fi
cial
ly
.
Adv
ant
agesofAr
ti
fi
cial
Insemi
nat
ion

 El
i
minat
est
hecostofkeepi
ngabul
lonaf
arm.

 I
tper
mit
suseofdi
stancemal
esassemencanbei
mpor
ted.

 I
tpr
event
sthespr
eadofbr
eedi
ngdi
seasesl
i
kebr
ucel
l
osi
s.

 Semencol
l
ect
edf
rom super
iormal
escanbest
ored.

 I
tischeapert
otr
anspor
tsemenf
rom onepl
acet
oanot
hert
hant
ranspor
ti
ngabul
l
.

 I
tpr
event
slar
gebul
l
sinj
uri
ngsmal
lcows.

 Manycowscanbeser
vedusi
ngsemenofonegoodmal
einashor
tper
iodoft
ime.

 I
tcont
rol
sinbr
eedi
ng.

 I
tall
owst hefar
mert
ousedi
ff
erentt
ypesofbul
l
ssi
ncesemeni
sgot
tenf
rom
di
ff
erentpl
aces.


Di
sadv
ant
agesorAr
ti
fi
cial
Insemi
nat
ion

 I
trequi
resski
l
ledt
echni
ques.

 Sper
mat
ozoai
nsemenmaydi
eduet
opoorst
oragef
aci
l
iti
es.

35
  I
tmaybedoneonani
mal
sthatar
enotonheatper
iod.

 Art
if
ici
ali
nsomniousarefew i
nthecount
ryhencesomeani
mal
spasshei
rheat
per
iodwit
houtbeingi
nseminat
ed.
Bel
owi
sthedr
awi
ngshowi
ngt
hear
ti
fi
cial
insemi
nat
ion

Dev
elopmentoft
hef
oet
us

 Fert
il
isat
ionoccurswhent hesperm meet st heeggi ntheov i
duct.A zygotei s
for
med.Thezy got
edev elopsintoanembr y
oi ntheuterus;theuterusgetsoxygen
andfoodf rom themot hert hr
ought heumbi l
icalcordandexpel scarbondi oxi
de
andwast eproduct
si nt
ot hebloodoft hemot herthrought hesameumbi li
calcord.
Theembr y
oi ssurr
oundedbyamni oti
cf l
uidwhi chprotectsitfrom damage.An
embry odevel
opsintoaf oetuswithdevelopedbloodci r
culator
ysystem andorgans.

Bel
owi
stheDr
awi
ngshowi
ngt
hedev
elopmentofaf
oet
us.

36
St
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionsofmammar
ygl
ands

Funct
ionsofmammar
ygl
ands

 Mammar
ygl
andspr
oducemi
l
kfort
hebor
nbaby
.

 Mammar
ygl
andspr
ovi
def
orsuckl
i
ngofy
oungones.

 Mammar yglandspr
oducemi
l
kthatcanbemi
l
kedoutdur
ingl
act
ati
onf
orhuman
consumpti
on.
Thepr
ocessofmi
l
klet
-downandmi
l
khol
d-upi
nlact
ati
ngani
mal
s
Mi
l
klet
-down

 Mil
klet
-downi
sadownfl
owofmi l
kfr
om t
healveol
arcav
ityandsmall
ductsy
stem
totheglandci
ster
nandteatcanaltoout
side.Thi
sact i
onisdictat
edbyt he
oxy
toci
nehormone
Mi
l
khol
d-up

 Mil
khol d-
upiswhent hemil
kinganimalfail
stogiveit
smil
k.Thisiscausedby
ext
ernalfact
orsl
ikefr
ight
eni
ng,beat
ing,t
alki
ngroughl
ytot
hemilki
nganimaljust
bef
oreorduringmil
ki
ngt i
me.
Heal
thi
nli
vest
ock
Si
gnsofgoodandpoorheal
thi
nli
vest
ock
Goodheal
thi
nli
vest
ock
Anani
mal
inagoodheal
thshowst
hef
oll
owi
ngsi
gns;

 Goodappet
it
e

 Spendsmostofi
tst
imef
eedi
ng

 Thebodyt
emper
atur
eisnor
mal

 Thepul
ser
atepermi
nut
eisnor
mal

 Ther
espi
rat
ionr
atei
snor
mal

37
  Thehai
risbr
ight

 Theey
esar
ebr
ightandal
ert

 Ther
eisnomucusdi
schar
gef
rom t
hemout
hornost
ri
ls

 Theur
inei
sofnor
mal
col
ourandsmel
l

 Thedungissof
tbutnotl
oosewi
thoutwor
msorsegment
sofbl
oodandhas
nor
malsmel
l

 Nol
i
mpi
ngbutnor
mal
wal
ki
ng
Poorheal
thi
nli
vest
ock

 Decl
i
nei
npr
oduct
ionofmi
l
k

 Var
iat
ionsi
nbodyt
emper
atur
e

 Lossofwei
ght

 Lossofappet
it
e

 Lookssi
ckandnotact
ive

 Var
iat
ioni
npul
ser
ate

 Dungv
eryl
ooseorhar
d

 Ur
inemaycont
ainbl
ood

 Hai
rst
ands

 Mucusdi
schar
gef
rom t
hemout
handnost
ri
ls
Nut
ri
ti
vev
alueofl
i
vest
ockf
eed
Li
vest
ockar
egi
venf
eedt
opr
ovi
det
hef
oll
owi
ngv
alues;

 Feedprovi
desener
gyf
oral
lmov
ement
soft
heani
mal
andf
orr
eact
ionsi
nthecel
l
s
ofthebody.

 Pr
ovi
desmi
ner
alsr
equi
redf
orgr
owt
handr
epai
roft
hewor
noutcel
l
soft
hebody
.

 Feed prov
ides subst
ances requi
red t
o keep t
he body heal
th and t
o gi
vei
t
prot
ecti
onagainstdi
seases.

 Feedpr
ovi
despowerf
ordoi
ngwor
kfordr
aughtani
mal
s

 Pr
ovi
desrawmater
ial
srequir
edf
ort
hepr
oduct
ionofpr
oduct
sfr
om ani
mal
’
sbody
e.
g.mi
lk,
eggs,
meat,wool.

 Feedpr
ovi
dessubst
ancesf
orf
att
eni
ngani
mal
sbef
oresel
l
ing.
Thepr
esenceofv
ari
oust
ypesofnut
ri
ent
sinani
mal
feeds
Ani
mal
feedsshoul
dcont
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngt
ypesofnut
ri
ent
s;

38
  Car
bohydrat
es:Theycontai
nelement
sCar
bon,Hy
drogenandOxy
genwhi
char
e
chi
efsour
cesofenergyf
oranimal
s.

 Fats:Fatscontai
nCarbon,Hy drogenandOxygenascarbohydr
atesdo,al
soa
source ofenergy butthey provi
de t
wice orthr
ee t
imes more ener
gy t
han
carbohydr
ates.

 Prot
eins:TheyaremadeofCar bon,Hy dr
ogen,OxygenandNitrogenalthough
somecont ai
nSulphurandPhosphorus.Theyarerequi
redforgr
owt h,r
epairand
repl
acementofdamagedorwornoutt i
ssues.

 Vit
amins:v
itami
nsarecomplexcompoundsrequi
redi
ntheani
mal
’sbodyi
nsmal
l
quant
it
iest
ohelpcontr
oldi
ff
erentchemi
calr
eacti
onsi
ntheani
mal
’
sbody.

 Mi
ner
als:Theyarealsor
equi
redi
nsmal
lamount
stopr
omot
eheal
thandpr
event
mi
ner
al def
ici
enci
es.
Nut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
es
Sy
mpt
omsofnut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
esi
nli
vest
ock
Someill
-heal
thconditi
onsinliv
estockaretheresultofdef
ici
enci
esi
nthef
eeds,f
or
exampl
elackoforinsuff
ici
entminer
alsal
ts,
prot
einsorvi
tami
ns.
Bel
owi
sat
abl
esummar
isi
ngsy
mpt
omsofnut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
esi
ncat
tl
eandpoul
tr
y;

Def
ici
entnut
ri
ent Sy
mpt
omsi
ncat
tl
e Symptoms i
n poul
tr
y
(Lay
ers)

a)Pr
otei
n Reducedgr
owth,infer
ti
li
ty, Poorgrowth,
infer
ti
lit
y,poor
poor muscular muscul ar development,
devel
opment
,reducedmilk r educedeggproducti
on.
andmeat.

b)Car
bohy
drat
es Gener
al weakness, Weakness, emaci
ati
on,
emaci
ati
on,
deat
h. deat
h.

c)Mi
ner
alel
ement
s

i
. Cal
ci
um Reduced gr owth and Decr easedeggproduct
ion,
reduced appeti
te,ri
ckets, pooregg shel
ls,l
oss of
dull
ness, decr
eased musclecontr
ol.
sensit
ivi
ty.

i
i
. Phosphor
us Loss ofappet it
e,growth Reduced egg producti
on,
fai
lure, r i
cket
s and lossofappet
it
e,weakness.
sti
ffness,roughhai
rcoat ,
death,weakness,decl i
ne
i
nmi l
kyiel
d.

i
i
i. Sodi
um Gr
owt
h f
ail
ure, l
ack of Gr
owt
h f
ail
ure, l
ack of

39
 appeti
te,decreased pul
se appeti
te, low egg
rat
e,decli
neinmi l
kyi
eld. pr oducti
on, cannibal
i
sm
amongbi rds.

i
v. Zi
nc Enlarged hocks, Poorf eatheri
ng,low egg
shorteni
ngandt hi
ckening pr oducti
on, l oss of
ofl eg bones,scali
ng of appet i
te, weak embr yos,
ski
n, l
ossofappeti
te. poorskeletal
development.

v
. Manganese Crooked cal
ves, Chicks have sli
pped
malformed necks and t endons,t
hinshell
edeggs
l
imbs. andpoorhatchabi
l
ity.

v
i. I
ron Anaemia,abnor
malcel
ls, Anaemia,
lowhaemogl
obi
n,
l
ow haemoglobi
n,l
ower
ed loweredimmunesyst
em.
i
mmunesy stem.

v
ii
. Magnesi
um Grasstetany,convul
sions Poor bone f ormation,
exci
tabi
l
ity,deat
h. emaciati
on, l ow egg
product
ionandhat chabi
lit
y,
deformedchicks.

v
ii
i. Pot
assi
um Gener
almuscl eweakness, Gener
almuscleweakness,
weak hear t muscl e, l
aboured br
eat
h,loss of
l
aboured breath,loss of appet
ite.
appet
ite,
roughhaircoat
.

i
x. I
odi
ne Goi
tre, st unt
ed gr owth, St
unted gr
owt
h,l
ow egg
l
ower ed pr
oducti
on producti
on.
pot
ent i
al,
poorhair.

x. Copper Anaemia, slowgr owth,

hair Anaemi a, sl
ow gr owth,
di
scolourat i
on,emaciati
on, feat
herdiscol
our
ati
on,l
oss
bone deformati
on, ofwei ght
,bonedisor
ders,
di
arrhoea, dull
ness. diar
rhoea.

xi
. Cobal
t Anaemi a,weakness and Anaemi a, weakness and
death,emaci
ati
on,lossof death,emaci at
ion,l
ossof
appeti
te,l
owfert
il
it
y. appeti
te, l
ow egg
production.

d)Vi
tami
ns

A I
nfer
ti
li
ty,ni
ghtbl
i
ndness, I
nfer
ti
li
ty,
diar
rhoea.
di
arr
hoea.

B Emaciati
on, diar
rhoea, Emaciati
on, di
arr
hoea,
anaemia,poorgr
owth. anaemia,poorgr
owth,loss
ofappeti
te.

40
 D Ri
cket
s,dent
aldecay
. Ri
cket
s.

E St
eri
l
ity
. St
eri
l
ity
.

K Pr
olongedbl
oodcl
ott
ing. Pr
olongedbl
oodcl
ott
ing.

Sui
tabl
especi
esofpast
uref
orl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
ioni
nZambi
a
Thespeci
esofpast
urear
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntwogr
oups,
namel
y;

 Gr
asspast
urespeci
es

 Legumepast
urespeci
es
Grassandlegumepastur
esspeci
escanbepl
ant
edandmanagedl
i
keanyot
herandf
ed
orgrazedbyli
vest
ock.
a)Sui
tabl
eut
il
isat
ionofpast
ure

 Past
uregrassand/pastur
elegumescanbeconser
vedashayorsi
lagef
orf
utur
e
useespeci
all
ythedr
yseasonwhenther
earel
it
tl
epastur
eforl
i
vest
ock.

 Pastur
econser
vati
onmaint
ainsl
ivest
ockproduct
iont
hroughoutt
hey
earbecause
ther
ewill
beenoughfeedal
lthey
earround.
b)Consequencesofov
ergr
azi
ng
Ov ergr
azi
ngisasit
uat
ionwhereli
vestockaregrazedconti
nuousl
yonapi eceoflandand
theyeatawaymostoft heveget
ati
vecov ertotheeffectt
hatthelandsurfacei
salmost
bar eandsubj
ectt
osoi
l er
osi
onagents.Overgr
azingresul
tsi
nto;

 Soi
ler
osi
on

 Di
sappear
anceofsomepast
urespeci
es

 Leav
ingl
esspal
atabl
epast
urespeci
es

 Poorheal
thi
nani
mal
sbecauset
heygetl
i
ttl
epast
urewhi
chi
sofl
ow nut
ri
ti
ve
val
ue
Pest
s/Par
asi
tesofl
i
vest
ock
Ef
fect
sofpest
sonl
i
vest
ock

 Pest
sliketi
cks,
li
ce,mit
esandhookwormssuckbl
oodoft
hehostani
malt
her
eby
weakeningt
hem andanaemi
acanoccur
.

 Ecoparasi
tescausei
rri
tat
ionont
hebodyoft
heani
malcausi
nggr
eatdi
scomf
ort
andloweri
ngproduct
ion.

 Theyr
educet
hehostgr
owt
hrat
eandcauseemaci
ati
onoft
hehost
.

 Theyt
ransmitdi
seasest
othehostani
mal
.Theydamaget
hehi
deorski
nofahost
ani
malastheybi
teandsuckbl
ood.

41
  I
nter
nalpar
asi
tesmaybl
ockt
hei
nter
nalpassagecausi
ngobst
ruct
ionwhi
chmay
l
eadtodeat
hofanani
mal

 Theyl
owert
hequal
i
tyofl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
s.
Cy
clesofPar
asi
tes
A.Ect
opar
asi
tes

 Onehostt
ick
Adul
tfemalesucksbl
oodf r
om ahostbecomesengor
gedanddr opstotheground
whereitl
ayseggs.Eggshat chi
ntolar
vawhichli
mbonpl ant
s.Lar
vaclimbson
hostasitgrazesandsucksbloodandbecomeengor ged.Engor
gedlarvamoult
andbecomeny mphs,
suckbloodofthesamehost.
Ny
mphbecomesengor
gedandmoul
tint
oadul
ts.
Adul
tmateonthesamehost
,suckbl
oodandbecomeengor
gedanddr
opt
othe
gr
oundt
olayeggs.

 Twohostt
ick
Adultfemal
elayseggsonthegr
ound,
eggshatchi
ntolar
vaewhichhatchont
othe
fi
rsthost.Lar
vaesuckbloodandbecomeengor ged.Engor
gedl ar
vamoultto
nymphs,suckbloodandbecomeengorgedanddroptothegroundandbecome
adult
s.Adul
tscli
mbasecondhosesuckbloodandmate.Theydroptothegr
ound
andlayeggs.

 Thr
eehostt
ick
Adultfemal
elayseggsontheground,eggshat chintolar
v aewhichcli
mbont he
host.Lar
vaesuckbl
oodandbecomeengor gedthenf al
ltothegroundandmoultto
nymphs.Nymphsclimbasecondhostsuckbl ood,becomeengor gedanddropto
thegroundandmoultt
oadult
s.Adult
scli
mbat hir
dhost,suckblood,mateonhost
andbecomeengorgedanddroptotheground.

 Chi
ckenmi
tes
12t o24hoursafteri
tsfi
rstbl
oodmealfert
il
isedf
emal esl
aybat
chesofthreeto
seveneggsi ncr
acksorunderdebrisi
npoul tr
yhouses.Larv
aeemergeafter48
to72hoursanditdoesnotf eedbutmoulti
nt opr
otonymphswhichdonotf eed.
After1to2daysthesenymphsmoulttoadul
ts.Chi
ckenmi t
esmaysurvi
veseveral
mont hswi
thoutf
eeding.

B.Endopar
asi
tes

 Li
verfluke–at t
ackliverandbileduct sofinfectedanimal.Adul
tfl
ukeinliv
erand
bil
elayeggs.Eggsv i
at hebloodv essel
sreacht heintest
ineandpassoutinfeaces
andhat chintolarv
aecal ledmiracidiawhichent ersthesnail
swheretheydevelop
i
ntospor ocytes.Sporocytesdev elopint
or adiaandcer cari
aewhichcomeoutof
snail
sandswi m about.Car i
car
iaecl i
mbwat erpl antsandencystthemsel
vesand
devel
opi ntoy oungflukes.Youngf l
ukesar eswal lowedbyanimalsandbecome
adult
sinliverorbil
educt s.

42
 Roundwor
ms–ar
efoundi
nal
i
ment
arycanal
ofi
nfest
edhostandar
eoft
wot
ypes.
Roundworm ( haemonchusCont or
tus);adul
twor msin al
iment
arycanallay
eggswhichar epassedouti nfaeces.Eggsdevel
opintol
arv
ae,moul
ttwi
ceand
cl
imbonv egetat
ion.Liv
estockeatinfest
edvegetati
onandlar
vaedevel
opinto
adul
tsinthealimentarycanalandstartl
ayi
ngeggs.
Roundworm( ascar
islumbr i
coides);
adul
tsint
hegutl ayeggswhicharepassed
outinthefaeces.Eggsdev elopi nt
olar
vaeorinfect
ivestageintheeggshell.
Youngroundwor msmi grat
eint hebodybyboringthroughtheint
est
inalwallt
o
thebl
oodstream,hear t,l
ungsandcoughedouti ntot hemouthandswal l
owed
backint
otheintest
ineswher emal esandfemal
emat eandeggsar eproduced.
Met
hodsofcont
rol
l
ingandpr
event
ingpest
soff
arm ani
mal
s.
Ti
cks

 Fenci
ngt
hel
i
vest
ockf
arm.

 Regul
ardi
ppi
ngandspr
ayi
ngofani
mal
swi
thr
ecommendedacar
ici
des

 Handpi
cki
ngoft
icksf
rom t
heani
mal
s

 Heavil
yinf
estedpasturescanbeploughedorburneddur
ingt
hedr
y
seasontoki
ll
eggs,l
arvaenymphsandadul
tti
cks.

 Doubl
efenci
ngwithclearspacesbet
weenf
encest
ost
opt
icksf
rom
cr
ossi
ngtheadj
acentf
arm.
Chi
ckenmi
te

 Gener
alsani
tat
ionandcl
eanl
i
ness

 Al
lnewbirdstobecheckedt
oensur
etheyar
epestf
reebef
oret
heyar
e
br
oughti
ntothefar
m.

 Phy
sical
exami
nat
ionoft
hef
lock

 Appl
ychemicalpest
ici
desdi
rect
lyont
hei
nfest
edbi
rds,
usi
ngawet
tabl
e
powderori
ndustform.
Li
verf
luke

 Doseani
mal
swi
thsui
tabl
eant
hel
mint
icper
iodi
cal
l
y

 Dr
aini
ngofwat
erl
oggedar
eas

 Bur
ningofmuddyar
easdur
ingt
hedr
yweat
her
.

 Handpicki
ngandkil
li
ngwatersnai
l
susingfi
shorwat
erbi
rdst
ofeedon
t
hem orspray
ingcoppersul
phat
eininf
est
edwater
.

 Li
vest
ockgr
azi
ngi
npoor
lydr
ainedpl
acesshoul
dbeav
oided.

 Per
iodi
ccl
eani
ngofwel
l
s.
Roundwor
ms

43
  Regul
ardr
enchi
ngoff
arm ani
mal
swi
thsui
tabl
eant
hel
mint
ic

 Pr
ovi
dingl
i
vest
ockwi
thcl
eanwat
er.

 Regul
arsani
tat
ioni
nli
vest
ockhouses

 Rot
ati
onal
grazi
ng.

 Cor
rectdi
sposal
ofhumanf
aecal
mat
eri
ali
npi
tlat
ri
nes.

 Dr
aini
ngofwat
erl
oggedpast
urespl
oughi
ngi
nfest
edpast
ure.
Di
seases
I
dent
if
ymet
hodsofpr
event
ingandcont
rol
l
ingani
mal
diseases

 Regul
arv
acci
nat
ionofl
i
vest
ock

 I
sol
ati
ngsuspect
edandt
reat
ingsi
ckani
mal
s.

 Cont
rol
l
ingdi
seasecausi
ngagent
sli
ket
icksandt
set
sef
li
es

 Rot
ati
onal
grazi
ngofani
mal
s.

 Pr
operdi
sposal
ofl
i
vest
ockwast
epr
oduct
s.

 Pr
operf
eedi
ngandwat
eri
ngofl
i
vest
ock

 Regul
arcl
eani
nganddi
sinf
ect
ingofani
mal
houses.

 Bur
ningorbur
yingdeadani
mal
sont
hef
arm.

 Usi
ngar
ti
fi
ci
ali
nsemi
nat
ionwhenbr
eedi
ngf
arm ani
mal
s.

 Per
iodi
ctest
ingf
orpar
ti
cul
arani
mal
diseasesandcul
l
ingposi
ti
ver
eact
ors

 Pr
operf
enci
ngtokeepoutotherani
mal
sfr
om ent
eri
ngt
hef
arm andnotal
l
owi
ng
l
iv
est
ocktogooutoft
hefar
m.

 Zerogr
azingforlar
geani
mal
sli
kecat
tl
e,pi
gs,goat
sanddeepl
i
tterorbat
ter
y
syst
em f
orpoult
ry.

 I
nst
it
uti
ngquar
ant
ineonl
i
vest
ockandt
hei
rpr
oduct
s.

Housi
ngandMar
ket
ing
Expl
aint
hesui
tabi
l
ityandmai
ntenanceofv
ari
oust
ypesofl
i
vest
ockhousi
ng
Cal
fhouse

 I
tshoul
dbeabl
etopr
otectcal
vesagai
nstext
remeweat
hercondi
ti
ons.

 Fl
oorshoul
dbemadeofconcr et
etofaci
l
itat
ecl
eani
ngwi
thasl
ant
ingdr
ainage
channel
thr
oughwhi
chur
inecandrai
n.

 I
tshoul
dbeshel
ter
edi
nor
dernott
osubj
ectt
hecal
vest
odr
aught
swhi
chcan

44
 pr
edi
sposet
hem t
opneumoni
a.

 I
tshoul
dbel
ocat
edonwel
ldr
ainedsoi
l
s.

 I
tshoul d have enough space f
ort
he numberofcal
ves housed t
o av
oid
over
crowding.

 I
tshoul
dbewel
lvent
il
ated.

 I
tshoul
dhaveindi
vi
dualcal
fpenstoavoidcalv
essuckl
i
ngnav
elsoff
ell
owcal
ves
whi
chcancausehair
bal
lsi
nthedigest
ivesy
stem.
Mai
ntenanceofcal
fhouse

 Regul
arcl
eani
ng

 Checkregul
arl
yforanycr
ackswhi
chshoul
dbef
il
ledwi
thconcr
etet
oav
oidpest
hi
dingt
here.

 Renewt
hat
chbef
orei
tget
sol
dift
hef
loori
smadeoutoft
hat
ch.

 Pl
ast
erol
dwal
l
s.
Cat
tl
ehouses(
Zer
ogr
azed)

 Thehouseshoul dbepr otectedfrom extr

emeweat her,shelt
ered,bui l
tonwel l
drainedsoil
,sli
ghtlyslant
ingl andtoall
ow wat ertorunof f.Thewal l
sshouldbe
plaster
edandal lcracksfi
ll
edt opreventparasi
tesfrom hidi
ngt here.Thereshoul
d
beenoughv ent
ilati
on;theroofshouldnotleakandenoughf eedingandwat eri
ng
space.Ay ardaroundt hebui l
dingcanbeconst ructedsot hatanimal scanspend
somet i
meout sidewhent heyarenotf eedingt ohelpt hem exer ci
seandget
vi
tami nD.
Mai
ntenanceofcal
fhouses

 Ther
eshoul
dbeacl earspacear
oundthehousessot
hatt
hear
eai
skeptdr
yto
avoi
ddampnessi
nthewallsandf
loor
s.

 Repairofwal
l
s,f
loorandroofshoul
dbedoneimmediat
elyt
oav oi
dfurt
herdamage
whichmaynecessi
tateconst
ruct
ingnewhouseswhi
chisexpensi
ve.

 Catt
ledungandur
ineshoul
dber
emov
edf
rom t
hehousesdai
l
ytokeept
hem cl
ean
andhabit
abl
e.
Pi
ghouses

 Apighouseshouldpr
otectpi
gsfr
om badweathercondi
ti
onsl
i
ker
ain,wi
ndand
col
dness.I
tshoul
dbel
ocatedonawel
ldrai
nedsit
e.

 I
tshoul
dbel
eak-
proof
.Fl
oorshoul
dbemadeofconcr
etet
oeasecl
eani
ng.

 Thereshoul
d beasl i
ght
lyslant
ed channelto drai
n awaydung and ur
inet
o
faci
l
itat
ecl
eani
ng.Ther
oom shoul
dbewel lvent
il
ated.

 I
tshoul
dhav
eenoughspacewi
thf
eedi
ngandwat
eri
ngar
ea.

 I
tshoul
dbedr
yandwar
m enought
okeept
hepi
gswar
m becauset
hepi
gsdonot

45
 hav
eenoughhai
rtokeept
hem war
mifexposedt
odr
aught
s.

