TRAINING REPORT

Submitted for partial fulfillment of Bachelor of Science (Hons.)

Agriculture

2020-2024

Submitted by:
Bishan Poudel
2000403
Semester 7th, B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
AMRITSAR GROUP OF COLLEGES, AMRITSAR

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 DECLARATION
This is due to declare that Mr. Bishan, student of B.Sc. Hons. (Agriculture) has completed the
training at Amritsar Group of Colleges, Amritsar, Punjab (IKG Punjab Technical University,
Jalandhar) under the supervision of Ms. Shalini, Assistant Professor, Department of
Agriculture.

(Bishan Poudel)

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to thanks all who makes efforts in the completion of this thesis in many
different ways. I pay my obeisance to the Almighty God to bestow me good health, courage
and the light.
After God, I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness and deliver my warmest thanks to my
incomparable training mentor, Ms. Shalini for taking me into his group who always support
me, giving his continuous advice and encouragement on both research as well as on my career
which have been invaluable. I thank him for his cooperation and great efforts for training me in
the scientific field. Without his sincere efforts, the culmination of my work was beyond
imagination.
I would accord my sincere thanks to Managing Director, Dr. Rajneesh Arora, Principal, Dr.
Gaurav Tejpal, and Head of the Department, Dr. Kalpana Jaggi of Amritsar Group of
Colleges for giving me the opportunity to study in this college and providing me all the
facilities related to my work.
Words are never sufficient to express my whole hearted sense of reverence to my parents. I am
greatly beholden of vocabulary and owe a deep sense of honour to my beloved parents Mr.
Ganesh Prasad Poudel and Mrs. Shabitra Poudel for their love and dedicated efforts in
shaping my career since childhood. Performance of a person depends mostly on his or her
acumen, but it could have hardly been possible without a few ungrudgingly took pain and
spread both time and energy for it, so I am greatly indebted .
At last, I would like to convey my cordial thanks to all the teachers