 Thewal
l
sshoul
dbesmoot
hwi
thnocr
ackswher
eect
opar
asi
tescanhi
de.

 I
tshoul
dbel
argeenought
ohi
deanumberofpi
gswi
thoutov
ercr
owdi
ng.

 I
tshoul
dbest
rongenought
okeeppi
gs.
Mai
ntenanceofpi
ghouses

 Pighousesshoul
dbecl eanedofdungandur ineandscrubbedbyabr ushand
deter
gentanddi
si
nfect
antdail
yforpr
operhy
gienetoguar
dagainstdi
seases.

 Anypothol
esonthef
loorshoul
dbeseal
edwi
thconcr
etet
oav
oiddungandur
ine
col
l
ecti
ngther
e.

 Thethat
chonthef l
oorshoul
dber
epai
redi
fol
d.Thewal
l
sshoul
dber
epai
redi
f
damagedorcr
acked.
Poul
tr
yhouses

 A poul
tryhouseshoul
d pr
otectbi
rdsagai
nstext
remeweat
hercondi
ti
onsi
.e.
sunshi
ne,r
ainandwi
nd.

 Thehousi
ngshouldbel
eak-pr
oofwit
hsoli
dwallont
hewi
ndwar
dsi
det
opr
otect
bi
rdsagai
nstdr
aught
swhichcanst
ressbi
rds.

 Thehouseshoul
dbelocat
edonawel
ldrai
nedsi
tetoavoi
dthebui
l
d-upofpest
s
anddi
seaseswhi
chbui
ldwher
edampcondi
ti
onspr
evai
l
.

 The house shoul

d hav
e enough space t
o accommodat
e a numberofbi
rds
al
locat
ed.

 Wal
l
sshoul
dbepl
ast
eredsmoot
hwi
thnocr
ackswher
epest
shi
de

 Housi
ngshoul
dbel
eakandv
ermi
npr
oof
.

 I
tshoul
dhav
eal
ockabl
edoort
oshutoutpr
edat
ors.

 I
tshoul
dbewel
lvent
il
atedt
oguar
ant
eegoodheal
th.

 I
tshoul
dhav
ewat
eri
ngandf
eedi
ngf
aci
l
iti
es.
Mai
ntenanceofpoul
tr
yhouses

 Regul
arcl
eani
ngoft
hehouse.

 Ol
dli
tt
ershoul
dber
emov
edandr
epl
acedt
okeept
hehousecl
eanandwar
m.

 Wal
l
s,f
loor
sandr
oofshoul
dber
epai
redi
fdamaged.

 Poul
tr
yequi
pmenti
nthehouseshoul
dbekeptcl
ean.

 Allt
hebushar
oundt
hepoul
tr
yhouseshoul
dbedugupt
oav
oidwal
l
sbecomi
ng
dump.

 Ensur
ethatwat
eri
ngf
aci
l
iti
esi
fleaki
ngar
erepai
redi
mmedi
atel
y.

46
Pr
epar
ati
onofl
i
vest
ockandl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
sformar
ket
ing
Livestock–shoul dbewel lf
edandwat eredbef
oremarket
ingsothattheyfat
tenand
l
ookf itandfet
chgoodpr ices.Theyshoul
dbegroomedorcleanedtoremovedirtf
rom
theirbodyinordertoat
tractbuyers.Ani
malsshoul
dbehandledgentl
yandcareful
lyto
av oi
d brui
sing them.They shoul d notbe over
crowded i
nv ehi
cles when being
transport
ed.
Li
vestockproducts– shoul d begraded accor
ding t
o qual
it
y,size,col
ourbefor
e
marketi
ngsucht hateachloti
smar ket
edandpr i
cedsingl
y.Forexampleeggsshoul
d
besor t
edandgr adedassmal l
,medium andbigsucht hateachlotinpackedand
pr
icedindependentofother
s.

Or
gani
sat
ionsi
nZambi
athatpr
ocessandmar
ketl
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
s.

Or
gani
sat
ion Whati
tdoes

Zambeef Processi
nganddistr
ibut
ingbeef
,chi
cken
pork,mil
k,dai
rypr
oductsandeggs.

Mast
erPor
k Pr
ocessing and di
str
ibut
ion of por
k
pr
oducts.

Kachemameatsuppl
i
esl
i
mit
ed Processi
ng and di st
ri
buti
on of meat
pr
oduct ssuchasf r
esh,cooked,cur
ed,
smokedpor kbeef
,lambandgoatmeat .

Zambi
aPor
kPr
oduct
s Pr
ocessandmar
ket
ingpor
kpr
oduct
s.

Zamchi
ck Pr
ocessi
ng and mar
ket
ing poul
tr
y
pr
oducts

7.FARM STRUCTURES
Farm st
ruct
uresinv
olv
ethest
udyoft
heer
ect
ionofbui
l
dingsf
orman,
ani
mal
s,cr
opsand
far
m equipment.
Exampl
esoff
arm st
ruct
ures
a)Far
m bui
l
dings

 Far
m housesf
orwor
ker
swi
tht
hei
rfami
l
ies

 Bui
l
dingsf
orl
i
vest
ock

 Bui
l
dingf
orf
arm pr
oductst
orage

47
  Bui
l
dingsf
orcr
oppr
oduct
ionespeci
all
ygr
eenhouses.

 Bui
l
dingsf
orpr
ocessi
nge.
g.mi
l
khousessl
aught
erhousesandgr
aindr
ier
s.

 Buil
dingsforequi
pmentandsuppl
i
ese.
g.i
mpl
ement
sshed,gar
ages,f
arm shops,
fuelstor
ageetc.
Fences
Cat
tl
edi
ps,
spr
ayr
acesandcr
ushes
Sel
ect
ingasi
tef
orf
arm bui
l
dings
I
nci
ti
ngt
hebui
l
dingsatt
hef
armt
hef
oll
owi
ngshoul
dbeconsi
der
ed;

 Theyshoul
dbeatt
hecent
reoft
hef
arm andneart
her
oad.

 Theyshoul
dbeonhi
ghgr
oundf
orpr
operv
iewoft
hewhol
efar
m.

 Theyshoul
dbeci
tedonl
eastpr
oduct
ivesoi
l
s.

 Thepl
aceshoul
dbeofgooddr
ainage.

 Thepl
aceshoul
dbenearwat
ersuppl
y.

 Beari
nmi
ndt
hedi
rect
ionoft
hepr
evai
l
ingwi
nds,
sunshi
neandr
ains.
Pl
anni
ngt
heconst
ruct
ionoft
hebui
l
dings

 Thef
unct
ionoft
hebui
l
dingshoul
dmat
chwi
tht
hepl
anordesi
gn.

 Fi
rer
isksshoul
dbeconsi
der
ed.

 Room shoul
dbel
eftar
oundeachbui
l
dingf
orf
utur
eexpansi
on.

 Bui
l
dingshoul
dbef
lexi
blei
nter
msofent
erpr
isechangesort
ransf
er.

 Reducecostbydesi
gni
ngbui
l
dingwhi
chcanbeconst
ruct
edusi
ngl
ocal
mat
eri
als.

 Bui
l
dingshoul
dbedesi
gnedt
obecheap,
simpl
ebutsoundt
othei
rpur
pose.

Ty
pesoff
arm st
ruct
ures(
far
m bui
l
dings)

 The t y
pe offarm bui
l
ding t
o be f
ound on a far
m dependson t
he ty
pesof
enterpri
ses,t
hev ol
umeoft heent
erpr
iseandt hecondi
ti
onsli
keitseconomi
c
statusandweather.
Di
ff
erentf
arm st
ruct
ures
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomeoft
hebui
l
dingscommononf
arms;

 Poul
tr
yhouses:
deepl
i
tterhouse,
bat
ter
y,br
ooderhouseet
c.

 Pi
gger
ies:
breedi
nguni
ts,
fat
teni
nguni
ts,
far
rowi
nguni
ts.

 Cat
tl
ehousi
ng:
mil
ki
nguni
t,st
all
feedi
nguni
t,cal
fpens.

48
  Pr
oducest
orageuni
ts:
mai
zecr
ibs,
granar
ies,
sil
os,
haybags.

 Far
m equi
pmentst
ores.

 Tr
act
ori
mpl
ement
sandf
uel
stor
es.

 I
nputst
ores:
seeds,
chemi
cal
s,f
ert
il
izer
set
c.

 Manuf
act
uri
ngandpr
ocessi
ngf
aci
l
iti
es.
I
mpor
tanceofmai
ntai
ningf
arm st
ruct
ures

 Toi
ncr
easepr
oduct
ionbydecr
easi
ngcr
opandani
mal
losses.

 Toi
ncr
easet
hequal
i
tyoff
arm pr
oduce.

 Tor
educef
arml
abourr
equi
rement
s.

 Topr
otectpr
oduct
iont
ool
sandmachi
ner
yfr
om weat
herel
ement
s.

 Tostoref
arm pr
oducewhenmar
ketpr
icesar
elowandsel
lthem whent
heyhav
e
ri
sen.

 Toi
ncr
easeef
fi
ciencyandeasyi
nmanagementont
hef
arm.
8.Far
m Machi
ner
y
Wor
kandpower

 Work:worki
stheappl
i
cationofaf
orceoveradi
stance.Apul
l
eyli
ft
inga1000kgof
abaleofhayf
rom t
hegroundontoalor
ryisagoodexampleofdoi
ngwork.

 Wor
k=f
orceappl
i
edxdi
stance.

 Power
:poweri
sther
ateofdoi
ngwor
korhowf
astt
hewor
kisdone
workdone
 Power=
ti
metaken

Themeani
ngofhor
sepower

 Ahorsepoweri
saunitthati
susedtomeasurethepowerofengi
nesandmotor
s.
Oneunitofhor
sepoweri
sequalt
othepowerneededtol
if
t550poundsonef
ootin
onesecondoroneuni
tofhor
sepoweri
sequalto745.
7watts.
I
mpor
tanceofknowl
edgeofhor
sepoweronaf
arm

 Iti
saguidi
ngf
actortot
hefar
merandthefarm manageri
nr egardst
opur
chasi
ng
andusi
ngther
ightsi
zemachi
nef
orappropr
iat
eworke.g.t
ractor.
Lev
ers,
pul
l
eysandscr
ews.
a) Levers–consist
sofar i
gidbar,whichisfr
eet otur
naboutafixedpointcall
ed
fulcr
um.Theef f
ortf
orceisexer
tedupononel ev
erarm,andtheotherarm wi
llgo
upordowni ntheopposi
tedir
ect
ion.Lever
saredivi
dedint
othr
eeclasses.

 Fi
rstcl
assl
ever
s–i
swhent
hef
ulcr
um l
i
esbet
weent
hef
orcear
m andt
hel
ever

49
 ar
m.
Whent heful
crum i
smi dwaybet
weent
hefor
ceandtheload,t
her
eisnochangei
n
for
ce,spedordistance.Exampl
esi
ncl
udeapai
rofscissor
s,awaterpumpanda
pai
rofplier
s.

 Secondcl
asslev
er–theloadarmli
esbet
weent
hef
ulcr
um andt
hef
orcear
m.A
goodexampl
eisthewheel
bar
row.

 Thir
dclasslevers– thefor
cearml i
esbetweent hefulcr
um andtheloadarm.
Becauseofthisarr
angement,ar
elati
velyl
argeforcei
sr equi
redt
omov ethel
oad.
Examplesi
ncludefi
shingr
ods,apairofcal
li
persandaspadeorshovel
b)Pull
eys:Apul
l
eyisawheelwi
thagroovethatal
l
owsaropeorbel
torchai
ntoride
secur
elyonit
.Apul
l
eyisacir
cul
arl
ever
.Itmakesafar
merusel
essfor
celi
fti
ngheavy
l
oad.

 Screw:Ascr ewisanincli
neplanewrappedar oundacy l
inder.Theincl
inepl
ane
for
msr idgesi naspi
ralal
ongt hecy
linder.Theseridgesarecalledthethr
eads
ofthescrew.Thescrewdependsonanot hersimplemachi ne,ascrewdri
verf
or
i
tsoper at
ion.Thescrew isusedforfasteningobjectsandt oremov eorrai
se
l
iquidsorsolids.

 Hy
draul
i
cjack:
Iti
susedt
oli
ftt
hecarwhenr
emov
ingorf
ixi
ngat
yre.
Cal
cul
ati
ngmechani
cal
adv
ant
ageandv
eloci
tyr
ati
o
l
oad
 Mechani
caladvant
age= e.
g.i
fthel
oadof500Nisl
if
tedtoahei
ghtof20m
eff
ort
byamachi neusingt heeff
ortof200N t
hatmov ed40m thent
hemechanical
500N
adv
antage= =2.
5
200N

distancemovedbyeff
ort
 Vel
oci
tyrat
ion= fr
om exampl
eabov
e v
eloci
tyr
ati
o=
distancemovedbyl
oad
40m
=2
20m

Themai
npar
tsoft
hemoul
dboar
dpl
ough,
cul
ti
vat
or,
har
row,
plant
erandr
idges
Mai
npar
tsofmoul
dboar
dpl
ough

 Mai
nbeam:
Forcar
ryi
ngot
herpar
tsoft
hepl
ought
owhi
chpoweri
sappl
i
ed.

 Di
sccoul
ter
:Forscr
api
ngsoi
lfr
om t
hemoul
dboar
d.

 Shar
e:Pr
ovi
dest
hecut
ti
ngedge.

 Mouldboar
d:Iti
slocat
edbehi
ndt
heshar
e.I
trecei
vest
hef
urr
ow sl
i
cef
rom t
he
shar
eandt ur
nsi
t.

 Fur
rowwheel
:Assi
stsi
npenet
rat
inghar
dsoi
l
.

 Fr
og:
Thi
sist
hepar
tonwhi
cht
hemoul
dboar
dandt
heshar
ear
eat
tached.

50
Mai
npar
tsoft
hecul
ti
vat
orpl
ough

 Wheel
:Assi
stsi
npenet
rat
ing.

 Lev
er:
Forr
owadj
ust
mentmechani
sm,
itenabl
esmov
ementoft
hemechani
sm.

 Casti
ronpar
t:Out
ert
ineswhi
chbr
eaksoi
lcl
odsaf
terbei
ngcutbyt
her
ever
sibl
e
ti
nes.

 Rev
ersi
blet
ines:
Beakst
hrought
hehar
dsoi
ll
eav
ingbackbr
okencl
ods.

51
Mai
npar
tsofhar
rowpl
ough

 Metal
li
crectangul
arbeam:Iti
sthemai
nfr
ameonwhi
cht
hezi
gzagdesi
gnwi
th
spi
kestoot
hhar r
owsarefi
xed.

 Zigzagspikes-
toot
hhar r
ow:Thesefor
m aconvent
ionalzi
gzagdesi
gnwithf
airl
y
smallsecti
onsofappropri
atesi
ze,whi
chcanbeatt
achedtoeachothert
oextend
thewidthofcul
ti
vat
ion.
Mai
npar
tsofpl
ant
er

 Topbar
:Itconnect
stheuni
tont
oat
ract
or.

 Pr
esswheel
:Itpr
essesseedsi
ntot
hesoi
l
.

 Coul
ter
s:Thesemakef
all
owsi
nthesoi
li
ntowhi
chseedsf
all
.

 Del
iver
ytubes:Thesear
etubest
hroughwhi
chseedpassf
rom seedpl
atesi
ntot
he
soi
l
.

 Seedhopper
:Thi
sist
hechamberwher
eseedsar
epl
aced.

 Seedplat
es:Thesearethepl
ateswhi
chpi
ckupseedsandcar
ryt
hem r
oundt
il
l
theydr
opint
odeliv
eryt
ube.

 Dr
iveshaf
t:Thi
sisdr
ivenbyachai
n.I
tmakest
heseedpl
atesr
otat
einsi
de.

52
Anox-dr
awnpl
ant
er
Mai
npar
tsofar
idgerpl
ough

 Spanner
:Thehandl
ehasf
orposi
ti
onst
otakecar
eoft
hehei
ghtoft
heoper
ator
.

 Depthadjust
mentwheel
:Thi
sisawheelof20cm di
ameterandi
tisadj
ustedbya
sl
idi
ngstarkmechani
sm whi
chcanbef
ixedbyalockpi
natanydesi
redposi
ti
on.

 Upsetshar
e:Producesr
oundedt
opr
idgesandt
hef
urr
owwi
dthcanbeadj
ust
edby
asimplemechanism.

 Moul
dboar
d:Thi
swor
kshandi
nhandwi
tht
heupsetshar
etopr
oducet
opr
idges.

 Adj
ustabl
ewi ngs:Thesearefi
ttedt
omouldboardandtheyenhancet
hepr
ocessof
pr
oducingroundedtopridgestoget
herwi
thupsetshar
e.
Cent
reofgr
avi
tyandi
tspr
act
ical
appl
i
cat
ion

 Thecent
reofgr
avit
yofanobj
ecti
sthebal
ancepoi
ntar
oundwhi
cht
her
ear
eequal
momentarmsoflengt
hti
mesweight
.

 Fi
ndi
ngcentr
eofgrav
ityr
equir
esthatt
heobj
ectisundert
hei
nfl
uenceofgr
avi
ty,
whi
lecent
reofmassi
sthecentr
eofmassdi
str
ibut
ion.

 Appl
icati
onofcent reofgrav
ityi
nclude:thefactt
hatfr
eerotat
ionofanobjecti
s
al
way sarounditscent
reofgravi
tyandt hatanobj
ectwil
lti
poverwhenthecentr
e
ofgr
av i
tyliesoutsi
dethesuppor
tingbaseoft heobj
ect
.Also,t
hegreat
erforcei
s
appl
i
edt hroughthecentr
eofgravi
ty.
Mai
ntenanceoff
armi
mpl
ement
s
Farm equi
pment–canbeconsi der
edasthosetoolst
hatar
etoobi
gtobeusedbyhand.
Mostmodernfar
m equipmentiseit
hermotor
ised,
orcomesasanattachmentt
oapiece
off
arm machi
nerysuchasatractor
.

Far
m equi
pmentMai
ntenance

 Cl
eani
ng and i
nspect
ion-r
egul
arcl
eani
ng pr
event
sdamagebyensur
ing t
hat

53
 nothi
nggetsstucki
ntot
hemachine.Theequipmentshoul
dalsobei
nspectedf
or
wearanddamage.Oncetheequi
pmentisclean,i
tiseasyt
oseewhatneedstobe
repai
red,
repl
acedandwhati
sinper
fectcondi
ti
on.

 Maintenanceandrepai
r–pr opermaint
enanceinv
olv
esi nspect
ingandrepl
acing
thosepartsastheywearpotandmaki ngsureallf
lui
dsar etoppedup.Italso
meansmaki ngallt
hoselit
tl
er epai
rst
hatdonotappeart omakeanyi mmediate
dif
fer
encebutaddupov ert
helongrun.
Managi
ngt
het
ool
s

 Stor
age:l
argegar dent
ool
sli
kerakesar
estoredonhangi
ngracksandsmall
er
onesli
keknivesarehungonpegboar
dsinor
dertopr
eventt
hem fr
om at
tr
act
ing
dustandmoistur
e.

 Cleanup:usehi
ghpr
essur
ewat
erandscr
ubbr
usht
oremov
ecl
odsofsoi
lont
he
toolsl
i
kehoes.

 Maint
enance:quicksandi
ngandcoatofboi
l
edl
i
nseedoi
lisusedt
okeept
he
woodenhandlessmooth.

 Shar
peni
ng:
all
tool
swi
thcut
ti
ngedgesshoul
dber
egul
arl
ybeshar
pened

Howt
orepai
rfar
m equi
pment

 Makesureyourinsur
anceisinorderbychoosi
ngani
nsur
ancecompanywhi
ch
cov
ersf
arm equi
pmentbreakdown.

 Assessyourmechanicali
ncl
inat
ionbyensuri
ngt
haty
ouat
tendcour
sest
hatt
each
repai
rforev
eryf
arm equipmentyouoperat
e.

 Gr
abt
hef
arm equi
pment
’smanual
andbr
owst
het
roubl
eshoot
ingsect
ion.

 Cont
actar
epai
rshop.

 Hav
ether
epai
rmani
nspecty
ourmachi
nef
orr
epai
rs.Li
stent
othedi
agnosi
s.
9.FARM MANAGEMENT
Fact
orofpr
oduct
ion
Fact
orsofproduct
ionar
eresour
cesthatar
ethebuil
dingblocksoftheeconomyt
heyare
whatpeopleusetoproducegoodsandservi
ces.Factor
sofpr oduct
ioncanbediv
ided
i
ntofourcat
egori
es;

 Land– incl
udesanynat ur
alr
esourceusedt oproducegodsandser v
ices
such as fibr
e,bui
lding mat
eri
als and otherraw materi
als needed by
mansomecommonl andornat
uralresour
cesarewater,oi
l
,copper,natural
gas,coalandfor
est
s.

 Labour-istheeffortt
hatpeoplecontri
but
etothepr oduct
ionofgoodsand
serv
ices.I
tisaff
ectedbythetotalpopul
ati
oninthelabourf
orce,
wager ates,
heal
thofwor ker
sandaveragehoursworkedperdayorperweekperperson.

54
  Capit
al–isthemachiner
y,t
oolsandbuil
dingswhichfar
mersusetoproduce
goodsandser vi
ces.Somecommonexampl esofcapit
ali
ncludet
ractors,
agri
cul
tur
aldrugsandchemical
s,agr
icul
tur
altool
s,et
c.

 Entrepr
eneur
shi
p– i s a person who combines the ot
herf actors of
producti
on t
o earn a pr
ofit
.The mostsuccessf ulent
repreneurs are
i
nnov at
orswho fi
nd new wayst o pr
oduce goodsand servi
cesorwho
developnewgoodsandser
vicestobri
ngtothemar ket
.

Way
sofi
mpr
ovi
ngpr
oduct
ion

 Useofi
mpr
ovedt
ool
sandi
mpl
ement
s

 I
mpr
ovedf
arm management

 I
ntensi
fi
cat
ionofpr
oduct
ioni
nvol
vest
hepr
oduct
ionoft
hegr
eat
estout
putf
rom
t
heleasti
nput

 Soi
limprovementi
sdonet
hrought
heuseoff
ert
il
iser
stomai
ntai
nsoi
lfer
ti
li
tyand
boosty
ields.

 Cr
oppr
otect
iont
hrought
heuseofef
fect
ivepestanddi
seasecont
rol
measur
es

 Cropandani
mali
mpr
ovementbyusi
ngi
mpr
ovedv
ari
eti
esofpl
ant
sandbr
eedsof
animal
s.

 Ani
mal
heal
thbyseeki
ngt
echni
cal
adv
icef
rom v
eter
inar
yof
fi
cer
s.

 I
rr
igat
ionofcr
opsbyusi
ngi
rr
igat
ionequi
pmentsuchaspumps

 Tr
anspor
tat
ion,
processi
ngandst
orage

 Far
mer
smusthav
emanymeansofpr
eser
vingt
hei
rhar
vest
.

 Adequat
eandaccur
atemar
keti
nfor
mat
ion

Lawofdi
mini
shi
ngr
etur
ns
Thelaw ofdimini
shingret
urnsstat
esthati
fav i
abl
einputi
sincr
easedwhil
etheother
i
nputsinuseremainconstant,apointi
sevent
ual
lyr
eachedwheretheaddi
ti
onalout
put
foreachaddi
ti
onalinputwi
lldecl
i
ne.
Lawofsuppl
yanddemand
Law ofsuppl
yanddemandstat
est hatthelowerthesuppl
ythehigherthepricesof
productsont
hemar
ketandt
hehigherthesuppl
ythelowert
hepri
cesofproduct
sont he
mar ket
.
Expl
aintheef
fect
sofcont
rol
l
ingpr
icesofagr
icul
tur
ali
nput
sandpr
oduct
sondemand
andsupply
.

55
Suppl
yanddemandcur
ve

Ef
fect
sofcont
rol
l
ingpr
ices.

 Gov
ernmentsetpr
iceswhi
chwer
eunr
elat
edt
osuppl
yanddemand

 Inremotear
eas,tr
anspor
tcost
sar
ever
yhi
gh,
cont
ri
but
ingt
othehi
ghmar
ket
costsofmostboards

 Theagr
icul
turaldevelopmentbanksnever
thel
essexperi
encedgreatprobl
ems
i
nobtai
ningrepay mentandthesystem,wherethemarketi
ngboardrepaidthe
bankl
oanwhent hefarmersol
dhismaize.

 Gov
ernmentsetunr
eal
i
sti
cal
l
ylowpr
icesf
ormai
ze,t
hisl
eadst
oshor
tageof
mai
zeinthet
own.
Mar
ket
ingofagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
s
Suggestway
sofi
ncr
easi
ngsal
esofagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
sint
hel
ocal
area.
I
ncr
easi
ngsal
esofpr
oduct
s.

 Ti
mel
ybuy
ingandassembl
i
ngpr
oduce

 Ti
mel
ysel
l
ingofpr
oducet
hroughpr
esent
ati
onandadv
ert
isi
ng

 Tr
anspor
tat
ionofpr
oducef
rom cent
resofsuppl
ytocent
reofconsumpt
ion

 St
orageofpr
oducewhent
her
ear
eseasonal
sur
plusesorbef
oredi
str
ibut
ion

 Timel
ypr ocessi
ngofthefar
m pr
oducet
ochanget
hem t
oanot
herf
orm
requi
redbytheconsumer

 Far
m pr
oduceshoul
dbegr
adedbef
oresel
l
ingt
hem.

 Ti
mel
yfi
nanci
ngoft
hedi
str
ibut
ionoft
hepr
oduct
stot
heconsumer
s

56
  Far
mer
sshoul
dbeabl
etobearr
isksi
nvol
vedi
nthehandl
i
ngofpr
oduce.

 Timel
ycoll
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofmar
keti
nfor
mat
ionbygov
ernmentsoast
o
advi
sefar
mers.
Descr
ibet
heef
fect
sofpr
oduct
iondi
str
ibut
iononmar
ket
ingoff
arm pr
oduce.
Ef
fect
sofpr
oduct
iondi
str
ibut
iononmar
ket
ing.

 Addi
ti
onalincome i
sr eal
i
sed byt
he far
merf
rom bot
h cr
ops and
ani
malsinst
eadofr
elyi
ngononeent
erpr
ise

 Af ar
mercangeti ncomef r
om oneent
erpr
isei
ftheonef
ail
sduet
o
pestsanddi
seasesattack

 Labourcanbeusedcont
inuousl
ythr
oughoutt
hey
ear

 The remains of some cr

ops such as st
alks,pot
atovines and
groundnut
shaulmscanbefedt
olivest
ocki
nst
eadofbeingwasted

 I
mproved human nutr
it
ion i
s achi
eved by f
armer
s,a v
ari
ed and
bal
anceddi
eti
spossibl
e
Explai
ntheeff
ect
sofagr
icul
tur
almar
ket
ingpol
i
ciesont
hedev
elopment
ofagri
cul
tur
e.
Ef
fect
sofagr
icul
tur
almar
ket
ingpol
i
ciesondev
elopmentofagr
icul
tur
e.

 Di
versi
fi
cati
onofcropproduct
iont
oal
l
owf
ort
hepr
oduct
ionof
moredroughtt
oler
antcr
ops

 Emphasisonserv
icedeli
verytosmal l
holder
st oensuret
hat
smallhol
derst
akefulloppor
tunit
yt oshareintheeconomic
growth and devel
opment ar i
sing fr
om t he poli
ce of
l
iberal
i
sat
ion

 Developmentofthel i
vestocksectorto al
l
ow forincr
eased
producti
vi
tyofZambiali
vestockt
oimpr ov
ethewelfar
eofrural
peoplethroughexpandedf oodsuppli
esandincreasedcash
i
ncome.

 Expanded opport
unit
ies f
or outl
yi
ng area t
o capt
uret
he
l
avati
onaldual
ist
icnat
ureoftheagr
icul
tur
esect
or

 I
mprovi
ngt
heeconomicst
atusofwomengi
vent
hei
mpor
tance
ofwomeni
nagr
icul
tur
e

 I
mproveuseofavail
abl
ewat erresour
cestotapthev astof
r
esour
ceendowmentofr
iver
slakesandgroundwat
ersupply.

 Ful
lut
il
isat
ionofl
andsui
tabl
eforagr
icul
tur
e

 Hel
pingf
armer
sdeal
wit
hnat
ural
disast
ers

 Emphasi
singsustai
nabi
l
ityagr
icul
tur
etopreventsoiler
osi
on
andmini
mi seanyadver
seofchangingf
armingtechnol
ogyon

57
 t
heenv
ironment
.

I
dent
if
yadvant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofl
i
ber
ali
singmar
ket
ingofagr
icul
tur
ali
nputand
pr
oduct
s.
Adv
ant
ages

 Far
mer
staket
hei
rmai
zet
oal
ocal
mar
ketandsel
li
tdi
rectt
oconsumer
s

 Far
mer
scansel
lthei
rpr
oducet
otr
aderf
orf
astmoney

 Aret
ail
eraccept
spaymentforf
erti
l
iseri
nform ofunmi
l
ledmai
zewhi
chi
n
t
urnsel
lsi
nhisstor
eorsel
lstol
argescal
etr
ader

 Lar
gescal
etr
ader
sbuydi
rectf
rom f
armeranddel
i
verdi
rectt
omi
l
ler

 Coll
ector
/ret
ail
er vi
sit
s v i
l
lages to buy di
rect
ly f
rom f
armer
s and
subsequentl
ysell
themaizetotheconsumer
Di
sadv
ant
ages

 Mut
ual
mist
rustbet
weenpubl
i
candpr
ivat
esect
ors

 The enfor cementoft he l

egi
slat
ion t
hatsupportthe pr
ivat
e sect
or
developmenti snotv erystr
ong,thelegalpr
ocessf orenfor
cingthe
contractisv er
yslow,thusthoseundercommer ci
alcontr
actsarenot
wellprotected

 Li
mit
edmar
keti
nfr
ast
ruct
ure

 The mai ze mar

kethas been charact
eri
sed by i
mmor
albusi
ness
pract
icesbysomepri
vat
esectort
raders

 Dataconst
rai
ntsi
n-dept
hanal
ysi
soft
heeffect
sofmar ketr
efor
mson
far
merand consumerwelfar
eisli
mited bylack ofadequat
e and
accur
atedata

 Li
mit
edmar ketinf
ormati
on,adequat
eandaccur
atemar
keti
nfor
mat
ion
i
sacrit
ical
factorf
orafarmer.
GRADE11
1.AGRICULTUREI NZAMBI A
Landuse
i) Explainway si nwhi chsomef actorsli
mi ttheuseofl andi ndifferentar easof
Zambia.
Fact
orsthatlimittheuseofl and:
 Topogr aphy–Thi sist henatureoft hel andscapewhi chcanbef l
at,gent l
y
sloping orst eep.Land wi thf latorgent ly slopi
ng t er
rai
ni s mor e of
agr i
cult
uraluset hanthatofst eepslopesbecausei ti sablet oretainmor e
plantnut ri
ent sandsoi lmoistureforpl atgrowt handi slessl ikelyt obe
erodedbywi ndorwat erashappensonst eepsl opes.Landonst eepsl opes
tendst ol osei tsferti
lit
ymor efrequentlyduet oi ncreasedsoi ler osionby
wi ndand/orwat er.Generall
y,thel andhasshal low profi
lebecauseof
frequentsoi lerosionanddr i
esupmor equi cklybecauset hereisl i
ttlesoilto

58
 holdt hesoi lmoi sture.
 Cl imat e–I stheav erageweat hercondi ti
onofanar eaov eral ongper iodof
ti
me. Itconsi stsofr ainf all
,temper at ure,wi nd,sunshi ne,humi dityet c.The
climateofanar eai nf l
uencest heuseofl andi nt hatar ea.Lowr ai
nf al
llimits
theuseofl andbecausegr owi ngofcr opsandr ear i
ngofani mal sr equire
adequat er ainf alltor ealisehi ghpr oduct ion.Tool owort oohi ghat mospher i
c
temper at uresl imittheuseofl and.Lowt emper at
ur escausesl owgr owt hand
poorpr oduct ionoft hemaj orit
yofcr opswhi l
ehi ght emper at uresencour age
rapidev apor at i
onofmoi sturef rom t hesoi l
.
i
i) Descr i
bedi ff erentf or msofl anduse, includi ngdi fferentagr icultur alsystemsand
farmi ngpr act i
ces
Agr
icul
tur alsy stems:
 Shi ft
ingcul tivat ion–l andi scl eared,t il
ledandcr opsar egr ownt osuppl yt he
fami ly’sneedsunt ilsoi lfertili
tydecl i
newi t
hcont inuouscr oppi ng.Thenf armer s
mov eont oanot herpi eceofl andabandoni ngt hepr ev i
ouspl ot .
 Subsi st encef ar mi ng– Far mer spr oduceagr icul
tur alpr oduct sj ustt omeett he
fami ly’sf oodr equi rement sonl y.Usual ly,far mer shav esmal lhol di ngs,usel imited
i
nput sanddonotusemoder nsci entificpract icesi nt heirf armi ng.
 Ar abl ef ar ming–Agr iculturewher ef armer smayspeci alisei nt hegr owi ngofonl y
onet y peofcr opont hesamef ield.
 Commer cialf ar ming–I sansagr i
cul t
uralsy stemsi nwhi chf armer spr oducev est
quant itiesofpr oduct sforsal e.Ischar acter i
sedbyl argescal ehect arageofcr ops,
useofmoder nsci ent i
ficmet hods.

Far
mi ngpr acti
ces:
 Rot ati
ons-Cr opr ot ationi st hegr owi ngofdi ff
erenttypesofcr opsont hesame
pieceofl andi napl annedsequencef rom aseasont oseasoni nordert omaxi mise
useofav ail
abl eland.
 Mi xedf armi ng-Thi si st het ypeoff armingi nwhichbot hcropsandl ivestockar e
producedont hesamef arm.Mi xedf armingoffersforagricult
uraldi versifi
cati
on
si
ncecr opsandl i
v estockar epr oducedont hesame,mi xedfarmi ngensur es
properuseofl abourt hr oughoutt hey ear.
 Monocul ture-Thisist hepr acticeofgr owingonet ypeofcroponapi eceofl and.In
otherwor ds,i tisthegr owi ngofcr opsi npurestandsinagar den,e. g.gr owingof
mai zeal onei naf i
eld.
Advantagesofmonocul tur e:
 Spr ayingagai nstpest sanddi seasei seasy.
 Appl ication off er ti
li
ser si seasysi nceeach t ypeofcr op hasi tsown
recommendedappl i
cationr ate.
 Far mer scanspeci ali
seandbecomeexper tsingrowingapar ticul arcrop.
Di
sadv ant agesofmonocul ture:
 Pestordi seaseat t
acki sf asterinpurestands
 Onl yonet ypeofcr opi shar vested.
 Somecr opt ypese. g.mai zeorcot t
onencour agesoi lerosi oni fgrown
successi v elyonapi eceofl and.
Advantagesofpr actisingcr opr otati
on
 Hel pst ocont rolpest sanddi seasesofcr opssi ncedi f
fer entt ypesof
cropsar egr own.
 Soi l nit
rogeni sr eplenishedbygr owinglegumeswhi chfi
xni t
rogen.
 Soi l str
uct urei si mpr oved.
 Soi l moist urei sconser ved.

59
  Soi l
erosi
oniscontr
oll
ed.
Di
sadvant
agesofcr oprot
ati
on
 Labourcost scanbehigh.
 Wi derrangeofskill
sandknowledgear
eneededt
omanagedi
ff
erent
cropsandplanagoodr ot
ati
onsy
stem.

Stat
elandclassifi
cation.
Land cl
assi
ficati
on-Land i sclassi f
ied according to how itisputt o usebasi ng on
suit
abi
li
tyasexpl ai
nedher eunder .
 Arablel and sui tablef or intensive cult
ivat
ion,wher elimitati
ons to
sustainedhighlev elofagricul
turalproducti
onsar eminororabsent.
 Landsui t
ableforgr azing,butnotf orcul
ti
vati
on.
 Landunsui t
ablef oragr i
cultur
eoratbestsui tedonlyt
ol i
ghtgrazing.
 Grazinglandorl andsui t
edt opast ureimprovement.Itmaybecul t
ivat
ed
orcroppedi nrotationwi t
hsownpast ure.

DevelopmentofAgr icul tur e

i) Expl ainsomef act or st hataf f ectagr icultur aldev elopmenti nanat ion.
Fact or s:
Capi tal-Capi tali st hest ockormoneyi nvest edi nabusi nesst odev elopi t
.Themai nai m
ofinv estingcapi tali nagr iculturei st opr oducemor e.Capi talcanbei nf or m ofmoney
orgoodsusedi npr oduct ionpr ocess.
Labour -Labourr ef erst ot hephy sicalf or ceorment alcapabi l
ityahumanbei ngappl i
ed
inpr oduct ionpr ocess.I tcanbei nform ofphy sicalwor kdonebypeopl eorment al
servicei nject edi nt hepr oduct i
onpr ocess.Lackofl abouraccount sf orl owpr oduct i
on
andpoorqual i
typr oduct sbecauseagr i
cul tur alpot ent i
alisnotf ullyexpl oitedandmost
ofthepr oduct ionact i
v i
tiesar enotcar ri
edoutatanappr opr i
atet ime.
 Policy -Pol icyi sacour seofact ionsel ect edf rom amongal t
ernat i
ves.I tisahi gh-level
over allpl anembr aci ngt hegener alpr i
nci pl esandai msofanor gani sat i
on,usual lythe
gov ernment .
Mar ket -
Mar keti st heactofbuy ingandsel l
ingofcommodi ti
es.I tinv olv esmov ingof
goodsf rom t hepr oducert ot heconsumer .
ii
) Expl aint heef fect sofl andt enur eonagr iculture
Freehol dlandt enur esy stem -I nt hi st ypeoft enur e, ani ndi vi
dualhast her ightov erthe
landal thoughhe/shemaynothav et hel egal landt itle.
Effect s
 Theownercanpl anf orlong- term pr oject ssi ncehe/ shei ssur et hatl andbel ongs
tohi m orheri ndef initely.
 Ani ndi vi
duall andownermaynothav eenoughcapi taltoi nvesti ndev elopment al
project sont hatl andso; t
hel andmayr emai nunder used.
Leasehol dlandt enur esy st em -Leasehol dt enur esy st em i swhenani ndi vidualsecur es
landf r om t hegov er nmentandst ay soni tandusesi tforanagr eed-uponper iodoft i
me.
Ani ndi vi
dualget sal easehol dt itlewhi chhe/ shecanuseasmor tgaget oaccessan
agricul turalcr editf r om t hebankoranyot hermoney -
lendi ngi nstit
ut ionwhi chhe/ she
canuset oboostagr icult ureont hef arm.
Communall and t enur e sy stem-I nt hi st ype oft enur e,t he l and bel ongs t ot he
communi ty; noi ndi vidual owner shi p.
Thist ypeofowner shi pal lowsev erymemberoft hecommuni tyt ouset hel andf reely
andt hel andcanbepassedf rom gener ationt ogener ationwi t
houtpay ing.

60
2)SOI LSCI ENCE
Soi
l profi
lesandcl assi f
ication
i) Compar eandcont r
astt hev ar i
ousl ayer sofasoi l
prof i
leintheschool garden.
Soi
lpr ofi
le:-i sthev er t
icalar r
angementofsoi llayers(horizons)f rom thet oplayertot he
par
entr ock.
Topsoi l( HorizonA) -Thi sist het opsoi l( topmost )l
ayeroft hesoi lprofil
e.Itisf ertil
e
thananyot herl ay erbecausei tcont ai
nsmor ehumuswhi chr endersi ttobedar ker
thant her estoft hel ay erandcont ainsmor esoi lmicroorgani smswhi ch br eakdown
or ganicmat terandhumust ol i
berat esoi lnut r i
ents.
Subsoi l(Hor izonB) -Thesubsoi ll
iesbel owt het opsoi ll
ay er.Itcontainslesshumus;
lessai r,lesspl antr oot s,lesssoi lmi cro-organi smsandmor ecompact edt hant opsoi l.
Gr avel( Hor i
zon C) -Grav ellay erliesbel ow t hesub soi ll ayer.Thisl ayercont ains
unconsol idatedmat erialmat terwhi chi sl essweat hered.Itconsi stsofr ockpar ticles
andst ones.
Par entr ock ( Hor izon D)-Thi si st he or iginalsoi lpar entmat eri
alwhi ch is st i
ll
consol idat edandunweat hered.Al ltheot hert hreelayersabov ecomef rom thepar ent
rock.

Bel
owdr
awi
ngshowst
hedet
ail
edsoi
lpr
ofi
l
e

ii
) Explainthei mportanceofasoi lprofi
le.
I
mportanceofasoi l profi
l
e:
 Soi lswithwel l
-devel
opeddeeppr ofil
eshav et heabili
tytor etai
nmor esoilmoisture
forplantgrowt handar eabl et oholdmor epl antnutri
ents.
 Soi lswi thshal low,poor l
ydev elopedpr ofi
lest endt odr youtqui ckly,contai
nl ess
plantnut ri
ent sandpr ovidel essanchor aget ogrowi ngpl antsallofwhi chhav e
negativeef f
ect sonagr i
culturalproduction.
 Soi lswi t
hdeeppr ofi
lesconser v emor esoi lmoi st
ureandnut r
ientsthusr educing
onsoi lerosionhazar dst owhi chsoilswithshal lowprof i
lesar eprone.
ii
i) Cl assifysoi lsampl es
Sand-Sandpar ti
cl esarecomposedofsi li
caandar elar
geenought obeseenwi tha
nakedey e.Coar sePar ti
clesr angebet ween2. 0mm t o0. 2mmi ndiamet erwhilefine
sandpar t
iclesrangef r
om 0. 2mm t o0. 02mm.
Sandpar ti
clesar eheav yandf eelgr i
tt
ywhenwet t
edandr ubbedbet weent humband
61
 finger s,sandysoi lsar esui tabl ef orcr opswhi chdonotr equirelargeamount sofwat er
,
e.g.gr oundnut s.
Loam- Loam soi lisanopt imalmi xtur eofsand,si ltandcl ay,showi ngnodi sti
nct
char act eristicsofnei ther .A l oam soi lcontainsenoughnut ri
ent s,wat erandhasa
sui tabl epHf orpr operpl antgr owt h.
 Cl ay -Claypar t
iclesar ecr y stalsofsi l
icaandal umi naandcannotbeseenwi t
hanaked
ey e.Acl aypar ti
clehasadi amet erofl esst han0. 002mm.
Composi ti
onandpr oper ti
esofsoi l
iv) Det ermi net heconst ituent s( component s)ofsoi l
.
Air-Goodsoi lhasai rpocket swhi char eusedbypl antr ootsandsoi lmi cro-organismst o
breat hei nor dert oliveandf unct ionpr oper ly.
Wat er -Wat erdi ssol vesmi ner alsal t s,gasesandor ganicmol eculeswhi chdet ermineits
pH. wat erf ormsabout25%ofsoi lbyv olume.
Organi cmat ter( humus) -I
tisder i
v edf rom r emainsofpl antsandani mal sdecomposedby
soilmi cr o-organi sms.Or gani cmat terisf oundmai nlyint opsoill
ayerandf or msabout5%
ofsoi lv olume
Mi ner almat ter–Iti spr i
mar ilyder ivedf rom t heweat heredpar entmat eri
alalthoughsome
comef r om decomposedor gani cmat erials.
Liv i
ng or gani sm- A di versi
t yofl iving or ganismsl i
vei n soilwher et heyhel pi nt he
decomposi ti
onofor gani cmat tert of or m humusandot herf unctions.Soi lorganisms
includebact eria,fungi ,ear t
hwor msandt ermi t
eset c.
Expl aint hei mpor tanceofconst ituent sofsoi l
.
Impor tanceofconst ituentsofsoi l.
Air-
 I sr equi redbypl antst ogener ateener gy( ATP)adenosi net r
iphosphat etobeused
toabsor bsal tsf rom soi l wat er .
 Oxy genf rom soi lairi sr equi r
edbysoi lor gani smsandmi cro-organismswhi ch
decomposeor ganicmat tert opr oducehumus.

Water-
 Soi l wat eri sr equiredbysoi lmicr o-organismst oli
v eandper formt heirfuncti
ons
 Ital sokeepst hel eavest urgidforpr operphot osynt hesis
 Ithel psi nt het ranspirati
onpr ocessi nplant s
 Soi l wat erdi ssol vesplantnut ri
ent s.
Organicmat ter-
 Itpr ov i
desnut ri
entstopl antsaf t
erdecomposi t
ion.
 Iti mpr ov esdr ainageandaer ati
onbybi ndingpar ticlest oget hertof orm aggregates.
 Iti sasour ceoff oodf orsoi lorgani smsandmi cro-organi sms.
Mineralmat t
er-
 Iti sasour ceofmi neralsrequi r
edbypl antsandsoi lmicro- organisms.
 Itpr ov i
desanchor aget opl antr oot ssot hatpl antsdonotf alloverwhengr owing.
Li
vingor ganisms-
 Someor gani smshel pi nfixingni trogeni nt hesoi le.g.azot obacterandr hizobium
bact eria,t husi ncreasingpl antnut ri
ents.
 Theyhel pi nthedecomposi ti
onofsoi lorganicmat tertol iber at
enut ri
ents.
v) Deter mi nephy sicalandchemi cal char acteri
sticsofdi fferentsoi l
s.
Physicalandchemi cal characteri
sticsofdi ffer
entsoi l
s.
Sandy- Par t
iclesar el argeandar ecomposedofsi li
caandt heycanbeseenwi thnaked
eye.
 Theyar eeasyt owor kbecauset hepar t
icl
esdonotl umpt oget her.
 Theyar el ight.

62
  Sandysoi l retainsl i
ttlewat erandt endst odr yupqui cklyinhotweat her.
 Sandysoi lsar ecour set extur ed.
 Theyhav el owcapi l
lar i
ty.
 Theyar ewel ldrained, aerat edandaci dic.
Claysoil-
Claypar ti
clesar eusual l
yv erysmal l
,usual l
ysmal lerthan0. 002mm i ndiameter.
 Cl aysoi l
sar enoteasi lyer odedbywat erorwi ndbecauset hepar ti
cleshav ehigh
cohesi onf orcewhi chhol dt hem t oget her .
 Theyar ef inet extured.
 Theyhav el ow por osi tyandt hi
smakest hem poor lydr ained,poor lyaeratedand
diff
icultt ocul tivate.
Loam soil-
Loam soi lsar emoder atelyt exturedwi thgooddr ainage.
 Theyhav egoodaer ation.
 Loam soi lsar eeasyt ocul tivat ewi t
hmoder ateerodabi l
ity.
 Theyhav egoodphy sicalandchemi calpr oper ti
est hatmaket hem bestsoi lsfor
agricultural pur poses.
Clayloam- Clayl oamsar ef inet ext ur edandar eabl et ohol dal otofwat erwhichmakes
them poorlydr ainedandpoor lyaer ated.
 Theyar edi f
fi
cul ttocul ti
vat e.
 Theysoi lPHr angesbet weensl i
ghtlyaci di
ct osl i
ghtlyalkaline.
 Theyar esui t
abl ef orcr opswhi chcanwi thstandwat erl oggingcondi tionse. g.
yams.
Sandyl oam-Theyhav eamedi um cour set exturewhi chenabl est hem tobewel ldrained
andwel laerated.
 Wat err etent i
oni smoder atebutl eachingi shi gh.
 Thei ropenst r
uct urer ender st hem t obeeasi l
yer oded.
 Cer eal cr opsper form wel l i
nt hesesoi l
s.
Sil
tysloam -Theyhav ef inet ext ur ewhi chmakest hem capabl eofhol dingenoughwat er
andnut ri
ents.
 Theyar ef ertil
eandmoder atelywel ldrainedandpoor lyaer ated.
 Theyar esl i
ght lyaci dic.

CROPPRODUCTI ON
Sit
eforacrop
i
) Prepareasi tef orgr owingacr opst udied.
Sit
eforacrop.
 Asui tablesi tef orgrowi ngsweetpot atoesorbananasshoul dbef ert
il
et osuppl y
enoughsoi lnut ri
entsforpr opergr owt handdev elopmentoft hesecr ops.
 Thesoi lshoul dbedeept opr ovideadequat ecroppl antanchor ageandsuf fi
cient
spacef orplantr oots.
 Thesoi lshoul dbeabl etor etainwat erforcropuseespeci allyduringt hedr y
weat her .
 The soi l
s shoul d hav e a good soi lpH t of acili
tat
e mi neralabsor pt
ion and
avail
abi li
tytopl antroot s.
 Thesoi lshoul dbeeasyt ocul tivateandnotst onysoast oal low easyr oot
penet rati
on.
 Thesi t efort hesecr opsshoul dbel ocatedwher et hetopographyi sflatorgent ly
slopi
ngt oav oidsoi lerosionhazar dsandt oall
owf ormechani cal cul
tiv
at i
on.
 Thel andshoul dbecl earedofexi stingv eget
ati
onbysl ashi
ngandupr oot i
ngtrees
andt ree–st umps.
i
i
) Cleari
ngasi tef oracr opst udied.

63
  Cl ear i
ng- Thi si st hephy sical cut tingoft rees, shr ubs, herbs.et c.
 St umpi ng-Thi si st heupr oot ingoft rees.
 Pl oughi ngorcul tivat i
on.Thi si sdi videdi ntot wopr imaryandsecondar yt i
llage.
Pr imar yt i
llage-Af tercut tingt r
eest hef armergoesi ntot hef iel
dandst ar
t
cul tivat ingwi thoutcar ingaboutt hesi zeofhowdeepheshoul dgodownor
thesi zeofcl ods.
Secondar yt i
llage-Af ar mercul tivat eusi ngmechani calsuchashar rows,
ridges, rakeswi thst andar di zedsi zeofhowdeepheshoul ddi g.
Seedbedpr epar at ionandsowi ng/pl ant i
ng
i
i
i) Descr i
bet hepr ocessofl andpr epar ati
onf orcr oppr oduct i
on
Landpr epar at ion.
Ref ertogr ade12wor ksoncr oppr oduct i
ononl andpr epar ati
on.
i
v) St atet headv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesofv ar iousf ormsofl andpr epar ation.
For msofl andpr epar at ion.
Mi nimum Ti llage
Lighttool sar eusedt oopenupt hesoi landsowt hecr opwher ebyt hesoi ldistur bancei s
li
mi tedonl ywher et hecr opi spl anedwhi letheor igi nalv eget ationmayber emov edby
slashing.
i
) Adv ant agesofmi nimum t il
lage
 I tsav est hecostofheav yt i
llagemachi ner yandi mpl ement s.
 I ti
saqui ckmet hodofpr epar ing.
 I tpr ev ent ssoi l er osi onont hef ar m.
 I treducessoi l sur faceev apor at i
ont husconser v ingsoi lfort hepl antedcr ops.
i
i) Disadv ant agesofmi ni mum t i
llage
 Cr opswhi chr equi r ef inesoi lt i
lthcannotbegr ownusi ngt hi smet hode. g.f i
nger
mi l
let .
 Wher et her ei ssoi lcappi ng, rai ni nfil
tr
at i
oni scheckedt husr educi ngt heav ailabi
lit
y
ofmoi st ur et ot hecr ops.
 Thedebr ismaypr ov ideahi dingandbr eedi ngpl acef orcr oppest se. g.insectpest s,
mi ce, nemat odesorEel wor mset c.
CONSERVATI ONTI LLAGE
I
swhenl andpr epar at ioni sdonewi thoutcul ti
v atingt hel andatal lbutonl yher bicidesar e
appl i
edt ocl eart hel and.
i
) Adv ant agesofconser vat i
ont ill
age
 Ther ei sr educedsoi lerosi onbecauset hesoi l i
snotdi stur bedatal l
.
 Soi lst ruct ur er emai nsundi stur bed.
 Ti l
lagecost s, machi ner yandi mpl ementcost sar eel iminat ed.
 I thel pst hesoi lt or et ainnut rient sf orcr opgr owt hsincesoi landwat erar epr oper l
y
conser ved.
 I tmayl eadt ohi ghcr opy ieldbecausesoi lf er tili
tyismai nt ainedandi mpr ov edby
conser vingsoi l andwat er .
i
i) Disadv ant agesofconser vat i
ont i
ll
age
 Theher bi cidesappl iedmayhav eal ongr esi dualef fecti nt hesoi lwhi chmay
damagepl ant edcr opst husr educi ngy i
el ds.
 The f r equentuse ofher bi cides may af fectbenef i
cialsoi lmi cro-or gani sms;
reduci ngt hei rnumber sandact i
vityinthesoi l.
 Usi ngher bi cidesmaybeexpensi v etolocal far mer s.
 Somecr opswhi chr equi ref i
neseedbedsmaynotbegr ownusi ngt hismet hodof
prepar ingl and.
 I trequi rest echni cal knowl edget oappl ywhi chor dinaryfar mermayl ack.
CONVENTI ONALTI LLAGE.

64
I
swhent hesoi lisi nt ensi vel ywor kedt opr epar eaf inet ilt
hdur ingl andpr epar ati
on.Hand
toolsormachi ner yar eempl oy edt opr epar eland.
i
) Adv ant agesofconv ent ional ti
llage
 I tper mi tseasypl ant ingofcr opswhi chr equi reaf ineseedbed.
 Tr ashi si ncor por at edi nt ot hesoi l topr ov idesoi l organi cmat ter.
 I tfaci l
itat esi nfiltrat ionandsoi laer ationbecausehar dpansar ebr okendur ingland
prepar at i
on.
 Deepcul tivat i
onf aci li
tat espr opergr owt hofdeepr oot edcr ops.
 I texposessoi lpest st ot heirnat ur alenemi esandal so,di seasecausi ngagent si n
thesoi l ar edest roy edbydesi ccat i
oni nt hesun.
i
i) Disadv ant agesofconv ent ional till
age
 I texposest hesoi lt osoi ler osi onhazar dsbecausei tremov espl antdebr isfrom
thesoi l sur face.
 I tencour agessur faceev apor ationwhi chmayaf fectcr opger mi nation.
 I tr equi resal otofhumanl abourandi ti st i
ringt opr epar et hel andusi ngt his
met hod.
 I tisexpensi vei nt er msoff ueldemandsandl abourwhenheav ymachi neryi s
empl oy edi nt hel andpr epar at i
onpr ocess.
i
ii
) Pr epar eseedbedssui tabl ef orger mi nationofseeds.
Seedbedpr epar at ion.
 Seedbedpr epar at i
oni ncl udespl oughi ngi fmachi ner yisusedanddi ggingi fhand
tool sar eused.
 Secondar ycul tivat ioni susedt obr eakl ar gesoi lclodsi ntosmal leroneswhi l
e
remov ingasmanyweedsaspossi blesucht hataf i
neseedbedi scr eat ed.
 Tr ashshoul dbei ncor por at edi ntot hesoi l toi mpr ov esoi lor gani cmat terwhi chisa
sour ceofsoi lnut rient s.
 Thesoi lshoul dnotbeov erf innedbecauset hisdest roy ssoi lst ructurewhi ch
subj ect st hesoi ltosoi l erosi onwhent her ear eheav ydownpour s.
 Ver ysmal lseedr equi r esar easonabl ef ineseedbedwhi l
ebi ggerseedsr equirea
moder at elyr oughseedbed.
 Theseedbedshoul dbedugt oanappr eciabl edept ht ocr eat eenoughr oom f or
rootgr owt handanchor age, dr ai nageandaer ation.
 Bi gt reesshoul dber emov edbecauset heywi llimposeshadeont hegr owingcr ops
whi chmayet iolat e.
 Seedbedsshoul dbepr epar edear lyenought oensur ecr opsar eplant edatt heright
timewhi chi ncr easescr opy ields.
 Manur eorf ertili
ser sshoul dbedugi nt ot hesoi latt imesot hatt heyi mpr ov
eon
cropgr owt h, dev elopmentandy i
el ding.
Pr acti
cesowi ng/ plant ingofcr opsst udi ed.
Sowi ng/ plant i
ng.
Mai ze
 Pl ant ingi sdoneatt hebegi nni ngofr ainsusi ngar ecommendedhy br i
dseed.
 Seedsar edr essedwi thf ernasanD.
 Recommendedspaci ngi s90cm x30or90cm x20cm f ormostv arieties.
 Spaci ngdependsont hecul t i
v arandt heecol ogical condi ti
onoft hear ea.
FERTI LIZERAPPLI CATI ON
i
) Descr ibet hedi ffer entmet hodsofappl yingf ertil
isersf ort hecr opsst udied.
Appl yi
ngf ertil
iser .
 Phosphat ef ertiliser sar eappl iedatpl ant ingt i
meusi ngdr illi
ngmet hod.Wher eby
fertili
ser si sappl i
edi ndr i
llswi tht heseeds.Compoundf ertilisersar eusedasbasal
dressi ngwhi chcanbeappl iedbef or eoraf terpl ant ing.
65
  Nit
r ogenistopdressedwhenplant
sareknee-
high(
45-
60cm).
fer
ti
li
ser
sisappl
ied
usingsidedressi
ngmet hod.
 Othermet hodst hatcan beused ar
efoli
arspray
,appl
icat
ionbyplough,r
ing
met hod,f
ert
igati
on.

ii
) Calculatethequant ityofferti
li
serforthecropst udied.
Cal
culat
ingquant it
iesoff erti
liserforcrops.
 Appl y300- 400kg/ hect areofcompoundDasbasal dressing.
 Appl y250- 300kg/hect areofur eaast opdressing.
ii
i) Explai
nwhypar t
iculartypesoff erti
l
iserarerecommendedf ort
hecr opstudi
ed.
Ref
ertomi neralrequir
ement soft hecr op.
 Ni tr
ogenousf ert
il
isersuppl yni t
rogent othemai zepl antstoencouraget hem to
growv igorously
.
 Theni t
rogensuppl iedhel psinthef or
mat i
onofchl orophy l
lwhichisresponsibl
efor
photosy nt
hesisinmai zepl ants.
 Phosphat ef er
ti
li
ser sar eappl i
edt osupplyphosphor uswhi chisresponsiblefor
properandear lyrootgr owthinmai ze.

WEEDCONTROL
i
) Statev ari
ousmet hodsofweedcont r
ol i
nt hecropsst udied.
 Weedcont rolisanext r
emel yv italpr act i
ceandi fpossible,itshoul dbecar ri
ed
throughoutt hegr owi ngper i
odofmai zepl ant .
 Useher bicidese. g.at razineF. Wt oel imi nateweeds.
 Al sobyt heuseofahoe
 Bycul ti
v ation-pl oughi ng, harrowi ngandhandcul t
ivat i
onofthesoi l hel ptobur ythe
weeds.Thi smet hodi sausef ulpr epar ati
onoft hel andbef oret hecr opi splanted
butt heweedsusual lycomeupagai nast hecr opgr ows.
i
i) Descr ibeway si nwhi chdi ffer entchemi cal scontrolweedsi nt hecr ops
studied.
Refertodi fferentchemi cal cont rolofweeds.
 Chemi cal susedt ocont rolweedsar ecal ledher bi
ci des.Herbicidesar eav ail
ablein
concent ratedf or m andt heyar eusual l
ydi l
ut edwi thwat erbef oret heyar eappl i
ed
onweedsasspr ay s.Her bicidesar esol dasl iquidorwet ablepowder sbutsome
arei ngr anul arf or m.Thi slatt ergr oupi sspeci fi
cal l
yformul atedt obeusedon
difficulte. g.sugarcanepl ant ations.Her bicideski llweedsbyi nhi biti
ngni trogen
met abol ism, kil
li
ng t he cel l
s,causi ng abnor malt issue development ,inhibiti
ng
phot osy nthesi sandi nterferingwi t
hr espi ration.
PESTSANDDI SEASESOFCROPS
i
) Stat et hechar act eristicsofcommonpest sofcr ops.
Characteristicsofpest sf orcr ops.
 Ther ear echewi ngandbi ti
ngpest swhi cheatpar tsoforwhol epl ant st heyattacks
usi ngt heirbi ti
ngandchewi ngmout hpar ts.Thesepest sar eabl et oeatl eav es,
stemsorr ootsoft hecr opst heyat tack.
 Somecr opspest shav echar act er i
st i
cofbor i
ngcr opsplant st heyat t
ackt hey
maket unnel sint ost emsandf ruitsorseedsoft hecr opandr emai ni nsidewhi l
e
consumi ngcont ent s.
 Ot hercr oppest shav ethechar act erist i
csofpi ercingandsucki ngt hecr opst hey
attackusi ngt hei rmodi fiedmout hpar ts.Thesepest ssuckthesapoft heat tacked
cropsaf terpi ercingt hem.
i
i) Descr i
besy mpt omsofcommondi seasesofcr opsstudied
Symptomsofcommondi seases. (
Mai ze)

66
  Maizestreakv i
rus-
stunt
edgrowthanddelay
edinf
loweri
ng.
 Leafbl
ight-lar
geelongatedbrownlesi
onsonthel
eaves.
 Cobrot–dr yrotoncobinthef i
eld.

ii
i
) I denti
fycropsthathav ebeenattackedbydiseases.
I
denti
fyi
ngcr opsat t
ackedbydi seases.
 I nfectedcropspl antsbecomest unted;examplesarest unt
edgr oundnutpl ant
s
whenat tackedbygr oundnutrosett
ev ir
usdisease.
 Cr opsat tackedbydi seasemaygi velow yiel
ds,e.
g.cassavapl antsattackedby
mosai cgivelowy iel
d.
 Di seasedcr oppl antsmaydev el
opcanker sonst emse. g.cankersoncowpeas
stemscausedbybact er
ial.
 Di seasedcr opswi l
tandt ot
all
ydiee.g.cott
onplantsatt
ackedbyf usari
um wi l
t.
PREVENTIONANDCONTROLOFPESTSANDDI SEASESONCROPS
iv
) Descri
bev ar
iousmet hodsofpr eventi
ngandcont r
oll
ingpestsanddi seaseson
crops.

MethodsofPr ev ent i
ngandcont roll
ingpest sanddi seasesoncr ops.
 Ear lyort imel ypl anti
ngofcr opspr ev entsandcont roll
i
ngpest sanddi seasei n
crops
 Weedi ngofcr opshel pstopr ev entandcont rolpest sanddi seaseoncr ops
 Cr oppr uni ngopensupcr oppl antst herebyr emov inghi dingandbr eedingsitesf or
croppest sandpr eventingami crocl imat ewhi chf avour sthemul t
ipl
i
cat i
onof
diseasecausi ngagent s.
 Rest r
ictionofmov ementofagr iculturalmat eriale.
g.seeds, suckers,stems, etc.
 Appl i
cat i
onofchemi calse. g.pest i
cidesandf ungicidescont rolscr oppest sand
fungal diseasebyki l
l
ingt heat tackingpestordi seaseoncr opplant .
 Cr opr otat ionhel pst opr eventandcont rolcr oppest sanddi seasebymaki ng
certaincr opsunav ailabl
edur ingcer taint imessot hatt heirpest sanddi sease
causingor ganismsdi eduet ol ackofhostandbyt het i
met hosecr opsar egr own
againi nt hosef i
eldtheirpest sordi sease
Carr
youtpr event i
v emeasur esofpest soncr opsst udied.
Carr
yingoutpr ev ent i
vemeasur esofpest soncr opsst udied.
Maize
 Mai zest alkbor erar econt r
ol l
edbyspr ayingwi tht hl
odenorendosul phanata
rateof2kg/ hectare.
 Amer i
canbor ewor m arecont roll
edbyt heuseofendosul fan2kg/ hectare.

HARVESTI NG
i) Identifycropsthatar ereadyforhar
vesting
Si
gnsofcr opsr eadyf orhar v
est ing.
 I nsomecr ops,t heleav eschangef rom greent oyell
ow colourwhent heymat ure
forhar vestinge. gbeanandsoy abeans.
 Somecr opsshedt heirleaveswhent heyar ereadyforharvesti
ng,e.g.groundnut
s,
beansandsoy abeans.
 Somecr opsdr yupt oshowt hattheyar
er eadyf orharv
esting,e.
g.f i
eldpeasand
mai ze.
 Usual lywhensomecr opsr eadyforhar
v esti
ng,theybecomebi ginsizet oshow
thatt heyar emat ureenough, e.
g.pumpkins,cassavaandsweetpot ato.
Harvestthecr opst udiedcor rectly.
Harv
estingcr ops.

67
  The t i
me ofhar v esting dependson met hodst o be adopt ed.I fmechani call
y
harv estedpl ant sar enor mal l
yl eftint hef ieldt or educet hemoi st ur et oabout
13.5%.I fisjustbyhandsy oucanhar vesti tear li
erandt hendr yits,i ti simpor t
ant
tohar vestdur ingt hedr yseasont oreducei nstanceofcobr ot .
STORAGE
ii
) Descr ibev ar i
ousmet hodsofst ori
ngcr opsst udied.
 Cr ibs-ar econst ruct edf rom awi remeshexceptf orsol idwal lont hewi ndwar d
sideandt her oofi st hat chedwi thcor r ugat edi ronsheet s.
 Bagsorsacks- product si spackedi nbagsorsacksf orst or age.Pr oducei nt he
bagscanbest ackedonadr yf l
oor .
 Gr anar ies-gr anar iesar est ructur est hatst andupr i
ghtonf ourpol eswi tht hat ched
roofs, ther eshoul dbear atguar df i
tt
edoneachpol et opr ev entent ryofr ats, mice
andt ermi t
esi ntot hegr anar y.Fl oorcanbepl asteredwi thmudorcowdung.
 Pol es- thepr oducei st riedi nbundl eswhi char ehungonr opet i
edont reesand
vertical polesj ustnearhomes.
 Racks- Racksar econst ruct edf rom l ocal mat erials.Theyar eusual lyr aised2t o3m
abov et hegr oundt opr ev entdampnessf rom t hegr ound.Pr oducei spl acedand
storedont heser acks.
 Basket s- smal lamountofpr oducear eusual lystor edi nbasket swhi char ecov ered
andkepti nf armer ’
shouses.Thi st y peofst or agei schar acter isticsofsmal l
farmer s.
ii
i
) Expl aintheadv antagesanddi sadv ant agesofv ari
ousmet hodsofcr opst orage.
Baskets
Advantages
 Thi smet hodofcr opst or agedoesnotr equi r eanyspeci ali
zedski ll
.Anyf ar mercan
usei t.
 I tischeapt ouseasnocosti sinv olved.
Disadvantages
 Thi smet hodofst oragecannotbeusedwhenl argeamountofcr opsneedt obe
stored.
 St oragepest s’ e.gweev i
lscaneasi l
yaccessandat tackt hest oredpr oduce.
 St oredcr opscaneasi lybest olenbyt hiev esbecausei tisnotl ockedupf orsaf ety.
Bagsorsacks
Advantages
 Thi sst or agemet hodi scheapt ouse.
 Usi ngt hismet hodofcr opst oragedoesnotr equiret echni cal ski ll
s
Disadvantages
 Rodent scaneasi lyaccesst hepr oduce, damaget hebagsandeatt hepr oduct s.
 Bagsar eeasyt obest olenbyt hiev esi ft heyar enotsecur elyl ockedup.
 Thi smet hodofcr opst oragei mposest hepr oducet of ir
ehazar dprobl ems.
Granari
es
Advantages.
 Gr anar iesar echeapt oconst r
uctandcanbeconst r
uct edf r om l ocalmat erialsand
donotneedspeci alisedski ll
st oer ect.
 I fpr oper lymai ntai nedbyper iodicpl ast er ingandt hatchi ng,gr anar i
esar equi te
durabl e.
Disadvantages
 Manysmal lscal ef ar mer susual lydonotputonr atguar dsdur ingconst ruct i
onand
thismakest hest or edpr oduceeasi l
ysubj ect edtopestdamage
 Poor lyt hatchedgr anar i
esexposet hest or edpr oducet obei ngdamagebyr ain.
 Gr anar iesar eusual lybr okeni ntobyt hi ev eswhost eal thest or edpr oduce.

68
Cribs
Adv ant
ages
 Cr ibsusuall
yst orel argeamount sofpr oduce.Theyar everydurableont hefar
m
andcanser veforsol ong.
 Cr ibsareasaf emet hodofcr opst oragepr ov
idedtheyarev er
mi nproofandleak
proof.
Disadvantages.
 Cr ibsareexpensivet oconst ruct.
 Theyr equi
retechnical skil
lst oconst r
uct.
Poles
Adv ant
ages
 Thi smet hodofstor agei scheapandeasyt ouse.
Disadvantages.
 Thest oredcropsar enotpr operlyprotectedfrom extr
emesofweat her,especi
all
y
rai
n.
 Thi evesaneasilysteal t
hepr oduce.
Racks.
Adv ant
ages
 Theyar eeasytoconst ruct.
 Thepr oduceont her acksdr i
espr operl
ybecauset hereisenoughaircircul
ati
onin
theproduce.
Disadvantages
 I ftheracksarenotpr operlyr oofed,producecanbedamagedbyr ai
n.
 St oragepestscaneasi lyinfestt heproduceont her
acks.
 Thi evescaneasi l
yaccesst her acksandst ealtheproduce.

Si
los
Advantages
 Thepr oduceisproperl
yandsaf elystor
edinsi
losbecauseadequat
efaci
l
iti
es
andtechni
calski
l
lsofcropstor
agear eavai
l
abl
e.
Di
sadvant ages
 I ti
sexpensi
vetoerectorbuyasilo.

4)FORESTRY
Defor
est ati
on
i
) Identifycausesofdef orestati
on.
Causesofdef orestation:
 Logsandsawnt i
mberdemands.
 Demandf ormor eagricultur
al l
and.
 Seasonal fi
reout breaks.
 Char coal burning.
 Const r
uct i
oni ndust ry
.
i
i) Stateef fectsofdef orestati
on.
Eff
ectsofdef or estati
on:
 Def orest ati
onl eadst ocl imatechanges,especi all
yreducedr ainfalll
eadi
ngt oless
reli
ablerainfall whichresul t
sinunsust ai
nableagr i
cul
turaleconomy .
 Def orest ati
on r esultsi n soiler osi
on on steep slopes because t he soillacks
vegetationcov erandpl antr ootstoholdthepar t
icl
estoget her.
 Def orest ati
ondest royt henat uralhabit
atsforwi ldli
fe–ecosy stem,forthef l
ora
andf aunaoft hecount ryaredest abi
li
sedleadingtoextinctionofcer t
ainpl
antsand

69
 animal s.
 Def or est at i
oncausesr educedwat ersuppl yf r
om l akes, ri
vers,
stream andswamps
becauseofcont i
nuousr educedr ainf all.
i
ii
)MEASURESTOCONTRLDEFORESTATI ON
Formulatemeasur esofpr ev ent i
ngandcont rol li
ngofdef orest at
ion.
Measur esofPr ev ent ingandcont rol
lingofdef or estat i
on.
 Peopl ei nt hecount ryshoul dbeeducat edmassi velyt hroughmassmedi aont he
i
mpor tanceoff orest s.
 For estencr oacher sshoul dbeev ictedbyl aw andt heaf fectsar easshoul dbe
refor est edt opr eventandcont rol def or est ation.
 Ener gy -sav i
ng st ov es shoul d be i nst all
ed i n homes,school s,col l
eges,ar my
barracks, prisonsandot herinst i
tutionst or educeonbi omassdemands.
 The gov ernmentshoul d emphasi ze bi rth cont rolpr ogrammes t o ascertai
n
manageabl epopul at ionsi zet oav ertt hepr obl em ofov erpopulationwhi chforces
peopl et oencr oachongazet tednat ur al for estreser ves.
5CONSERVATI ONFARMI NG
ORGANI CMATTTERANDFERTI LIZER
i) St atet headv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesofusi ngor ganicmat terandar ti
fi
cial
fer ti
lisert osuppl ynut ri
entst ocr ops.
Advantagesofusi ngor gani cmat ter
 Or gani cmat tercont rolsweedgr owt h.
 Or gani cmat terpr ev ent sev apor ationofwat erfr om thesoi ltherebyconser vi
ngsoi l
moi st uref orpl antgr owt h.
 I tdoesnotr equi retechni calskillstoappl y.
 I tischeapt ogetor gani cmat terf oruse.
 I thasa buf fer i
ng ef fecton mai ntai ning aci d-base condi tion int he soilthus
resist ingsoi l pHchanges.
 I tencour agessoi lmi croorgani sm act ivitiesandpopul at i
onsbypr ov i
dingfoodand
shel ter .
 Soi l or gani cmat t
eri mpr ovest hesoi l struct ur eandsoi l aerati
on.
Disadvantagesofusi ngor gani cmat ter
 Or gani cmat tercannotbecol l
ect edi nbul kt obeappl i
edov eranext ensivearea
andt hisl imi tsi tsusei nl argescal ecr oppr oduct i
on.
 I tpr oducesheatwhi chcandamagecr opr oot si fappli
edwhenst il
l f
resh.
 Or gani cmat tert akessomet i
met odecomposeandr eleasenut r
ientsforplant
growt hwhi chmakesi tunsuitabl ef ori mmedi ateuse.
 I tisbul kywhi chmakesi tdiffi
cul ttost ore, expensi vet ot r
anspor tandt i
resomet o
appl y .

Advant
agesofusi ngar ti
fi
cialferti
l
iser.
 Ar ti
fi
cialfer
til
isersreleaselargeamount sofnutri
entsonappl i
cati
onbecausethey
aresolubleinsoi l
wat erandt hishelpst ocorr
ectsoili
nferti
l
ity
.
 Eachar t
if
icialfert
il
isertypecont ainsspecifi
cnut ri
entsindi
catedonthepackaging
whichhelpsf ar merst osuppl ythenut ri
entsthatmaybel ackingint
hesoilwhen
arti
fi
cialf
ertil
iseri
sappl ied.
 Theyar eeasyt ostore,cheapt otransportandeasyt ohandl eandapplybecause
theyarenotbul ky.
Di
sadvantagesofar tif
ici
alferti
li
sers.
 Becauset heyar equitesol uble,ar t
if
ici
alfert
il
isersareeasilylostf
ormt hesoil
becauseofl eaching.
 Ar ti
fi
cialf
ertil
iserscannoti mpr oveont hesoilst
ructure.

70
  Applicat ionoff er
til
isersr equiresspecial
isedski l
lsotherwise;wr onguseoft hem
cani mpactadv erseef fectsont hesoil,
croppl antsorenvironment .
COMPOST
i
i
) I
nv est igatethei mpor tanceofcompostt oacr op.
I
mport
anceofcompostt oacr op.
 Iti
mpr ov essoi lstr
uct urewhi chhelpstocont r
ol soi
lerosion.
 Iti
mpr ov essoi lwat erabsor pti
onandr etenti
onal lofwhichar enecessaryf orpl
ant
growt h.
 Itsuppl iespl antnut ri
ent sforexampl enitrogen,phosphor us,potassium andother
nutri
ent sr equiredf orcr opplantgrowthanddev elopment.
 Compostsuppl i
essoi lor ganicmat t
erwhi chchangesi nt ohumust hatimproves
soilaer ation,drainageandwor kabil
it
ythroughi mprovedsoi lstr
uct ur
e.
i
i
i) Prepar eacompostheap.

Prepar i
ngacompostheap.
Composti smadeofl ayersofor gani cmat erialsalt
ernatingwithlayersofsoi lont opof
oneanot herinaheap.
Addf erti
li
serssuchasni t
rogenf erti
li
sert oeachl ay eroft heor ganicmat er i
alsto
encour agedecomposi tionbybact eriaandt oi mpr ovecompostqual ity.
Cov ert heheapwi t
hal ayerofsoi l,thesoill ayerscontainsmi cro-
organismswhi chhelp
tobr eakdownt heorgani cmat eri
alsi ntheheapandor ganicmat eri
alli
kepl antleavesto
prev entt heev apor
ationofnut rientfrom theheap.
Add decomposed or ganic manur et o encour age mi cro organi
sms’popul ation and
activity.
Theheapshoul dbepr eparedundert heshadet oprotectitfrom rainwhi chcancause
mi neral leachi
ngorsunshi neandwi ndwhi chdr ythemat eri
alsandcauseev apor at
ionof
nut ri
ent s.
Tur ningoft hemat erialsintheheapshoul dbedonet ohelpbr eakandaer atethe
mat er i
alst ospeedupt hedecomposi t
ionpr ocesses.

ANI
MALMANURE
i
) Expl aint hei mpor t
anceofusi nganimal manur e.
I
mportanceofusi ngani mal manur e.
 Ani malmanur ei mpr ov essoilstructur
ewher ebyt heorgani
cmat terandt he
car bonicaci d produced hel pt hesoi lt o begr anularand thi
sf acil
i
tates
drai nageofwat erandencour agessoi laeration.
 I tincr easest hehumuscont entoft hesoi lwhi chr esul
tsinimprovedwat er
hol dingcapaci tyoft hesoi l.
 I tsuppl ies nitrogen,phosphor us,pot assium and some t r
ace element s
requi redf orcropgr owt h,
dev el
opmentandpr oduction.
 I ttrapssoi lheatwhi chhel psinseedger minat ionandencouragessoi lmicro
organi sms’ populationsandact ivi
ti
estoi ncrease.
i
i) Ident ifythecr opnut ri
ent sprovi
dedbyv arioust ypesofani malmanure.
Nut
ri
entspr ov i
dedbymanur e.
 Cat tle manur e -I tsuppl ies nitr
ogen,phosphor us and pot assi
um wi th other
element si nmi nutequant i
ties.
 Pi gmanur e-I tisrelat
iv el
yl owi nnitr
ogenandpot assi um.
 Goat ,sheep manur e and r abbitmanur e-I
tsuppl ies nitr
ogen,phosphorus and
potassi um.
 Poul trymanur e–I tisv eryconcent ratedinnitrogenandphosphor usthananyot her

71
 ani mal manur esour ce.
i
ii
) Descr i
bet hehar vest ing, handl ingandst orageofani mal manur e.
Harvesting, handl ingandst or ageofani mal manur e.
 St raw beddi ngs ar e puti n ani malquar ter.Ni tr
ogen –r i
ch beddi ngs,e . g
legumi nouspl ant sshoul dbeused. ani mal sdef ecat eont hebeddi ngsandmi x
them upwi tht hedungandur ine.Thent hesoi l
edbeddi ngsar er emov edandputi n
thepr epar edpl ace.Thepr epar edpl aceshoul dbeundershadet oav oidl osses
thr oughev apor at ionbysunshi neandl eachi ngbyr ai n.Thef looroft heshade
shoul dbemadeofconcr et eorcov eredwi thpol yt henesheet stoav oidl eachi ngof
sol ubl enut r i
ent sf rom decomposi ng mat er ials.Then t hemat erialsar ef i
nal l
y
cov eredwi thapol ythenesheett oav oidev apor at i
onofv aluabl enut ri
ent se. g
nitrogenf rom t hedecay ingmat erials.Themat erial sshoul dbel ef tt odecompose
compl et ely;t hel ongert hemat er i
al sar eal lowedt odecompose,t hebet tert he
qual i
tyoft he end pr oduct .Ani malmanur e shoul d be appl ied i nf ield when
compl et elydecomposed.
SOILPREPARATI ON
i
) Pr epar esoi lforgr owi ngacr opunderor gani cf ar mi ng.
Refertocabbage, beans, tomat oes, mai ze.
 Fi rstcl earv eget at i
onbysl ashi ngandf el l
i
ngt reesandr emov aloft reest umpst o
facilitat emechani cal cul tiv ation.
 Thel andi sopenedusi nghandt ool sormachi ner y.
 Thecul tivat edl andi sr est edf orsomet i
mesot hatt het rashr ot st oeasei ts
i
ncor por ationi nt ot hesoi l dur ingt hesubsequentoper ation.
 Thesoi li scul tiv at eddeepl yt obr eaksoi lpanst of acilit
at esoi laer ation,r ain
i
nf il
trat ionandr ootpenet ration.
 Secondar ycul ti
v at i
oni sdonebybr eaki ngl ar gesoi lclodssot hatpl antingofcr ops
wi l
l becul tiv ated.
 Or gani cmanur e,compost sandot heror gani cmat eri
al scanbeaddedt ot hefield
arei nt egr atedi nt ot hesoi l toi ncr easesoi lor gani cmat terinaddi tiont ot het rash.
 Manur eshoul dbeappl iedi nagr onomi cr ates.
 The soi ls shoul d notbe ov erf ine dur ing secondar y cul t
iv at
ion si nce t his
encour agessoi l er osi ont ooccur .
 Thesoi lt il
thshoul dbemoder at el ycoar sewhi chhel pst ot rapmor er ainand
facilitat einf ilt
rat i
on.
 Al lt he weeds shoul d be upr oot ed so t hatcr ops ar e pl anted i n weed –f ree
condi ti
onswhi chgi v epl ant edcr opsagoodst art.
 Theupr oot edweedscanber aked,col lectedandt urnedper i
odi callysot hatthey
dryupandbeusedasmul ch.
 Att hi spoi ntt hef ieldi sr eadyf orpl ant i
ng.
PESTSANDDI SEASES
Prepareappr opr iat enat ur al pest icidest ocont rol pest s
i
) Pr epar ingnat ur al pest icidest ocont rol pest s( e.g.chi ll
i,ash) .
 Woodashesdust edoncr oppl ant scancont rolant s,l eafmi ners,andcat erpil
lars
andst em bor es.Woodi sbur ntt opr oducet heash.
 Chi ll
ipepper sar epoundedandmi xedwi thhumanur i
nest oredf orsev er alday s
andspr inkl edar oundbananast ool st ocont rol bananaweev i
ls.
 Oni onbul bsorgar lici smi x edwi t hpr oducedt ocont rolst oragepest sespeci all
yi n
beansandcer eal s.

ROLEOFCROPROTATIONINPESTANDDIEASECONTROL
i
i) Expl
aint
heroleofcr
oprot
ati
oninprev
ent
ingpest
sanddi
seasesi
nor
gani
c

72
 production.
Rol
eofcroprotat
ioni npestanddiseasecontr
ol.
 Cropr otat
ionpr eventsthei nci
denceofpest sanddi seasesincr opsbecause
diff
erenttypesofcr opsfol
lowoneanot herinasequencewhi chcausespest
sand
diseasecausi ngagentst odiebeforethesamet ypeofcr opisgr ownagainthe
samef iel
d.Her eisanexampl eofacroprotati
on–

CROPPINGSYSTEMSANDPESTSANDDI SEASECONTROL.
ii
i) Descr i
becompani onpl anting.
Companionpl ant i
ng.
 Compani onpl antingi st hegr owi ngoft wodi f
ferentt y pesofcr opsi nproxi mity
wher ebyt heuseofcompani oncr opsmayr educet heneedf orweedi ng.Rowsof
onet ypeofcr opal t
er natewi thr owsoft heothercr opt y pee. g.growi ngsoy abeans
withsunf l
ower .
iv) Demonst rat ecompani onpl ant i
ngwhengr owi ngcr ops.
Exampl eofpossi blecompani onpl ant i
ngi ncludest hef oll
owing-
 Mai ze/ beans.
 Bananas/ cof fee.
 Cassav a/ groundnut s.
 Mai ze/ mi l
let.
 Cassav a/ mai ze.
 Bananas/ beans.Et c.
Usi
ngplantst oat tractpr edat orsandpar asites.
 Cer tainespeci allyat t
r activepl ant sar epl antedwi t
hcr opst odiver tthepest sf rom
themai ncr opt ot hemsel ves.
 Thepest scol lect ingt ot heat tr
act i
v epl antsarespr ay edwi thapest icideandki l
l
ed.
BARRIERSANDTRAPSFORPESTS.
i) Usebar riersandt rapst ocont rolcr oppest s.
Usi
ngbar r
iersandt r apst ocont r
ol pest s.
 Tr enchf encescanbeconst ruct edar oundcr opgar denst opr eventl ar geani mal s
li
kebuf falos, el ephant s,baboons, stray i
ngf r
om gamepar ksorgamer eserves.
 Thor nypl antsl ikest hekaiappl ecanbepl antedar oundcr opar msasbar riersto
preventl argerani mal sf rom at tackingcr ops.
 Bar bedwi r
est randscanal sobeusedt oconst ructaf encear oundcr opf ieldsto
control pest se. g.st ray i
ngdomest iclivestock.
 Wov enwi reisal sousedt of encear oundcr opgar densasabar r
iert ocont rol pests.
TI
MINGOFPLANTI NG.
ii
) Explaint hei mpor tanceoft i
mi ngofpl antingi nther educt ionofpestat t
ack.
 Ti mel yplant ingofcr opscanav oidat tacksofst alkbor ersonmai ze, bollwor mson
cotton,andst rainersoncot ton, milletandr ice.

73
  Timelycr opplanti
ngoffer
sanearlygoodstartbef
orepestbui
ld-upwhi
choccurs
l
aterint heseason.
 Early–pl antedcropsgrow morevigor
ouslythanlat
eplant
edonesbecausethey
uti
lisetheav ail
ablesoilnut
ri
ent
sandr ai
nfal
lmaximal
lywhichcausesthem to
withstandpestattacks.

6 LI VESTOCKPRODUCTI ON
Import
anceofl i
v estock
i
) Statetheeconomi cimpor tanceoft het y
pesofl i
vest
ockst udied.
Economici mpor t
anceofl ivestock.
SheepincludeDucks:
 Sheepf ar
mer ssell
sheept oearni ncome.
 Newl ybor nsheepar ekilledfortheirsoftskinscal ledpelts.Thepel t
sar eusedf or
maki ngexpensi v
ejacket s.
 Sheepcanbr i
ngineconomi creturnsmor equi cklysincet heyhav eahi ghgr owth
rate.
 Sheeppr ov idemanur ewhi chisappl i
edi ncr opf i
eldtoi ncreasedcropy i
eldthat
increaseandi mprovet heeconomi cstatusoft hef armer.
 Sheepar esour ceofwoolwhi chi sani mpor t
antindustrialrawmat erialthathelps
toi ni
tiatet heestablishmentofawool -basedi ndustry
.Thewoolcanaswel lbe
expor tedtoear nforeigni ncome.

HEALTHI NLI VESTOCK

ii
) Identi
fysignsofgoodandpoorheal thinliv
estock.
Si
gnsofgoodheal thi nlivest ock.
 Theani mal doesnotcoughorbr eathewi t
hdiffi
culty
.
 Theani malhasanor mal pulser ate.
 I tdrinkswat ernor mal lyasusual .
 I twal kswithnosi gnsofl amenessorl i
mpi ng.
 I tproducesr egul arlyandpr oducesgood-qual ityproduct
s,e.
g.mil
kandeggs.
 Theani malisf l
eshyandnotemaci ated.
 Theani malisal ertandact i
v e.
 Theani malpassesoutf aecesbei ngf air
lyloosebutnothardorloose.
 Theani malhasbl i
ghtandcl earey es.
 Aheal t
hyanimal hasgoodappet i
teforf ood.
 I thasanor malbodyt emper atur echar acteri
sti
coft hatclassofli
vest
ock.E.
g.
cat t
le38.5-39. 5oc.
Si
gnsofpoorheal t
hi nl i
v estock
 I ncreaseordecr easei nbodyt emper at ure.
 I ncreaseordecr easei npulser at
es.
 Lackofdesi retoeatanddr i
nk.
 Dul lcoat.
 Wat eryorhar ddung.
 Br ownorr edur ine.
 Suddendr opinmi lkpr oduct ion.
 Coughi ngorsneezi ng.
 Lamenessorabnor mal mov ement .
 Ther emaybegr unt ingandgr i
ndingoft eethofasickanimal.
 I tlooksemaci ated.

74
  Losesappet iteforf oodandwat er.
LI
VESTOCKFEED
Descr ibethenut rit
ivevalueoft hel i
v est
ockf eedfortheanimal sst
udi
ed.
 Car bohy drates whi ch suppl y ener gy foral lt he biol
ogicaland biochemical
processest ooccurandcont inuef unct i
oninginthebodyofanani mal
.
 Fat swhi chpr ovideener gyt ot hebody .Fatsgi vetwiceasmuchasener gyasdo
carbohy drates.
 Pr oteinst hatar er equir
edf orbui ldingupnew t i
ssuecellsf orgr
owth,repai
rand
replacementofwor noutt issuecel ls.
 Mi ner alswhi ch–hel pinthef ormat ionofteethandskeletalbones.
- For m par toft heani mal bl
ood.
- Actascat alystsofenzy mes.
- Hel pint hesy nthesisofani malproduct.
Vi t
ami nswhi chhel pt hebodyoft heani mal t
ogr owproperly.

NUTRITI
ONALDEFI CIENCI ES
ii
i
) Descr i
besy mpt omsofnut r
it
ionaldefi
cienciesi
nli
vest
ockstudi
ed.
Symptomsofnut ri
ti
onal defi
cienci
esinli
vestock.(Sheepandducks)
 Gener alweakness.
 Emaci ati
on.
 St untedgr owth.
 Di ff
icult
yinbr eathing.
 Anaemi a.
 Di arrhoea.
 Bl i
ndness.
 Pr olongedbl oodcl ott
ing.
 Reducedi rri
tabil
i
ty.

i
v) I dent i
fysui tablespeci esofpast ureforl
ivestockst udied.
Speci
esofpast uref orl i
vestock
 Rhodesgr ass- thisisgr ownonhi ghalti
tudes.Itisgoodf orbothhayandgr azing.I
t
i
sest abl i
shedf orm seedsorspl i
ts.Itdoesnotl astlongunl esspr oper
lyferti
l
ised.
 El ephantgr ass- i
ti salsoknownasNapi ergr assandgr owsnat ural
l
yinhot ,wet
areas.I ti sat allgrasspr oducingal ar
gequant i
tyofgr eenf eedf oranimals.Itis
cutandf edt oani mal s.Itisest abli
shedf r
om spl i
tsorst em cut t
ing.
PESTSOFLI VESTOCK
i
) Statet heef fectsofpest sonl ivestock.
Eff
ectsofPest sonl ivest ock:Di seases, poorheal t
h:
 Pest ssuckbl ood f rom bi rdsand causeanaemi a and weaknesst othehost
ani mals, e.g.hookwor ms.
 Pest str ansmi tdiseaseagent stot hehostani mals,e.g.tsetsef l
i
esort i
cks.
 Theyl owert hequal ityofl ivestockpr oducts,e.g.l iv
erf lukesi nthel i
verofa
slaught er edani mal .
 Par asitesl iket i
cksdest royt hehideorski noft hehoseani mal andloweritsqual i
ty.
Etc.

i
i
) Investi
gatemethodsofprevent
ingandcont
rol
li
ngpest
sthatat
tackani
mal
s
studied.
Met hodsofpr event
ingandcont
rol
li
ngpests:
(cat
tl
eandsheep)
Passingtheani malsthr
oughasprayr
ace.
Dippingt
heani mal
sindipwash.

75
Burningpast uregr ass.
Handspr aying.
Rotational grazing.
Ploughingofpast ure.
Regularcl eaningofwat erpointshelpst ocontroll
iverfl
ukeinfest
ati
oninanimal s.
Eradi
cat i
onofi nter medi at
ehost s,e.g.watersnails,hel
pstocontroll
iverf
lukesat tacking
animal .
DISEASES
i
ii
) St atemet hodsofpr eventi
ngandcont r
olli
ngdiseasesonanimalsst udied.
 Vacci nation–i tisapr ocessofi ntr
oducingweakenedorki lledor ganisms
intothebodyofanani malt osti
mul atetheproducti
onofantibodiesagai nst
the di sease cause by t he organisms e. g.Newcastle,chicken can be
vaccinat edev ery6mont hs.
 Di pping- i
ti sapr ocessofdi ppingani malsindi pwashev ery14day st o
preventext er
nal parasi
tes.
Other smayi ncl
ude–
Giving cl ean wat er to animal s,Pr ovi
de enough v enti
l
at i
on,Regul ar
cl
eanlinessi nandar oundt heanimal houses.

HOUSING
i
v) Descr i
bet hesui tabili
tyandmai ntenanceofv ar i
oust y pesofli
v est
ockhousi ng.
Mai
ntenanceofhousesandst ructures.
i
) Pighouse-
 Api ghouseshoul dbeabl et opr otectpi gsf rom ext remesofweat herl i
ker ain,
sunshi ne,wind, andcol dness.
 I tshoul dhav esmoot hwal lswi thnocr ackswher epar asitescanhi de.
 Thef l
oorshoul dbesl ightlyslant edwi thchannel toai ddr ai
nage.
i
i) Mai ntenance-
 Regul arcl eaningbywashi ngandscr ubbingwi thahar dbr ushanddet ergentsand
disi
nf ectantt opr eventi ncidenceofdi seasesshoul dbedonedai l
y.
 Per iodi cr epairsonwal landr eplacementoft hat chshoul dbecar r
iedoutwhen
necessar y.
 Pot hol esont hef loorshoul dbef il
ledwi thconcr etet oav oidur i
neanddung
coll
ect ingt herewhi chcanbeasour ceofi nfect i
on.
i
ii
) Cal fhouse( Tr adit
ional kraal)-
 I tshoul dbeabl et opr otectcal vesf rom weat herext r
emes.
 I tshoul dbel ocat edonst r
ongwel ldrainedsi tes.
 Ther eshoul dbeenoughv entil
at ion,wi t
henoughf loorspacet oav oidov ercr
owdi ng.
 I tshoul dhav eaf i
rmf l
oormadeofconcr etewi t
hdr ainagechannelt of aci
li
tate
remov alofur ineanddung.
i
v) Mai ntenance-
 Regul arr emov al ofdungandur ineandt horoughcl eani ngshoul dbedonedai ly.
 Anycr acksappear i
ngont hef loorshoul dber eplacedwhennecessar y.
 Mai ntainacl eanspacear oundcal fhousest opr ev entdampness.

MARKETI NG
i
) Descri
bet hepreparat
ionofl i
vestockandli
vestockpr
oductsformarket
ing.
Prepar
ingliv
estock/Productsformar keti
ng.
 Thel ivestocktobemar ketedshouldbewel lfedonnutri
ti
ousfeedssot hatt
hey
fat
tenandl ookgoodpr i
ort omar ket
ingi
nordertofet
chgoodpr i
ces.
 Theani malsshouldbet reatedforanydi
seaseorpestsidenti
fi
edorsuspectedso
76
 thatonl
ydi
seaseandpest
s–f reeani
mal
saremarket
ed.
 Theanimalsrequi
restobehandl edwit
hcaresot hatt
heyarenotinjur
edor
brui
sedbef
oreorduringmarketi
ng,t
heyshoul
dnotbeovercr
owdedi
nv ehi
cleor
beateni
ntr
ansitt
othemarkets.

 Animal sshouldbegr oupedaccor di

ngt osize,sexandagewhenprepar
ingthem
f
ormar keti
ngtof aci
l
itat
epri
cing.
i
i
) Ident
ifyorganisat
ionsinZambiat hatprocessandmar kett
hel
i
vest
ockproduct
s.
 Parmal at.
 Zambeef .
 Zamchi ck.
 Masterpor k.
 Zambi aporkproducts.
 Kachemameatsuppl iesLtd.
 Dair
ypr oduceBoar d.
 ColdStorageBoar d.

BEEFARMI NG
i
i
i) Descr i
becommonmet hodsofbeef armi ng.
COMMONMETHODOFBEEFARMI NG.
 Log- hivemet hod.
 Tr adi t
ional –hi v emet hod.
 Top- barhi ve-met hod.
 Johnsonbox-hi ve-met hod.
i
v) Const r
uctaf ramedbeehi v e.
Af r
amedbeehi vei sconst ruct edusi ngt i
mberwi thabot tom si de,
at wosi ded,two
ends,twent yei ghtt op–bar sandonel i
dofspeci ficdi mensi ons.Thesemember sar e
j
oinedt of or m at r oughl i
keboxwi tht opbar spl acedi nt heirpositi
on.
Establ
ishandmanageanapi ary.
Managi ngt heApi ary.
 Af t
erconst r
uct i
ngt hehi v e,t heyar eplacedi nsui tablepl aceswher et heyar e
coloni zedbyt heswar msofbees.Somel itt
lehoneyorbeewaxmaybeputi nt he
hivet oat tractbeest ocol onizei t.
 Thehi v eshoul dbet reat edont heout sidewi thawoodpr eservati
vei nabsenceof
whi choi lpaintcanbeappl iedt opr ev entroot i
ngandweat herdamage.
 Thehi v esshoul dbepl acedundershadet opr ev entov erheat i
ngint hehi vewhi ch
forcest hebeest oabandont hehi v e.Hivesshoul dbeputundershadeoft r
eesor
farmer scanconst r
uctr oof edshedswher ethehi v esar eplacesonr acks.Theshed
i
sheav ilyfencedwi thast rongl ockabl edoor .
 Hi vesshoul dnotbepl acedont hegr oundt orottingoft het imberandent ryofant s
whi cheatt hehoney .Thehi vesar esuspendedonwi r
esbet weenadj acentt r
eesor
post s.
 Fl ower i
ngpl ant sli
kemor ninggl or y,sunflower ,banana,r osesandot herf l
ower s
canbepl ant edwi thint hev icinityoft heapi aryf rom whi cht hef oragersgett he
nect arandpol lenrequi r
edi nt hehi v es.
 Thehi v esshoul dhav ewat erpr ov idedi nshal lowbasi nsneart heapi ary
,mai nlyin
thedr yseason.Sugar edwat ershoul dbechangeddai lytoav oi
df erment ati
onof
thesol ution.
 Acl earspaceoft womet reswi deshoul dbemai ntainedar oundt heapi arytoguar d
agai nstf irewhi chmaybur nt hehi v es,especi all
ydur i
ngt hedr yseason.
 Anapi ar yshoul dbei nspect edr egul arl
y.

77
v
) St atemet hodsofhar v estinghoney .
Met hodsofhar vest i
nghoney .
 Smoki ng-asmokerpr oducessmokewhi chi spuf fedi nt ot hehi vet oqui etent hebees
duri
nghar vesting.Thesmokei smadebybur ningst rawi nsidet hesmoker .
 harv estinggear -handgl ovessoakedi nv eget ablesoi lpr otectt hehar vesterform st ings
ont hehands, akni fei susedt ocutt hehoneycombsf rom t het opbar sorhi vesi desi n
othert ypesofhi v esandav eilcov erst heheadoft hehar v estertopr otecthim/ herf rom
sti
ngs, whileanov er allprot ectsthewhol ebodyf r om st ings.
v
i) Pr ocessandgr adehoneyandhoneypr oduct sf ormar ket i
ng.
Process
 Thecombsar euncappedandputi nl argesi ev eswhi char ehungov ercont ainer s.
Honeydr i
psoutoft hecombs.Thecombsar el ef tont hesi ev es.Thecombsl eft
canbepr ocessedi ntowax.
 Honeycombsar emashedandhungi ncl ot hbagsov ercont ainer s.Honeydr ipsout
oft heclot hbagsandcol l
ectsi nt hecont ainer s, leav ingt hecombsi nt hebags
 Honeycombsar euncappedandputi nacent rifugalext r
act orwhi chi sei ther
oper ati
onmanual l
yorel ectrically.Honeyi sf or eoutoft hecombsbyr otat
ionf or ce,
l
eav i
ngt hecombsi nt hecent rifuge.Theext ract edhoneyi sputi nleancont ainer s
cov eredt oav oidcont ami nat i
onbyi nsect si ncl udi ngbees.
 Honeyshoul dbegr adedaccor dingt ocol ourandt ast e,sucht hatsi milarhoneyi s
packedsepar atelyf rom t heot hersoast of aci l
itatepr icing,handl ingandmar king.
Honeyi spour edi ncont ainer sofdi fferentcapaci tiesl abelledmader eadyf or
mar keting.
 Whent hehoneyhasbeenext ractedf rom t hecombs,beeswaxcanal so be
obtained.Thecombsar eheat edandmel tedi nhotwat erwhi chi spassedt hrough
cleancl oth.Themol tenwaxi sputi ncleancont ainer st ocool .Asol arwaxext ract
tocanbeusedt oext ractwaxwhi chi susedt omakecandl esandshoepol i
sh.
 I nshor tcr usht hehonecombs.Si evethehonet hroughmosqui tonet ti
ngclot h.The
restoft hecombsi sheat edi nwat ertopr oduce

7.FARM STRUCTURES
Fenci
ng–i saf arm pr act
iceofencl osinganar eaforagri
cul
tur
alpurposeont
hefar
m.
i
) Describet hedifferenttypesandusesoff ences.
Types
 Metalli
c.
 Wooden.
 Wall.
 El
ectric(li
ve).
 Hedges.
Usesoffences
 Acti
ngaswi ndbr eaks.
 Helpi
ngi ncont roll
ingbr eedi
ngi nliv
estock.
 Addingv aluet othef arm.
 Keepingoutt r
espasser sandt hi
eves.
 Enhancingt hebeaut yoft hef arm andattr
actcustomersfori
ncomegener
ati
on.
 Doublefenci nghel psincont r
ol l
i
ngt i
cks.
 Controll
i
ngspr eadofdi seasesamongani mal .

i
i) Fenceanar
eaont
hef
arm.
Fenci
ng.

78
  Oncet heposi tionoft hepr oposedkr aalhasbeendeci ded,mar koutt hel i
nesof
thefencewi t
hast r
ing.Placepegsal ongt hestringateachpoi ntwher eaposti st o
bedug.Theuseofdr opper si naf encer educest henumberofmai npost sor
standar dsneeded. Dropper sar ethinpol eswhi chsuppor tthewi reoft hef encebut
donotr eacht hegr ound.Thespaci ngoft hest andar dsdependsonhow bi gt he
kraalisandweat herthewi recanbest rainedt i
ght.Post sat8m i ntervalswi ththree
dropper sspaced2m apar ti nbet weenar esui t
ablef orakr aal.
 Theposthol esshoul dbe50cm deepand30cm i ndiamet er .Thepol esshoul dbe
180cm i nlengt hand15cm i ndi amet er.Wheny ouputpost si n,startwi thacor ner
post.Mi xsomeconcr eteandputi tdowneachhol e,pressi ngitf i
rml yar oundt he
post.Gi vet hecor nersoft hef enceext rasuppor tbyput t
inganext rapost1m each
sideoft hecor ner .Thefitacr osspieceofwoodacr osst het opandsecur ecrossed
wires.
 Barbedwi reist henf i
xed,oncet hepost sar einpl ace,startinginacor nerwi t
ht he
topl i
neofwi re.Awi rest rainingappar at usisessent i
alf orgoodr esul t
s.Thisi s
securedatoneendoft hef ence.Whent hewi rehasbeenpul l
edt ighti tisstapled
tothepost s.
 Fourr owsofbar bedwi re30cm apar tar esuf fi
cient.(Anot hermet hodofwi ri
ngi s
tohav ebar bedwi r
eatt het opandbot tom andt hreerowsoft i
ghtlypul ledplain
wireinbet ween, 25cm apar t).
 Lastly,thedr opper saretiedt ot hebar bedwi reatr egularintervals,using‘ soft’
wire.

ii
i
) Expl ainadv antagesanddi sadv antagesoff encesonaf arm
Advantagesoff ences.
 Mi xedf armi ngcaneasi lybecar ri
edout .
 Av ailablel andcanbeputt opr operuse; e.
g.byf arming,croppingr otat
ions.
 Theymaker otat i
onalandst r
ipgr azingpossi blesi ncethepast ur eisdividedinto
grazi nguni ts.
 Theyhel pt oi solateandgr oupl i
v estockaccor dinglye.g.y oungones,pr egnant
ones, mal es, femal esandsi ckones.
Disadvant agesoff ences.
 Somecommunalbenef it
sar elostsuchasconst r
uct i
onofexpensi vecattl
edipsby
onei ndiv i
dual .
 Encl osedf arm ani malsbecomev ulnerablewhent heygoout .
 I ncaseofshi f
tingf ences, ext r
af ar m expendi t
ur emustbeneeded.
 Fencesr equi rer egularlabourf ort heirmai ntenanceandr epair.
HEDGES
iv
) Expl ainusesofhedges.
Usesofhedges.
 Tokeepawayi nt r
uder sorbypasser s
 Topr ev entst ocksf rom ent er i
ngint ot hegar denorf i
eld.
 Wher et her eisast rongpr evail
ingwi ndt heycanbeusedt ogi vecat t
lesome
shel ter.
v) Est ablishandmai ntainahedge.
Establi
shingandmai nt ai
ninghedges.
 Dur ingar ainyseason,di gacont inuoust renchar oundt hear eaf orfencing;whose
dept hshoul dbeabout30cm.Fi llitwi t
hl oam soi lwhi
chshoul dbemi xedwi th
decomposedor gani cmat t
er .
 Pl ant ingmat erialscanbeseedl i
ng,sucker sandst em cutti
ngs,dependi ngont he
typeofpl antt obeusedf orhedge.
 Spaci ngshoul dbecl osedenoughabout30cm f rom onepl anti
ngmat eri
altot he

79
 other .
 Phosphat ef ertili
ser sshoul dbei ncor por at edi nt ot hesoi lsoast oencour age
rootingoft hepl ant ingmat er ials.
 Wat er ingoft hepl antedmat erialsoughtt obedoner egul arlyev eryev eningand
alsoev eryear lymor ningf oraboutt hr eemont hsf r
om t hedayofpl ant i
ng.Ev en
aftert hr eemont hs, ir
rigationi ncaseofadr yseasonshoul dbedonet oencour age
cont inuousgr owt h.
 Weddi ngofunwant edpl ant sf oundgr owi ngi nt hehedgemustbedonebyhand
throughpul li
ngandbydi ggi ngt hem outusi ngasmal lhoe.Weedi ngmustbedone
earlyenoughandbecont inuedupt ot het imewhent hehedgehascompl etelygot
establ ished.
 Gapf illi
ngmustbedonet oat tainuni for m andcont inuousgr owt hoft hehedge.
 Si det osi demul chi ngoft hegr oundbaseoft hehedgemustbedonet ocont r
ol li
ng
soiler osi onandal sot oconser v emoi stur ef ort hehedge.
 Whent hehedgehasgr ownandr eachedapr ef er redhei ghtbyt hef armer ,tr
immi ng
shoul dbest artedonandcont inuedwhenev ernecessar yasawayofst i
mul at i
ng
growt hofbudsandsucker satbot hot hehedget ogi veitt het hicknessr equi r
edby
thef ar mer .
 I n case ofpestat t
ack,especi all
yt he l eafeat i
ng cat erpill
ar s,spr ay ing usi ng
recommendedi nsect icidesmustbedonei nt i
measawayofki l
li
ngt hem.
vi
) St at eadv ant agesanddi sadv antagesofhedgesonaf arm.
Advantagesofhedges
 Theyar echeapt oest ablishsi ncev eget ativ epar t
swhi char eused, r eadilyst art
rooting.
 Ther ear enor isksofr oot i
ngofpl ant edt r
eesorbushes.
 Whenest ablished, hedgesneedl essmai ntenanceandl abour .
 Theyactaswi ndbr eaks.
 Hedgesaddv aluet ot hef encedl andcoupl edwi thenhanci ngbeaut yoft hef ar m.
Di
sadv antagesofhedges.
 Theyt akel ongt i
met ogetest abl i
shed.
 Hedgescannothol dbi gani mal ssuchascat t l
esat i
sfact orily.
 Theycancompet ewi thcr opsf ornut rientsandmoi stur e.
 Regul art r
immi ngr equi resmuchmoney ,ti
meandl abour .
 Hedgesar enotef fect ivewher esecur i
t yisapr oblem.
GREENHOUSES
vi
i
) Descr i
beagr eenhouse.
Greenhouse.
 Agr eenhouse( alsocal l
edagl asshouse)i sabui ldingorcompl exi nwhi chpl ants
aregr own.Thesest ructurer angei nsi zef r om smal lshedst oi ndust ri
al-sized
buildings.Commer cialglassgr eenhousesar eof tenofhi ght echnol ogypr oduct i
on
facilit
iesf orv eget abl esorf lower s.Thegl asshousei sf il
ledwi thequi pmentl i
ke
screeni ngi nstal l
at ions, heat ing, coolingandl ight ing.
 Agr eenhouseal somaybedescr ibedasast r uct uralbui ldingwi thdi ffer entt ypeof
cov eringmat er i
al s, suchasagl assorpl ast icr oofandof t
engl assorpl ast i
cwal l
s;
i
theat supbecausei ncomi ngv isiblesunshi nei sabsor bedi nsi det hest ructur e.Ai r
war medbyt heheatf rom war mi nter i
orsur facei sr etainedi nt hebui ldingbyt he
roofandwal l;t heai rwar medneart hegr oundi spr ev entedf r
om r i
singi ndef i
ni tel
y
andf lower i
ngaway .
vi
i
i) Expl aintheadv ant agesanddi sadv ant agesofagr eenhouse
Advantagesofagr eenhouse.
 Agr i
cul turalandhor ti
cul t
ur alcr oppr oduct ionschedul esCanbeef fect i
v elyt ot ake

80
 adv antageoft hemar ketneeds
 Thepr oduct i
vityoft hecr opisincreasedconsi derable.
 Super iorqual itypr oduct scanbeobt ainedast heyar egrownunderasui tabl
e
cont roll
edenv i
ronment .
 Per centagesofger minat i
onofseedsar ehi ghi ngreenhouse.
 Greenhousesar esui tableforaut omationofi rri
gation.appli
cati
onofot herinputs
and env i
ronment al cont rol by usi ng comput ers and ar t
if
ici
al intell
igence
techni ques.
Di
sadv
antagesofagr eenhouse.
 Requi resal otofwor ki sthemai ndisadv antaget ogr eenhousesinthatt heyar e
extremel ydi ff
iculttosetupaswel l
asmai ntain.
 Greenhousesar ef air
lyexpensi vet oconst r
ucti fyoudev el
opahi ghqual ityone.
Glassanal soaddt ot hecost sasmanygr eenhousesar ecomposedpr i
mar il
yof
glass.
 Electrici
tycost snor mal l
yraisedur i
ngthecol dseasonaswel l,si
ncethemaj orit
yof
greenhousesmayr equi r
eheat i
ngdur i
ngt hev erycol dti
mes.
 Althoughapl asticgr eenhousecov eri
ngi scheaper ,manypeopl edon’tcar ef orit
s
lookasi tisof tenconsi dereda“ cheap”l ook.Asmanygr eenhousesar eat tached
topeopl e’
shomes,t hiscancr eat
epr oblemswi t
hnei ghbours,dependingupont he
locationofy ourgr eenhouse.
 Glassi salsoext remel ysuscept i
bletodi rt,meani ngthatowner sar erequi redto
const antlycleant hegl ass.

8.FARM MACHI NERY

Fri
cti
on
Machine.
i
) St
atet hemeaningofmachi ne.
 Amachi neisaninstrumentwhichmakeswor keasier
.Thus,amachi
nei
sadev
ice
wi
thmov i
ngpart
st hatworktogethert
oaccomplishatask.
i
i) Explaintheef
fectsoffri
cti
ononf arm machi
nery.

Ef
fectsoff r
ict i
ononf arm machi ner y.
 Fr icti
oni sdef inedasaf or cet hatopposesmot ion.Thus,whenev eroneobj ect
sli
desov eranot herobj ect ,fr i
ctiont ri
est ost opt hemov ement .Inot herway s,
fri
ctional way sopposest hemov ementofanobj ect.
 Fr icti
onr esultsinwearofal lmachi nef unctionalpar tsduet ot heresistanceoft he
mov i
ngpar t
st hatar eincont act.Sowearduet of r
ict
ioni st hedecr easingoft he
massanddi mensi onsoft hesol idbodi essur facesasar esultoft hemut ualeff
ect
oft hesesur f
acesaswel lascausi ngl ossofapar toft hemov ementener gyof
thesebodi es.
iii
) St ateway sofi ncreasingandov ercomi ngfrict i
on.
I
ncreasingf riction.
 Bynotl ubricatingpar tsthatar esupposest obel ubri
cated.
 I ncreasi ngt hewei ght /
loadofasubst ancebei ngpul l
edorpushed:i ncreasei nthe
wei ghtoft hebodycauseani ncr easei ntheamountofr esistanceofof feredt othe
relati
v emot i
onoft hesur facei ncont act.
 I ncreasi ngheat :nor mallyt hechangei nmat erialsast heyar eheat edcausesmor e
fri
ctionandnott heheati tself.
 Tr eadi ngt hewheel sofv ehi cles.
 Choosi ngadesi gnt husincr easi ngdr ag.
 I ncreasi ng adhesi on:i ncr easi ng cont actsur face ar ea ofr ubbing subst ances

81
 i
ncr
easesf
ri
cti
on.

Ov
ercomi ngfr
ict
ion.
 Reduct i
onofcont actpoint:i
fyour educetheareaofcontact
,youwil
lreducethe
amountoff ri
cti
ongenerated.
 Mechani calengineer
ing:usingwheel s,bal
l/r
oll
erbear
inghel
pt oconver
tsli
ding
fr
icti
onint
oami l
derfor
m ofr ol
l
ingfri
ction.
Belowisdrawingshowingabear ing

 Spr inklingsof tpowderont hesur f

acesr educesf ricti
on.
 Byappl yinggr ease, oil(lubricat ion) .
 Usi ngcor r ectcombi nationofsur facesi ncont act .
RUSTING
i
v) I dent ifycondi tionst hatencour ager usting.
Conditi
onst hatencour ager ust i
ng:
Ai r
Moi sture
v
) Expl ainwhathappensdur ingr usting.
Theprocessofr usting.
 Whenadr opofwat erhi tsani r
onobj ects, twot hingsbegi nt ohappenal most
i
mmedi at ely .Fir
stwat er,agoodel ectrolyte,combi neswi thcar bondi oxi
dein
theai rtof or m aweakcar boni caci d,anev enbet terel ectr
olyte.Ast heacidis
formedandt hei rondi ssol ved,someoft hewat erwi llbegint obreakdown
i
nt oi tscomponentpi ecesofhy drogenandoxy gen.Thef reeoxy genand
dissol v edi ron,bondi ntoi ronoxi de,i nthepr ocessoff r
eeingel ectrons.The
elect ronsl iber atedf rom t heanodepor tionoft hei ron,flow tot hecat hode
whi chmaybeapi eceofamet all eeel ectricall
yreact ivethani ron,oranother
poi ntont hepi eceofi roni tself.
Prev
entr ustingonf ar m machi nes.
Prev
enti
ngr ust ing.
 Oi l
ing- Pr ev entsr ustby r epelling wat er,si nce oi land wat erdon’ tmi x,
ther efor eacoatofoi lwi llkeepwat erawayf rom t hemet alpar tsthatcould
rust .Oil prev ent srustbypr ovidingabar r
ierbet weenmoi stur
eandt hemet al.
 Gr easi ng-Gr easepr ev ent sai rfrom get ti
ngi ntocont actwi t
ht hebar emet al.
Gr easepr ev entsr ustt hanpai ntbecausepai ntcanchi pandpeel sof f
,but
greaser epel swat erandot herl i
quidsubst ancet hus,al lowingi ttoasol i
d

82
 suchasi ron.
 Painti
ng-Pr ot
ect
scarbodypanel
sfrom r
usting.Pai
ntingprevent
swateror
oxygenr eachi
ngtheir
onbodyofthecarandi ndeedot hermetal
sli
kedoor
andwi ndowf r
ame.
 Galvanisi
ng–painti
ngofametalusi
nganothermetal.

9.FARM MANAGEMENT
BUDGETING
i) Expl
ainbudgeting.
 Budget i
ng-
isawayf orapersontoplanf orf
uture;itrefer
stoestimati
ngthefuture
i
ncomes,costsandpr of
it
sofabusi ness.Your ecordwhaty ouexpectt ohappen
andthencompar ei twiththereal
ityofwhathasact ual
lytakenplaceplanning
aheadinthi
swayhel psaf armer
/busi nessper sont oassesswhywhatact uall
y
occur
redisdif
ferentfrom whathe/sheexpected.I tprovi
desanest i
matedofhow
muchmoneyi srequiredtostar
tanewent er
pri
se.

ii
) Prepar
eabudgetforanenter
pri
se.
Pr
epari
ngabudgetf
orMaizeproduct
ionent
erpr
ise.

Estimat edcost s Esti

matedsal
e
(Expenses) (Ret
urns)
It
em Amount(k) I
tem Amount(
k)
Bought50 kg seed 750. 00 240 bagsof50 kg 20000.00
@ k15/ kg maize@k85each
Labour t o pr epare 500.
00 Shell
ed cobs f or 220.
00
l
and 540.
00 fi
res
Three 50 kg base
dressingf erti
li
ser@
k180/bag 600.
00
Four 50 kg t op
dressing f ert
ili
sers 80.
00
@k150/ bag 650.
00
Transpor tcosts 260.
00
Hire of t r
actor t o 570.
00
plough
Labourf orweedi ng
Wages for
harvest i
ng
Expect edTot alcosts 3950.
00 Expect
ed Total 20,
620.
00
i
ncome
Expect
edprofi
t20,
620-
3,950=k16,
670

ii
i
) Pr
epareacashf l
owbudgetforanenterpri
se.
Pr
epari
ngacashf l
owbudget .
 Acashf l
owbudgeti sanesti
mateofallcashrecei
ptsandal
lashexpendi
tur
est
hat
ar
eexpectedtooccurduringacertai
ntimeper i
od.Esti
mat
escanmademont hly
,
bi
monthl
yorquar t
erl
y,andcanincl
udenon- f
armincomeandexpendit
uresaswel
l
asfar
mi t
ems.Cashf l
ow budget
inglooksonlyatmov ement,t
houghnotatnet
i
ncomeorpr of
it
abil
it
y.

83
 Thefol
lowingarethestepst obefol
lowedinprepar
ingacashf
lowbudget.
i
v) Out li
ney ourt
ent at
iveplansforl
iv
estockandcropproduct
ionfort
hey
ear
,as
showni nexampl e
EXAMPLE1:
1.Producti
onplansforthey ear:
 500hect aresofcorn.
 400hect aresofsoybeans.
 50hect aresoffodder.

2.Li v est ockpr oduct ionpl ans.

 224l it
resf ar row–t o–f ini
sh.
3.Taki ngani nv ent or yofl ivestockonhandandcr opsi nstoragenow.I far ecent
financi alst atementi sav ai l
abl e,informat i
onf oundundert hecurrentasset ssect ion
canbeused.
4.Est imat ef eedr equi r edf ort hepr oposedl i
v estockpr ogramme.
5.Est imat ef eedav ai labl e,l istbegi nni ngi nv entorypr i
ort oharvest,andexpect ednew
croppr oduct ionaf terhar vest .Finally,est i
mat ethequant i
tyoffeedsuppl yandf eed
pur chasesneededi fany , andt hequant i
tyav ail
ablet osell
.Oncey ourf eedsuppl yand
feedr equi rementar eest imat ed,y oumaywantt oadj usttheli
vest ockpr ogrammet o
fitthem.
6.Nowy ouar er eadyt ost ar twi ththeact ual cashf lowbudget .
7.Pl ansal esofnof eedcr opsandexcessf eed.
8.Est imat eincomef rom ot hersour ces.
9.Consi der capi talpur chases such as machi nery,equi pment ,l and,or addi tional
br eedi ngl ivest ock.
10.Summar i
sedebtr epay ment .
11.Est imat enon–f arm expendi tures.
12.Sum t ot al cashi nf l
owsandt otal cashout flows.
COSTI NGANDACCOUNTI NG
vi
) Di st i
ngui shbet weendi r
ectent erprisecost sandov erheadcost s.
 Di r ectent erpr i
se-cost st hatspeci fi
callyident if
ywi thapar t
icul
arent erpri
seoft he
far m.Forexampl e,t hecostofbeanseedsi sspeci fi
call
yidentifiedwi ththebean
ent er prisewhi le
 Ov er headcost s-Thesecost sar et hoset hatar eincurredregardl essofwhet heror
notpr oduct iont akespl ace.Thesecost sdonotv ar
yast hesi zeofanent er prise
changesunl essav eryl ar geanddr amat icchangei smade.
vi
i) St at ef act orst hatdet ermi nepr icesofcommodi ti
es.
Factorst hatdet ermi nepr icesofcommodi t
ies.
 Suppl yanddemandofcommodi ties
 I nv ent or i
esandst ocks
 Cur rency
 I nflat ion
 Weat hercondi tions
 Economi candpol itical condi t
ions
 Gov er nmentpol ici es
 Pr i
ceel ast i
city
vi
ii) Cal culat egr ossmar ginsofanent er prise.
Grossmar ginofanent er pr i
se.
 Gr ossmar ginsar eoneoft hemostcommont oolsusedbyf armer stohel pt hem
plan.Gr ossmar gi nsar eusedasamanagementt ooltohel pf armer schoose
bet ween pr oposed st r ategies.Thi s maymean choose bet ween t wo di f
fer ent

84
 ent er prisesorchoosi ngbet weendi f ferentmet hodsofpr oduct i
onf ort hesame
ent er prisesorgr ossmar ginofanent erpr isei st hedi ffer encebet weent hegr oss
incomeear nedbyt heent erpr iseandt hev ar i
abl eordi rectcost sassoci atedwi thi t.
 I nsummar y,gr ossmar gi ni st hedi ffer encebet weengr ossi ncomeandv ar i
abl e
cost s.
 Gr ossmar gin=gr ossi ncome-v ariablecost s
 Var iabl ecost sar et hecost sdi rectlyl inkedt ot heent erpr i
se.Theyar ecal l
ed
v ariablebecauset heyv arywi tht hesi zeoft heent er prise.Thi smeanst hatt he
mor egr oundnut saf ar mergr ows,t hemor ef ertil
izer,seed,spr ayandmachi ner y
cost swi l
l bei ncur red.
ix) Suggestway sofi ncr easi nggr ossmar ginofanent er prise.
 I ncr easi ngpr oduct ivity-thiscoul dmeanmaki ngy ourwor kswor ksmar terand/ or
har der .Buyf ast erI Tequi pment -st af fusi ngant iquat edsof twar eandcomput er s
coul dbewast ingt i
me.
 Addi ngnewpr oductl i
nes- tryt oaddnewpr oduct sandser v i
ceswhi chcompl ement
yourexi stingpor tfoli
o.Usi ngy ourexi stingcust omer s,y oucansel lnewl inesv ery
quickl y.
 Hav ingasal e-peopl ear eal way sont hel ookoutf orbar gai ns;i tseemst hathav i
ng
asal eisagoodwayt opr omot ey ourpr oduct sandser v ices.I sal soagoodwayof
conv ertingol dst ocki nt ocash
 Decr easest ockcost s-ar ey ouget ti
ngt hebestpr i
cef ory ourst ock?Youcoul d
sav eaf or tunei nl ooki ngatnewsuppl ies.
 Taki ngcr edi tcar ds-byt aki ngcr edi tcar dpay ment sy ouar emor eli
kelyt oincr ease
yoursal esbecausepeopl ear emor el i
kel yt ospendbi ggeronacr editcar dt han
withcash.
 Cust omerser vice- alway smaket hecust omerf eelr eal l
ygoodaboutt hepr oduct s
andser v i
cesy oupr ov i
de, theyar emor elikel yt ocomebackt oy ouorr ecommend
yout ot hei rf riendsandf ami ly.
x) Cal cul at ingpr ofitofanent er pr i
se.
Cal
culatepr ofitofanent erprise.Thef ollowi ngar et hest eps
 Gat heral lr ev enuef igur es,whi chwi llincl udegoodsol d,r entr eceived,i nterest
ear ned,i nfrast ruct ureorequi pmentsol dandanyot herr evenuegai nedbyt he
busi ness.
 Cal cul atecostofgoodssol d.I ncludi ngr aw mat erialsandl abourcost sdi rect l
y
relat edt opr oduct .
 Addal lpur chasesofr aw mat er ials,andsubt r actt heendi ngi nventorygi v i
ngt he
amountuseddur ingt hisaccount ingper iodandassi gni ngadol l
arf i
gur et ot he
di f
fer ence.
 Assi gnadol larf i
gur eusi ngei thert hef irst–i n–f i
rst-outmet hodort hel asti nf irst
outmet hod.I fy ouusef irsti nf i
rst–out ,uset heamounty oupai df ort heol dest
inv ent ory .Ify ouusel asti nf i
rst–out ,uset heamounty oupai df orthemostr ecent
pur chases.Beconsi stent .
 Subt ractt hef igur escal cul atedi nst ep2f rom t her ev enuef iguresi nst ep1t o
det er mi net hegr osspr of itbef or eov erhead.Addupal lov erheadexpenses,whi ch
incl udesuchi temsasi ndi rectl abourandst af fsal aries,bui ldingr ent,ut i
li
tiesand
depr eciat ion.
 Subt ractt hef igur escal cul atedi nst ep4f rom t hef i
gur esdet er minedi nst ep3t o
gett hepr of itbef or etaxes.
 Subt ractt axesf r
om t hef i
gur ey ouar rivedati nst ep5. thisi st hef i
gur ey ouwer e
target i
ngandi st henetpr of it
, ort hebot tom l ineofy ourbusi ness.

85
GRADE12
1)AGRI CULTUREI NZAMBI A
ModernAgr i
culture
i) Identi
fyv ariousent erpr
isesfarmersengageinonaf arm.
Di
ff
erentent er
prisesont hef arm
 Poul try
 Fi eldcr ops
 pi gger y
 hor ti
cul ture
 Fi shf ar mi ng
ii) Explaint headv ant agesofhav ingsever
alenter
prisesonthefarm.
Advantagesofsev eral enterpr i
sesont hefarm.
 Hel psi ncaset heot herbusi nessisnotdoi
ngfinethusproduct
ive.
 Hel psi ndiv ersifi
cat i
on.
 I ncaseofanout breakofadi sease,
e.g.i
npiggerythushorti
cult
urecanf
undt
he
ot
herent er prise.

ii
i) Expl ai
nt hehar
m agr i
culturecancausetot heenvi
ronment.
Effect
sofagr i
cultureontheenv ir
onment :
 Pol l
ut i
on
 Soi lerosion
 Def orestati
on
Farmerexper iment s
iv) Expl ai
n why f ar
mer s shoul d carr
yout experi
ment wi t
h new and own
technol ogi
es.
Experimentingwi thnewt echnologies.
 Ref ertogr ade10wor ks
v) Expl ai
nhowf armerexper i
mentscanbei mproved.
I
mpr ovingfarmerexper iment s.
 Ref ertogr ade10wor ks
vi) St atet heimportanceofdi sseminat
ingfarmerexperi
mentalresul
ts.
Disseminatingf armerexperimental r
esult
s.
 Ref ertogr ade10wor ks

2)SOI LSCIENCE
Soi
landwater
i
) Det
erminet
hecapi
l
lar
it
yofgi
vensoi
lsampl
es.
Capi
ll
ari
tyofsoil
s-

Exper
iment

 Col
lectasampl eofdr ysandysoil.
 Col
lectasampl eofpowder edclay(dry)
.
 Col
lecttwol onggl asstubes.
 Fi
llt
wogl asst ubeswi thtwosampl eofsoi
l t
oabouttwocentimetresfr
om top.
 Pl
ugt hebottom oft het woglasstubesbeforef
il
li
ngthem wit
ht hesampleofsoil
.
 Pl
acet heglasst ubeswi thsamplesofsoil
intoabasincontai
ningwater.
 Observewhathappens.Wr i
tedowny ourobserv
ation.

86
Capi
l
lar
it
yofsandandcl
ay

 Therateatwhichwat err
isesi
nsoildependsont hesi
zeofthesoilpar
ti
cles
andthesizeofthespaceorporesbetweenthen.Whenwaterent
ersthepores
ofcl
aybycapill
ari
tythewaterr
iseshi
gherthaninsandsoi
lbecausetheholes
arev
erysmall.

ii
) Deter
minethedr
ainager
atesofgi
vensoi
lsampl
es.
Dr
ainager
atesofsoi
l
s.

Exper
iment–
Method

 Col
lectequalquantit
iesofdr ysampl esofloamy ,cl
ayandsandysoils.
 Putfi
tt
erpapercar eful
lyinthefunnels.
 Toonef unneladdclaysoi l
,toanotheraddl oamysoilandtothethir
dsandysoi
l
.
 Pl
acet hefunnelsgentlyontopoft hemeasur i
ngcyli
ndersasshownbel ow.
 Addequal vol
umesofwat ertoeachsoi lsampl egentl
y.
2
 Compar ehowl ongittakestocollect10cm ofwat erineachcyl
inder.

87
 i
i
i) Explai
n diff
erentt
ypes ofsoi
lmoi
stur
e and t
hei
rsi
gni
fi
cance t
o cr
op
producti
on.
Ty
pesofsoilmoistur
e.

 Hygroscopicwater–i swat erabsorbedbyf i

nesoilpar
ticlesofclayandhumus.
Thewat erisabsorbedfrom theairbutthi
sisheldtooti
ghtlybyt heparti
clesf
ori
t
tobeav ail
abl
etoplants.
 Gravit
ati
onwat er-Thisiswat erwhichdrai
ndownwar dst hroughpor espacesby
forceofgravi
ty.
 Capill
ari
tywater–iswat erwhichispull
edagainstt
heforceofgr avi
ty.Thewateri
s
foundbetweenspor es.

Soil
f er
ti
li
ty
i
) Identifyfactorsthatdeter
minet
hef
ert
il
it
yofsoi
l
.
Factorsthatdet ermi nesoilf
erti
l
ity
 Humusoror ganicmatter
 mi ner al
element s
 Soi lPH
 Aer ation
 Dr ainage
 Goodsoi lstructure
 Soi ltemperat ure

i
i
) Descr
ibet
her
oleoft
heni
tr
ogency
clei
nsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

88
Rol
eofNi
tr
ogency
clei
nsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

ii
i) Descri
betherol
eoft
hecarboncy
clei
nsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.
Car
boncy
cleandit
srol
einsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

89
 i
v) Descr i
bemaintenanceofsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.
Mai
ntenanceofsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.

 Applicati
onofor gani cmanur e–ondecomposi ti
on,organicmanur eformshumus
whichbi ndssoi lparticlest ogethertherebyimpr ovingsoil
structur
e.
 Fall
owi ng–Rest i
ngper iod.
 Minimum t i
ll
age–Dur ingpr eparati
ononl yprimaryculti
vati
oni scarr
iedoutt hen
herbici
desappl i
edt ol and.
 Li
mi ng–l i
me encour ages cr umb f ormat i
on,t hus encouraging soi
laggr egati
on
whichi mpr ovessoi lstructure.
 Mixedcr opping–Gr owi ngoft woormor ecropsi nafiel
datthesamet i
me.
 Cropr otati
on–Gr owi ngofdi ff
erentcropsi nagi vensequenceont hepieceofland
i
nor dert omakebestuseofsoi lr
esources.
 Mulching–or ganicmul chesondecomposi t
ionform humuswhi chhel pstobind
soilparti
clest ogethert oi mprov esoilstructur
e.

v
) Descri
beimprovementofsoi
lfer
ti
li
ty.
I
mprov
ementofsoilf
ert
il
it
y
 Appli
cati
onoforganicmanuretosoi
l.
 Fall
owing.
 Practi
ceproperf
armingmethods.

v
i) Det
ermi
ner
adi
cal
sandmi
ner
alscont
ainedi
nasampl
eoff
ert
il
iser
.

90
Radi
cal
sandmi neral
s:
 CO3-
 NO3-nitrate
 SO4–sul phategr
oup
 NH4-ammonium
 Ca- cal cium
 Na- sodi um
 K-pot assi um

Soi
laci
dit
yandAl kal
ini
ty
i
) Expl
aintheusesofacids,basesandsaltsi
nagri
cul
tur
e.
Usesof
:
 Acids-
 Bases–i tisusedinneut
rali
sesaci dsi
nthesoi
l.
 Sal t
s–asaltisusedinl
iv
estockf eeds.

ii
) Explai
nt heeffect
sofacids,basesandsalt
soncr opandsoi
lorgani
sms.
Ef
fect
sofacids,basesandsal t
soncropandsoi l
organisms.
 Theef fect
softhese,t
heymakenut ri
entsanav ai
l
abl
etocropswhil
emaki
ng
soi
l organi
smsi nact
ive.

ii
i) St ateeff
ectsofexcessiveuseoff er
ti
li
ser
s.
Ef
fect
sofexcessiveuseoff er
ti
li
sers:
 Itl
eadstosoilacidi
tyandalkal
ini
ty.
 Decreasedacti
vit
yofsoilmicrobes
 Poll
uti
onofwat erresour
ces.
 Result
sindestructi
onofsoilstr
uctur
e.

iv) Descr i
betheneutr
ali
sati
onofsoi l
acids.
Neut
ral
isat
ionofsoilaci
ds:
 Referstotheaddit
ionofagricul
tur
alli
mesuchascal
cium car
bonat
etot
hesoi
lin
thepresenceofwatertoreduceacidsinsoi
l.

Appl
yli
metoapieceofland.
Li
meappli
cat
ion.
 I
sappli
edbybroadcast
ingmethod.
 Rat
eis5000-30000kg/ haandi
sappl
i
edev
ery2t
o4y
ear
s.

3)CROPPRODUCTI ON
Si
teforacr
op
i) Clearthesi
teforgr
owi
ngacr
opst
udi
ed
Cl
eari
ngasiteforacr
op.

 I
nvolvesthe removalofbushes,t r
ees,st
umps,cr
op resi
duesand anyother
undesir
abl
eobjectsfr
om thesit
e.itisdonet
o;
i
) Faci
li
tat
etil
lageoperat
ions
i
i
) Avoidcompet i
ti
onbet weencropsandtrees/shrubsfornutr
ient
s,
waterandli
ght
i
i
i) Cont r
olpestsanddiseases

91
Seedbedspr eparati
onandsowi ng/plant
ing
i
i) Descri
bet heprocessofl andpr epar
ati
onf orcropproduct
ion.
Landpr eparation.
i
ii
) St atethedisadvantagesandadv ant
agesofv ar
iousfor
msoflandpr
epar
ati
on
Adv antagesanddi sadvantagesofv ar
iousformsofl andprepar
ati
on.
i
v) Pr epareseedbedssui tableforgerminat
ionofseeds.
Preparingseedbedsf orgermination
v) Practi
cesowi ng/plantingofcropsstudied.
Sowi ng/pl
ant i
ngcr ops

Foranswer
s,r
efert
ogr
ade10and11wor
ksoncr
ops

Fer
ti
li
serappl
i
cat
ion

i
) Descr
ibethedi
ff
erentmet
hodsofappl
yi
ngf
ert
il
iserf
ort
hecr
opsst
udi
ed
Met
hodsofapplyi
ngfer
ti
li
ser.

 Broadcasti
ng–f er
ti
lizerisspr
eadov erthefield.
 Banding–f erti
li
zerisplacedinbands( str
ips)ononesi deorbothsi
desofarowof
seedsatpl antingtime.
 Ringmet hod–appl iedinar i
ngroundapl ant .
 Foli
arspray ing–appl i
cati
onoffer
ti
li
zeri nsoluti
onformt ol
eavesofcr
ops.
 Ferti
gati
on- ferti
li
zerappl i
edtosoi
linirri
gationwater.
 Sidedressing–f ert
ili
zerappli
edascont inuousbandnearandal ongacroprowor
dibbl
edinbet weenpl ants.

i
i) Cal
cul
atethequant
it
yoffer
ti
li
ser
srecommendedf
ort
hecr
opsst
udi
ed.
Quant
it
yoffer
ti
li
sersf
orcrops.

Ref
ert
ogr
ade11wor
k,onquant
it
yfer
ti
li
zer
srecommended

i
i
i) Explain whypar t
icul
art y
pesoff erti
liser
sar erecommended fort hecrops
studied.
Fer
ti
li
sersrecommendedf orcrops.
 Fer t
il
izerscontai
ningNi t
rogen,PhosphorusandPot assium i
ntheirr
ightamounts
aremostr ecommendedf orcropsbecausegr owi
ngcropsut i
l
isemor eofthose
thr
eeel ementsthananyot hersoil
nutr
ients.

Weedcont r
ol
i) Statevariousmet hodsofweedcont roli
nt hecr opsstudied.
Methodsofweedcont rol
.
 Mechani calweedcont r
olmet hod–weedsar er emov edduringlandpr eparat
ionby
cult
ivati
onusi nghoes,har rows,cul t
ivat
orsandpl oughssoast ocreateweedf r
ee
envir
onmentf ortheplanti
ngofmai zeandgr oundnut s.
 Chemi calweedcont rolmet hod( Herbi
cides)-canbeusedt ocont r
olweedsi n
maizeandgr oundnutf i
eldsatt wol evelsthuspr e– emer genceappl i
edwhen
cropshav ej ustbeenpl ant edandbef oreanyweedshav eemer gedandpost–
emer genceappl i
edaf t
ercropshav ejustgermi natedandgr own.
 Ot hersincludeHand, hoeandbi ologicalmethod.

92
 i
i
) Descri
bewaysinwhi
chdi
ff
erentchemi
cal
scont
rol
weedsi
nthecr
opsst
udi
ed.
Chemical
controlofweeds.

 Herbi
cidesaregroupedbasi
ngonmodeofact
ion,use,t
imeofappl
i
cat
ionand
chemicalpr
opert
ies–

-Sel
ect
iveherbi
cides- ki
l
lonlycer t
ainweedspecieswhenappl
iedamonga
weedpopulat
ionandl eaveothersunhar
med.
ii
)Whil
enon–sel ect
iveherbici
des–killal
lpl
ant
sthatt
heycomeint
ocont
act
wi
thegGlyphosphate.

-Syst
emati
cher
bici
des–Arereadi
l
yabsor
bedbyplantpar
tsegr oot
s,st
emsor
l
eavesofthetr
eated pl
antexampleofsyst
emat
icherbi
cidesare2,4-D and
Atr
azi
ne.

-Andcontacther
bici
des–kil
lonlypar
tsofweedst heycomei
ncont
actwi
th.
Nor
mallyappl
iedonfoli
ageofweedsexampl
eofparaquat.

Pestsanddi
seasesofcrops
i
) St
atethechar
acter
ist
icsofcommonpest
sofcr
ops.

 Thebodyi sdiv
idedintothreedisti
nctpart
s,head,thoraxandabdomen.
 Theirmout hpartsareadaptedf orapart
icul
artypeoff eedi
ng.
 Haveapai rofantennaeont hehead.
 Havet hreepairsofjoint
edlegsat t
achedtothet horax.
 Mosti nsectshav ewingsattachedtothethorax.
 Haveasi mpledigesti
vetract.
 Breaththroughsmal lholesalongthebody .

ii
) Descri
besy
mpt
omsofcommondi seasesofcr
ops.
Sy
mpt omsofcommondi
seasesofcr
ops.

 Totaldeat
hofplantscanbeasi gnofdiseaseegf usar
ium wiltonbananaplant
s.
 Diseaseatt
ackoncropsischaracteri
sedbyy ell
owingofl eav
es.
 Stunti
ngofatt
ackedplantscanbeasi gnofdi seaseatt
ackoncr ops.
 Developmentofspotsontheattackedplantscanbeasi gnofadi seaseat
tack.
 Mot t
li
ngandcurl
ingofleavescanbeasi gnofdi seaseat t
ackoncr ops.

i
i
i) I
dent
if
ypest
sthatat
tackcr
ops.

 Locust
 Termites
 Grasshoppers
 Beetl
es
 Leafmi ner
s
 Aphids
 Maizest al
kborer
 Boll
wor msandweevi
l
s

Pr
event
ionandcont
rolofpest
sanddiseasesoncrops
i) Descr
ibevar
iousmethodsofprevent
ingandcont
rol
l
ingpest
sanddi
seaseson

93
 cr
ops.

 Mechani cal,chemi cal andbiologicalmethods.

Othersmayi nclude–
Pests-
 Practi
singcr opr otati
on.
 Timelyorear lyplant i
ngofcr opscont rol
sandpr eventspestat
t acksoncrops.
 Planti
ngpest–f reemat er
ial
spr eventsandcontrolscroppests.
 Weedcont rolprev ent
sandcont rolpests.
 Remov al ofpest–i nfectedplantsf r
om thegardencancont r
ol croppest
s.
 Legisl
ationonal l
owi ngonl ypest– f r
eecropmat eri
alsinthecount r
yhelpst
o
preventandcont rolpest s.

Di
seases–

 Planningofr esist
antortol
erantvar
ieti
es.
 Croprot at
ion.
 Remov i
ngdi seasedpartsorwholeplantsanddestr
oyingthem.
 Seeddr essingofpl ant
ingseedshel
pspr eventandcontr
olcropdi
seases.
 Controll
ingofweeds.
 Sprayingwi t
hr ecommendedchemi cal t
ocontroldi
sease.

ii
) Car
ryoutprevent
ivemeasur
esofpest
sanddi
seasesoncr
opsst
udi
ed.
Pr
event
ivemeasuresofpests.

 Foranswer
sref
ert
opest
sanddi
seasesabov
e

Har
vest
ing
Ident
if
ycropsthatarereadyforhar
vest
ing.
i
) Signsofcropsreadyforhar
vesti
ng.

 Somecr opsloset heirl

eav eswhent heyar ereadyforharvest
ing.
 Changi ngofcol ourofleav esf rom gr eentoy el
lowisacommonsi gn.
 Somepl antsdryupt oindi catet hattheyar ereadyforharvest
ing.
 Ripening0fcr opseedsi sasi gnofr eadinessforharvest
ing.
 Somecr opsgr owbi ginsi zet oshowt hattheyarereadyforharvest
ing.
 Otherscr opslikeunder groundr oott ubersegsweetpot atoescausecracksont
he
soilsurfacewhent heyar er eadyf orharvesti
ng.

i
i
) Har
vest
ingcr
opscor
rect
ly.

 Mai zeisharvestedbyhandswher ebycobsar er emovedfrom st

alkswhenst il
l
greenorwhendr y.Onlargescalef arming,mai zei sl
efttodryinthefi
eldanda
combi neharvestercanbeusedt oremov ecobsandshel lt
hemaizeconcurr
entl
y .
 Gr oundnutscanbehar vestedbyhandpul li
ngift hesoilisli
ghtandmoistsot hat
thenut sarelif
ted.Ahoecanbeusedt oleftthegr oundnutsbutcareshouldbe
takennott odamaget hepods.Onl argescal epr oducti
on,ox–dr awnortractor
–drawni mplement scanbeusedt oliftthegroundnut s.
St
orage
i) Descri
bev ari
ousmet hodsofstor ingcropsstudi ed.

94
Met
hodsofst
ori
ngcr
ops.

Maize-cobscanbest oredi
ncribswhi chshouldbewel lv
enti
lat
ed,ver
mi n–proof
andleak–pr oofandraisedabovet hegroundtoavoiddampnessf r
om thesoil
- Canbest oredingr
anariesmadeofl ocall
yav ai
l
ablemateri
al.Str
uct
ures
shouldber aisedoffthegr ound,withratguards,that
chedpr oper
lyto
maket hem l eak– proofwitht heinsi
desmear edwi t
hcow dungand
sand
- Lar gegr ai
nsi l
oscanbeusedt ost or
emai zegrainswhichshouldbe
protect
edbyseeddr essing.

Groundnuts– atvil
l
agelevelvanbestoredingranar
iesorbagsr
aisedof
fthe
gr
ound.Onlarge
Product
ioncanbest
oredinstor
es.

Ot
her
sst
oragemayi
ncl
ude–Basket
s,pol
esandbi
ns.

i
i
) Expl
aint
headv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofv
ari
ousmet
hodsofcr
opst
orage

Adv
ant
ages-Basket
s

 Cheaptouseasnocostsisinvol
ved.
 Doesnotrequi
reanyspeci
ali
zedskil
l
.Anyf
armercanusei
t.

Di
sadv
ant
ages–

 Canbeusedwhenlar
geamountofcr
opneedtobestor
ed
 St
oragepest
s,egweevi
l
saneasil
yaccessandat
tackt
hest
oredpr
oduce

Adv
ant
ages–Bagsorsacks

 St
oragemethodischeaptouse
 Doesnotr
equir
etechnical
ski
ll
Di
sadv
ant
ages–

 Rodentscaneasil
yaccesst hepr
oduce,damaget hebagsandeatt he
produce
 This method ofcrop st
orage i
mposes the pr
oduce tofi
re hazard
probl
ems

Adv
ant
ages-Gr
anar
ies

 Arecheapt oconstructandcanbemadef r
om l
ocalmat
eri
alsanddonot
needspecial
isedskil
ltoerect
 I
fproperl
ymai ntai
nedgranari
esar
equi
tedur
abl
e

Di
sadv
ant
ages–

 Gr
anar
ies ar
e usual
l
y br
oken i
nto by t
hiev
es who st
eal
the st
ored

95
 produce
 Manysmal lsal
ef ar
merusuall
ydo notputon r
atguar
ds duri
ng
constr
ucti
onandthismakesthest
oredpr
oduceeasi
l
ysubj
ectedto
pestdamage

I
rr
igati
on
i
) Expl
aint
heneedf
ori
rr
igat
ion.

Needf
ori
rr
igat
ion.

 I
stosuppl
yacropwit
hsuffici
entwat
ertoenabl
eittogrowproper
ly.Thismeans
maki
ngsur
ethatt
hesoil
receiv
ethecorr
ectamountofwatert
osupportthecr
op.

i
i) Descri
bethedi
ff
erentmet
hodsofi
rr
igat
ingcr
ops.
Met
hodsofir
rigat
ion

 Sur faceirr
igation–useofsur face(soil
)asmeansoft r
ansporti
ngwat ertopl
ants.
 Ov erheadi r
rigation–applywat ert
ocr opsinwayswhichresemblef al
li
ngrai
n,one
oft hesei stheuseofspr inkl
erswhichar eatt
achedtopipes,waterispumpedinto
them anddel iveredt ot
hecr opt hroughnozzlesint herotati
onheadsoft he
sprinklers.
 Dripi rr
igati
on– sy st
em wherebypl asti
cpipesareeithersupportedabout0.5m
abov etheground, alongt
herowsoft hecroptobei
rr
igated.
 Basi nirri
gati
on-

ii
i) Suggestsui
tablemethodsofir
ri
gati
ononagi v
enpi
eceofl
andscape.
Sui
tabl
emet
hodsofir
rigati
onaccor
dingtothel
andscape

 Sur
faceir
ri
gati
on-(topogr
aphy
)theslopeofthel
andaffect
swat
errun–off
.The
ext
entofi
rri
gat
ionneededonaslopedif
fer
sfr
om t
hatneededonf
latgr
ound.

iv) Identi
fyt
heef
fect
sofirr
igat
ionont
heenv
ironment
.
Ef
fect
sofi
rr
igat
ionont
heenvi
ronment.

 Causessoilerosion.
 Causessoiltohav ehar
dpans.
 Pol
lutesundergroundwater
.

v
) Expl
ainr
educti
onofsalini
ty.
 Sal
init
y-amountofsolubl
esalt(NaCl
)inthesoi
l
.
Reducti
on–Applicat
ionofagricul
tur
all
imetosoil
andpr
act
isecr
opr
otat
ion.

vi
) Expl ai
nthesigni
fi
canceofthewat
ercy
cleandgr
oundwat
err
esour
ces.
Wat
ercy
cleandgroundwaterresour
ces

 Wat ercycle,
itssignif
icancei sthatitt
ri
est oexplai
nst agesonhowwat eri
slostin
theatmospherebydi fferentprocessegt ranspi
rat
ion,respi
rat
ionandevapor
ation
andhowt heytendt oform cloudf ormationlat
eronf al
lasrai
nsusedinagri
cult
ure
4)FORESTRY
Si
tefortr
ees
i) Chooseasi t
esui t
ablef orgrowingtrees.

96
Si
tef
orgr
owi
ngt
ree.

 Deepsoil
 Welldr
ainedsoilthatisfr
eefrom wat
er–l
ogging.
 Levell
andorflatland.
 Anareawithoutheav yfr
ost.
 Adequaterai
nfall
ofami nimum of700mm ofr
ainf
all
perannum.

i
i
) Pr
epar
easi
tef
orgr
owi
ngt
rees.

Pr
epar
ingasi
tef
orgr
owi
ngt
rees.

 I
nvol
vesther emov alofbushes,unwant
edt
rees,
stumpsandanyot
herundesi
rabl
e
obj
ectsf
rom t hesite;iti
sdoneto
i
) Facili
tateti
ll
ageoperati
ons
i
i
) Treepl anti
ng

i
i
i) Est abl
i
shmentandmanagementoftr
ees
Est
abl
i
shandmanageanindi
genousandexot
ict
reenurser
y.

 Establi
shingst artswithpreparingat r
eenursery– af ar
merneedt o prepare
nurserysoilfort heseedstherefor
egoodsoilwithnut
ri
entsneedt obepr epared
forplant
ing.
Management i
nv olv
esaspectst odowithweeding,wat
eri
ng,fer
ti
li
zerandmanur e
appli
cation,pestanddiseasecont r
olet
c.

iv) St at
ethemanagementofawoodl
ot.
Managementofawoodl
ot.

 Woodlot–i
sapieceofl
andsetasi
def
orgr
owi
ngt
rees;
asmal
lfor
estpl
ant
ati
on
 Managementi
nvolves–

-
Pruneoffthel
owerbranchesoftreestofaci
li
tat
eaccesst
oplant
ati
on.
-
Controli
nsect
spestsandfungaldiseases.
-
Protectwoodl
otfr
om fi
rebyremov ingweeds.
-
Thinouttheweakertr
eessothatthebesttreescangrowbi
gger.

I
mprovedf
all
ow
i) Di
sti
nguishbetweenf
all
owandi
mpr
ovedf
all
ow.
Fal
l
owandimprovedfall
ow.

 Fall
ow -r efer
stogi v
ingr esttoaf iel
dthuswithoutplant
ingany t
hingf
orsome
years,t
hishelpst
or ebuil
dsoilstr
uctureandret
entionofnut
rient
s.
 I
mpr ovedf all
ow–referstogi v
ingresttothefi
eldbutplant
inglegumeswhichar
e
ploughedback t oenr i
cht hesoi
l(fi
eld)wi
thnutr
ients.

i
i
) Adv
ant
agesanddi
sadv
ant
agesofi
mpr
ovedf
all
ow.

Adv
ant
agesofi
mpr
ovedf
all
ow

 I
mpr
ovessoi
lst
ruct
ure.

97
  Itaddsnutr
ient
stosoil.
 Itbreakst
helif
ecycleforpest
sanddi
seases.
 Legumesar eusedinimprovedfal
l
ow.

Di
sadv
ant
agesofi
mpr
ovedf
all
ow

 I
t’
st ooi
nvol
vingasituseslegumes.
 Expensi
vebecauseiti
nvolv
esploughi
ngoft
hefi
eld.
 I
tsrequi
resknowledgeonhowt ogoabouti
t.

Conservati
onagr i
cul
ture
I
mpor t
anceofconser vati
onagr i
cult
ure
i
) Descri
beconservationagri
cultur
e.
 Conser vati
onagri
culture-
Refert o practi
ces whi ch aim t o conser
ve soi
land wat
erby using surf
ace
cov
er (
mul ch)
,
Thust hi
stypeofagr icul
tur
er eserv
esactivi
ti
eswhi
chi
nvol
vest
hedistur
bingsoi
l
butpr omoteszerotil
lage.

i
i
) Explai
ntheimpor tanceofconser
vat
ionagr
icul
tur
e.
I
mport
anceofconser vati
onagr i
cul
tur
e:
 Improvedsoilstruct
ure
 Nutri
entretent
ion
 Maintai
nssoi l
moi sture

i
i
i) Explai
nt heimpor
tanceofsoi
lfact
orst
hatar
erecogni
sedi
nconser
vat
ion
agri
cult
ure
 Soil
 Organicmatter
 Nut r
ients

Agr
icul
tur
altechni que
i) Descr i
behowsust ainableagricult
urecanprovi
deadequatenut
ri
entav ai
labi
l
ity
i
nthesoi l
.
 Goal ofconserv
ationagricul
ture–zer oti
ll
age
 Sust ainableagr
icult
ureandav ailabi
li
tyofnut
ri
ents–caref
uluseofresources

Organi
cmatterinthesoil
i
) Expl
aintheimpor t
anceofor ganicmatterinthesoi
l
.
Import
anceoforganicmat ter:
 Humushel pst oretai
nai r,waterandnutrient
s.
 Helpstoimpr ovethest ructureofsoi
l.
 Helpsinheat–absor bingcapaci t
y.
 Addmi croorgani
smst osoi landsuppl
yt hem wi
thfood.
 Itgi
vescolourtot hesoi l
.

i
i) Expl
ainhoworgani
cmatt
eri
sreducedi
nthesoi
l
.
Reduct
ionoforgani
cmatt
eri
nsoil
.

 Cont
inuouscr
oppi
ng

98
  Thr
oughsoiler
osion
 Bur
ningofthefi
elds
 I
mproperfarmi
ngmet hods

i
i
i) Stateway stoincreaseorganicmatt
eri
nthesoi
l
.
 Plantresidues
 Agroforestry
 Soi
l l
i
fe
 Soilconditi
ons
 Soilacidi
tyandal kal
ini
ty
 Additi
onal ofgreenandot hermanur
estosoi
l
 Practi
cecr oprotati
on

Conser
vati
onpr acti
ces
i
) Describehowcleari
ngplant
sfrom t
hefiel
ddamagest
hesoi
l
.
Damagingsoilbyclear
ingtheplant
sfrom t
hefiel
d.

 Exposur
eofsoi
ltoer
osion
 Exposur
eofsoi
ltodi
rectsunl
i
ght

Pl
anfordeepandshal
l
owroot
edcrops.
Pl
anni
ngfordeepandshal
l
owroot
edcrops.

Cot
ton Mai
ze
Asdeepr
oot
ed Asshal
l
owr
oot
ed
Sunf
lower Soy
abeans
Asshall
owroot
ed Asdeepr
ooted

ii
) Explai
nhowcroppi
ngpract
icescanencour
agewat
err
etent
ioni
nthesoi
l
.
Ret
aini
ngwateri
nthesoi
lthr
oughcroppi
ngpracti
ces

Appl
yconser
vat
ionpr
act
icesbypl
anni
ngf
ordeepandshal
l
owr
oot
edcr
opseg

 Bypl anting covercrops such as v

elv
etbeans t
his hel
ps i
n wat
er
ret
ention.
 Pract
icingzerotil
lage.
 Bypracticingint
er–cropping.
 Byplantingshall
owr ootedcrops.

ii
i
) Pr act
icecr
oppingsyst
emsthatencouragewatert
oremai
nint
hesoi
l
.
Cr
oppingsy
stemsthatencour
agesoi
landwat erret
ent
ion.

 Useofcroppi
ngsy
stemst
hatencour
agesoi
landwat
err
etent
ion(
conser
vat
ion
pr
act
ices)
.

i
v) Expl
ainwhyiti
simpor
tantt
omai
ntai
nahi
ghcov
eronsoi
lthr
oughoutt
hedr
y
rai
nseason.

99
I
mpor
tanceofmai
ntai
ningahi
ghcov
eronsoi
lthr
oughoutt
hedr
yandr
ainseason

 Helpstoconser
vewatermoist
uredur
ingdr
yper
iods.
 Reducesweedsinthefi
eld.
 Addsorganicmatt
ertothesoi
l
.

Mai
ntai
nahi ghcoveronsoi
lthroughoutt
hedr
yandr
ainseason.
Mai
ntai
ningahighcoveronsoil
.

 Ref
ert
oconser
vat
ional
pract
ices

Aer
ati
onofsoi
l
i) Expl
aint
hei
mpor
tanceofaer
ati
on.

I
mpor
tanceofsoi
laer
ati
on.

 I
timprovesondrai
nageandairci
rcul
ati
oninsoil.
 I
taff
ordsroot
stopenetr
ateeasil
ywithoutdi
ff
icul
ties.
 I
ncorpor
atesor
ganicmattert
othesoil.

i
i
) Descri
behowtoimpr
ov esoi
laer
ati
oni
naf
iel
d.
I
mprov
ingsoilaer
ati
oni
nthefi
eld

 Byploughi
ng
 Bysub–soi l
i
ng
 Byapplyi
ngagri
cul
tur
all
i
me

5)LI
VESTOCKPRODUCTI
ON

I
mpor t
anceofliv
estock
i
) Stat
etheeconomici
mport
anceoft
ypesofl
i
vest
ockst
udi
ed.
Economicimportanceofl
i
vest
ock

 Sourceofi
ncomeandempl oymenttocatt
lefar
mer
s.
 Prov
iderawmat eri
alstoindustr
ies.
 Sourceoffor
eignexchange.
 Sourceofmanurefori mprovi
ngsoilfer
ti
li
ty.
 Sourceofani
mal protei
n.

Heal
thi
nli
v est
ock
ii
) Identi
fysi
gnsofgoodandpoorheal
thi
nli
vest
ock.
Goodheal
th–

 Agooduprightstanceandst
eadywal
k
 Agoodappetite
 Headheldupri
ght
 Nosecoldandwet
 Corr
ectbodytemper at
ure
 Eyescl
eanandbr ight

100
Poorheal
thi
nli
vest
ock–

 Poorstanceandwalk
 Noappet i
te
 Roughcoat
 Poorskin
 Waterydung
 I
ncorr
ecttemperat
ure
 Emaciati
on

i
i
i) Descr
ibesy
mpt
omsofnut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
esi
nli
vest
ockst
udi
ed.

Sy
mpt
omsofnut
ri
ti
onal
def
ici
enci
es.

 Curledtoeparaly
sis
 Ri
cket s
 Aphosphor osi
s
 Retardati
oningrowth
 Gener al
weakness
 Bl
indness
 Anaemi a
 Prolongedbloodclot
ti
ng

iv) I denti
fysui
tablespeci
esofpast
uref
orl
i
vest
ockst
udi
ed.
Sui
tabl
especiesofpasture.

 Ki
kuyugrass(penniset
um cl
andest
inum)
.
 Napi
erorelephantgrass.
 St
argrass(cynodonoethi
opi
cus).

Li
vestockfeed
i) Descri
bethenutr
iti
vev
alueoft
heli
vest
ockfeedf
ortheani
malsstudi
ed.
Nutr
it
ivevalueofl
iv
estockfeedi
nconfor
mit
ywiththeZambi
anStandar
ds.

 Feedf
orl
i
vest
ockani
mal
shast
hef
oll
owi
ngnut
ri
ti
onal
val
ue–

- Carbohy drateswhichsuppl
yenergyf orallthebiol
ogicalandbiochemical
processest ooccurandcontinuefunctioninginthebodyofanani mal
.
- Fatswhi chpr ovi
desenergytothebody .Fatsgivetwiceasmuchener gy
asdocar bohydrat
es.
- Proteinst hatarerequi
redforbuildingupnew t issuecellsforgrowt h,
repairandpl acementofwornouttissuecel ls.
- Miner al
swhi ch;helpsi
ntheformationoft eet
handskel etalbones,f
orm
partofani mal sbl
oodandv i
taminshel pt hebodyoft heanimaltogrow
proper l
y.

PestsandDi
seasesofli
vestock
i
) St
atet
heeffectofpestsonliv
estock.
Mentioni
ngt
heeffect
sofpest sonli
vestock

 Pest
ssuckbl
oodf
rom ani
mal
sandcauset
hem anaemi
aandweakness.

101
  Transmitdiseases.
 Makeani mal weakrenderi
ngthem suscepti
blet
odiseaseat
tack.
 Lowerthequal i
tyofliv
estockpr
oducts.
 Causeirri
tati
onandi nfl
ammatoryreact
ioninthehost.
 Reducesgr owthrat
esoft hehostanimal.

i
i
) Descri
bemethodsofpr
event
ingandcont
rol
l
ingpest
sthatat
tackf
arm ani
mal
s
st
udied.
Met
hodsofprevent
ingpest
s.

 Regul
arsprayi
ngordipping.
 Regul
ardeworming.
 Eradi
cati
onofintermediat
ehost s.
 Pl
oughingorburningpest–infectedpast
ure.
 Regul
arcleani
ngofwat erpoi
ntshelpstocontr
oll
i
verf
lukei
nfest
ati
oni
nani
mal
.

i
ii
) Descr i
bemethodsofprevent
ingandcont
rol
l
ingdi
seasesonani
mal
s.
Met
hodsofpr
event
ingandcont
roll
i
ngdi seases

 Regul
arv accination.
 Contr
oll
ingt i
cksbyr egul
ardi
ppingorspr
ayi
ngusingacar
ici
des.
 Regul
arcl eanli
nessi nandaroundtheani
malhouses.
 Giv
ingcleanwat er.
 I
solat
ionofsi ckani mals.

Housi
ng
i
) St
atethesuit
abil
it
yandmai nt
enanceofv
ari
oust
ypesofl
i
vest
ockhousi
ng.
Maint
enanceofli
vestockhouses.

 Peri
odicrepai
rsoft
hefloor,
wal
l
s,r
oofsandy
ardsar
enecessar
yal
ltheti
me.
 Regularcl
eani
ngofthehousebyremovi
ngdungandur
ineandwashingthef
loor
shoul
dbecar r
iedoutdail
y.

Liv
estockMar ket
ing
i
) Descri
bethepreparat
ionofli
vestockandli
vest
ockpr
oduct
sformar
ket
ing.
Prepar
inglivest
ock/l
iv
estockproduct
sf ormarket
ing.

 Livestocktobemar ketedshoul dbewel lfedonnut ri

ti
ousf eedssot hatthey
fattenandlookgoodpr iortomar keti
ngi nor
dertof et
chgoodpr ices
 Animal sshouldbet r
eat edforanydi seasesorpest sidentif
iedorsuspect edso
thatonlydiseaseandpestf reeani mal saremarketed
 Treatmentshoul dbedonewel laheadofmar keti
ngt oavoidchemi cal
staint
ing
theani malproduct
sespeci al
lymeati ftheani
mal sarebroughtf orslaught
er
 Ther eshouldbeenoughwi t
hdr awal peri
odsbeforemar keti
ngt het r
eatedani
mal s
 Animal sshouldbegr oupedaccor di
ngt osi
ze,sexandagewhenpr epari
ngthem
formar ket
ingtofacil
i
tatepr i
cing

i
i
) Ident
if
yorganisat
ionsi
nZambiathatprocessandmar
kett
hel
i
vest
ockpr
oduct
s.
Organi
sati
onthatprocessandmarketl
i
vestockproducts.

Or
gani
sat
ions–

102
  Dairyproduceboard
 Coldstorageboar
d
 Zambeef
 Masterpor k
 Kachemameatsuppl iesl
td
 Zambiapor kpr
oducts
 Zamchick
 Parmalet

TypesoffishinZambia
i
) Identi
fycommont y
pesoff
ishf
oundi
nZambi
a.
TypesoffishinZambia.

Til
api
af amily
 Nil
eti
lapia(Or eochromisnil
oti
cus)
 Spott
edt i
lapia(Oreochromisandersoni
i)
 Longfi
nt i
l
apia( Oreochromismacrochir
)
 Redbreastti
lapia( t
ilapi
arendal
li
)

Ot
her
sincl
udes

 CommonCar p
 Browntr
out
 Catf
ish(
bubbl
e)

i
i) Descri
bethefoodst
uff
sforf
ish.
Foodst
uff
sf orf
ish.

Canbecategor i
sedas–
 Nat uralaquati
cf oodswhi chconsistofpl
ankt onexampl
eofinsect
s,wor
msand
waterplants
 Suppl ementaryfeedsi nform ofagri
cul
tur
alby–pr oduct
sexampleofmaize,r
ice
br
an,br ewersmash, cabbageleavesandoilseedcakes

Methodsoff
ishfar
mingi
nZambia
i
i
i) I dent
ifycommonmethodsoff
ishf
armi
ngi
nZambi
a.
Methodsoff
ishfar
mingi
nZambia.

 Subsi
stencef
ishf
armi
ng
 Commer ci
alf
ishf
armi
ng.

i
v) St ateadv
ant agesanddisadvant
agesofint
egratedf
ishf
armi
ng.
Advant
agesanddisadvantagesofint
egrat
edfi
shfarming.

Adv
ant
ages–

 Maxi mizesonfar
m spaceaswellasotherresour
cessuchasf
eed,wat
er,
fer
ti
li
zer
etc.
 Resources thatcoul
d have been used on onl
yone enter
pri
se mayend up
benefi
ti
ngt woormoreotherv
entures.

103
Di
sadv
ant
ages–

 Itrequir
esknowledgeonhowtogoaboutit
,inshor
texperi
ence.
 It’
st ooinv
olvi
ngasi tcombi
nest
woent er
prisesegfish-cum-duckorf
ish-
cum-pi g.

Fi
shpond
Est
abli
shandmanagef i
shpond.
i) Stagesintheconst r
uctionofafi
shpond–
 Select
ionofasui tablesite.
 Measur eoutpondar eaanddemar cati
on.
 Constructpondwal ls.
 Wor konpondf loor.
 Constructinl
etandout l
etchannel
s.
 Plantgrass.
 Constructastronglink–chai nwirefence.
 Fil
lupthepond.

i
i
) Managementoff
ishpond-

 Fi
llupwat erinthepondwhennecessar
y.
 Cutgrassar oundthepond.
 Feedf i
sh.
 Plantgrassaroundthepond.
 Ferti
l
izerthepond.

i
ii
) Descr ibedi
ff
erentway
sofhar
vest
ingf
ish.
Har
vest
ingf
ish.

 UseofFi
sht r
aps.
 Useofgi
llnets.
 Complet
elydrai
ningoft
hepondt
oexposet
hef
ish.
 Useofhookandl i
ne–pole.
 Useoffi
shtraps.

Fi
shMarketing
Pr
epareandmar ketfi
sh.
i) Pr eparingandmar
ket
ingf
ish.
Pr
epari
ngfish–
 Scaling
 Gut t
ing
 Trimmi ng
 Splitti
ng
 Fil
leting
 Final washing
 Chill
ing/i ci
ng

Mar
keti
ng–
i
i) Fi
shcanbemar
ket
edi
ndi
ff
erentf
ormst
hesear
e
 Frozenf
ish

104
  Dry
 Smoked
 Sun–dried
 Canned
 Andli
vefish

6)FARM STRUCTURES
St
ruct
uresforwatersupply
i) Descr
ibedif
ferentst
ruct
uresf
orwat
ersuppl
y.
St
ruct
uresforwatersupply.

 Bor
ehol
e
 Well
s
 Dams

i
i
) Descr
ibemet
hodsofmai
ntai
ningnamedwat
ersuppl
ysy
stem.

Watersuppl
ysystems.
Bor
ehole-
 Per i
odiccheckuponwel
l
s,pumpandt
hesur
roundi
ngt
hest
ruct
ures.

Pol
luti
onofwatersuppli
es
iii
) Descr ibewaterpol
lut
ion.
Meaningofpoll
uti
on
 I sthecontaminat
ionofwaterbodieswi
tht
oxi
corhar
mfulsubst
anceswhi
chcan
l
eadtodeathofhumansoranimals.

iv) Describewaysinwhi
chwat
ersuppl
i
esont
hef
arm maybepol
l
uted.
Pol
l
utionofwat
ersuppl
i
esonthef
arm.

 Thr
oughconti
nueduseofni
trogenousfer
ti
li
zer
s
 Thr
oughcarel
essuseofher
bicidesandpest
ici
desi
nfi
eldsont
hef
arm

v
) Descri
bewaysofprevent
ingandcontr
oll
i
ngpol
l
uti
onofwat
ersuppl
i
esont
he
far
m.
Pr
event
ingpol
lut
ionofwat
ersuppli
esonthefar
m.

 Thr
oughcorrecti
ngdisposaloffar
m chemi
calssuchasherbi
cidesandpesti
cides
 Thr
oughconstructi
onofpitlat
ri
nesli
keinr
uralareas
 Thr
oughpropersi t
ingofwat ersuppli
esinordert oav
oidsewageori ndustr
ial
wast
efrom contaminati
ngthewatersuppl
i
es

7)FARM MACHI NERY

Engines
i) I
denti
fythepartsofanengineandt hefunct
ion.
 Cy li
nder-
 Pi st
ons–compr essesthefuel–airmixt
ureinthecy l
inderandtr
ansmitspowert
o
thecrankshaftbymov i
ngupanddown.
 Connect ingrods–connectt hepistontothecr ankshaftandconverttheupand
downmov ementofthepit
ont otherotar
yorcir
cularmot i
onofthecrankshaf
t.

105
  Crankshaft– changeupanddownmov ementoft hepi
stontorotar
ymot i
on
ther
ebytransmitt
ingpowert
othediffer
enti
algear
.
 Camshaf t-
 Valves–usedf oropeni
ngandclosedthepassageleadi
ngt
otheengi
necyli
nder
.
 Sparki
ngplugs–t oigni
tet
hefuel-ai
rmi x
ture.

i
i) Expl
ainthewor
kingoft
hetwoandthefourst
rokei
nter
nal
pet
rol
engi
nes.
Wor
kingofafourandtwostr
okei
nter
nal
petr
olengine

ii
i
) Expl ai
nthedif
fer
encesbetweenpetr
olanddi
esel
engi
nes.
Di
ff
erencesbetweenpet
rolanddi
eselengi
nes.

Pet
rol Diesel
Par
tsaremadeofli
ght
ermetal
s Partsartemadeoheav iermet
als
Haveacarbur
ett
or Hav ei
njectorpump
Havespar
kplugs Hav ei
njectors
Ati
nducti
on,f
uel
/ai
rmixt
urei
ssuckedi
n Atinductionairi
ssuckedin

Mai
ntenanceofengi
nes
i
) Descr
ibemai
ntenanceofthemainsyst
em ofanengi
ne.
Mai
ntenanceofthemai
nsy stem ofanengi
ne.

 Makesur ethefuel t
ankisf i
l
ledwi tht
hecorrectfuel
.
 Topupt heradiatorwithwater.
 Cleanthefuelfi
lterbowl t
oremov edi
rt
.
 Checkthatthef anbeltisti
ght.
 Checkthelevelofoi li
ntheengi neandtopupi fnecessary.
 Checktheoillevelintheaircleanerandtopupi fnecessary.
 Greaseallt
hegr easingpointsusingagreasegun.
 Checkwheel nutsandot herfitt
ingstoseethattheyaretight.
106
 i
i
) St
atethel
ubri
cati
onsystem ofafourst
rokepet
rol
engi
ne.
Lubr
icat
ionsyst
em ofafourst
rokepetrol
engine.

 Lubricat
ionmeanskeepi ngoili
nt heengi
nesot hatthepartsmov eagainsteach
othereasi l
y.Intheenginet hepi
stonsmusthav eoi lonthem sot hattheymov e
easilyagainstthewallsofthecyl
inder
.Thecorrectamountofengi neoilisputi
nto
thee4ngi neandt her
eisapumpt of or
cetheoil
t oallt
heplaceswher eiti
sneeded.
Ifthereisnotenoughoi li
ntheenginethepar
tsar enotlubr
icatedproperl
y.

ii
i
) Descr i
betheel
ect
ri
cal
syst
em ofapet
rol
engi
ne.
El
ect
rical
syst
em ofapet
rol
engi
ne.

 Theelect
ri
csystem ismadeupsev er
alcomponentssucht hebat
ter
y,st
art
er
motor
,sol
enoi
d,coi
l,
dist
ribut
orandspar
kingpl
ugs.
Bel
owisthedr
awingexplaini
ngtheel
ect
ri
calsy
stem ofpet
rol
.

i
v) Descr i
bethewaterandai
rcooli
ngsy
stem ofengi
ne.
Wat
erandai
rcool
ingsy
stemsofengines.

 Mostlar
geenginesarecooledbywat er
.Wat erisputi nar adi
atorandpumped
t
hroughasleeveroundtheoutsi
deoft heenginebyawat erpump.Af andri
venby
t
heenginefansairontotheradi
atortocoolthewat erinit.Thewat erkeepsgoi
ng
r
oundthroughtheradi
atorandovertheengine.Ifthereisnotenoughwat eri
nthe
r
adiat
or,t
heenginewil
loverheatandbecomedamaged.

Far
m mechanisati
on
i) Expl
aintheadvantagesanddisadvant
agesoffarm mechani
sat
ion.
Advant
agesanddisadvantagesoffarm mechanisat
ion.
Far
m mechanisati
on–t heuseofmachi neryi
nfarm oper
ati
ons

107
Adv
ant
ages-
 Farm oper
ati
onscanbeachi ev
edont ime.
 I
treducesdrudgeryi eitmakeswor keasyandenjoyabl
e.
 Becausefarm operati
onsarecarri
edoutont ime,hi
ghyiel
dscanbeobtained.
 I
ncreasedacreage,largear
eascanbecov er
edwithi
nashor tt
ime.
 Mechanizi
ngagr i
culturei
sparti
cularl
yusefulint
imesoflabourshor
tage.ver
yfew
workersareemploy edtodoacertainjobonaf ar
m.

Di
sadv
antages–
 Veryexpensi
vet
ypefar
ming.
 Itr
equir
esknowl
edgeonhowt ooper
atef
arm machi
ner
y.

8)FARM MANAGEMENT
Far
mv al
uati
on
i) Prepareaninv
ent
oryofasset
sont
hef
arm.
I
nvent
oryofassetsonafar
m.

 Li
vestockinv
entory– allthe l
i
vest
ockowned shoul
d be li
sted di
sti
ngui
shi
ng
bet
weent hevar
iouscl
assesandshowingt
hei
rval
ueineachcase.
Cat
tle–4bulls

200breedingcows
40incalfhei
fer
s
150calves
350steers
80heif
ers
30oxen

i
i
) Pr
epar
eanopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngv
aluat
iononaf
arm.

Openingv al
uat
ion– isthevari
ati
ont hatisdoneatt hebeginningofthebusi
nessor
fi
nancial(
far
ming)year
.
Andclosingval
uati
ons-i
stheval
uati
ont hatisdoneatt
heendoft hebusi
nessorf
inancial
year
.Inmostcases,t heprev
iousy earclosingval
uat
ionbecomesnexty ear
’sopening
val
uation.

i
i
i) Descr i
bethevari
ousmet
hodsofcal
cul
ati
ngdepr
eci
ati
onoff
arm machi
ner
y.
Depreci
ati
onoff
arm machi
nery
.

 Str
aight–linemet hod-Annualdepreci
ati
oniscomput edbydi vidi
ngt heorigi
nal
costoftheassetlessthesalvageval
uebytheexpectedy earsoft heassetslife.
 Decli
ningbalancemet hod–Af i
xedrateofdepreci
ati
oni susedev eryyearand
appli
edtothev al
ueoft heassetatt
hebeginni
ngoft hey ear;salvagev al
uei snot
subtr
actedfrom t
hecost .
 Sum ofy eardigi
tsmet hod– Isthet y
peofannualdepr eci
at i
ondet erminedby
multi
plyi
ngaf r
actionandt heamounttobedepreci
ated(costl esssalvagevalue).

I
nsur
ance
i) Expl
aint
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenr
isksanduncer
tai
nti
es.

108
Ri
sks–Canbepredict
ede.g.fi
re,pest
sanddiseaseswhi
le
Uncer
tai
nti
es–Cannotbepredict
ede.g.ChangeindemandandPr
icef
luct
uat
ion

i
i
) St
atetheimpor
tanceofinsur
ancepoli
ciesi
nagr
icul
tur
e.
I
mport
anceofinsur
ancepoli
ciesi
nagri
cult
ure

 Theimportanceist
hati
ncaset hef
arm suf
fer
slossordamaget
oproper
tyov
er,
say,oneyear,thei
nsur
ancecompanieswil
lbeabletocomposi
tesafar
merby
giv
ingthem moneyt
ostartagai
n.

i
i
i) Descr
ibev
ari
oust
ypesofi
nsur
ancei
nagr
icul
tur
e.

Ty
pesofinsurancei nagricul
tur
e.
 Li
v est
ocki nsurance
 cropinsurance
 machi neryinsurance

Cooperat
ives
i
) Descr
ibehowcooperat
ivesar
eor
gani
sed.
Organi
sati
onofcooper
ati
ves.

 Adequat
efundsorf i
nance-aco–oper ati
veneedsmoneyf orerect
ingbui
l
dings
usedasoff
icesandstoresforpurchasingagr i
cul
tur
alinputsusedi nf
armi
ng.
 Adequat
ev ol
umeofbusi ness-t
hev ol
umeofbusi nessshoul denoughtoenable
soci
etyt
obenefitf
rom economi esoflargescaleoperat
ion.
 Goalsandobjecti
ves-t
hegoalandobj ect
ivesofaco- operati
vemustbecl earl
y
defi
nedandknownbymember s.

Ref
ert
ogr
ade10and11wor
ks

ii
) Expl
ainthecommonint
erestoffarmer
sinacooper
ati
ve.
Commoni
nter
estoffar
mersi
nacooper at
ive.

 Co-oper
at orscanempl oywel ltr
ainedandexper i
encedstaffsuchassecr etary
manager sandcashierst owor kf
orthem, whi
chtheycouldnotdoindividuall
y.
 Member shav eeasyaccesst oagri
cult
urali
nputssuchasdrugsforli
v estock,feed,
fer
til
i
zers,insect
ici
des,herbici
desandseeds.
 Member shav eabigbar gai
ningpowerf orbett
erpri
ce.Condi
ti
onetc.
 Member scanobt ai
ncr edittohelpt hem inthei
rf ar
mingacti
viti
esmuchmor e
easil
y.
 Member sshar esomeov er
headcost s,
suchasdepr eci
ati
ononmachi nery.

Entrepr
eneur
shi
p
i) Descr
ibedi f
fer
entkindsofagricul
tur
alent
erpri
ses
Kindsofagri
cul
turalbusi
nesses.
 Beekeeping.
- Thisi sthekeepingofbees,andwhent hebeesarekeptt
hebeescan
producehoneywhi chcanbesol dtopeople.
 Livest
ockfarming.
- Thisistherearingofanimals;t
hefoll
owingbyproduct
scanber
eleased
suchasmi l
k,meat,eggs,ski
nandhides.

109
  Cr
opf
arming.
- Thisist
hegrowi
ngofcr
opssuchasmai
ze,wheat
,ri
ce,mi
l
let
,andsoy
a
beansetc.

i
i) Expl
ainwhatmakesanagr i
cul
tur
alent
erpr
isesuccessf
ul.
Successf
ulagr
icul
tur
alent
erpr
ises.

 Goodmanagementoft
hebusi
ness.
 Propermar
ket
.

i
i
i) Expl
ainwhymar
ketr
esear
chi
simpor
tant
.

Mar
ketresearch.
 Sot hatafarmercanknowt hemodeoft ransporttousewhent akingtheproducts
tot hemar kets.
 Sot hatafar m canknowt heavail
abil
i
tyofcropsont hemar ketwiththeonehehas,
iflessont hemar ketthenhecansel lthem onahi ghpri
cehenceear ni
ngmor e
money .
 Italsohelpsaf armt ositt
hepriceonthecropshe/ shehaveont hefarm.
 Ital sohelpsaf armert oknow t hestandardofl ivi
ngint hatar ea,wheret he
product swill
besol d;t
hiswil
lhelphim pr
icetheproducts.

i
v) Expl ainhowt ocostandpr iceaproduct.
Costi
ngandpr icingapr oduct.
 Aftert akingcar eofmar ketyouhav etoconsi dertransporttot hemarket
,labour
incurreddur i
ngf armingper iod,moneyusedi npur chasingf ar
mi ngi
nputssuchas
seeds, fertil
i
ser s,her
bicides,insect
ici
desetc.
 Aftertaki ngcar i
ngcar eoft hemar ket
,pri
cingcanf oll
owaf terlooki
ngatthequali
ty
oft hepr oduct syouhav e.
 Pricingcanbedoneaf t
erl ookingattheav ai
labil
it
yoft hecropont hemar ketor
demandofcr opont hemar ket.

THEENDGRADE10,
11AND12WORKS

110
111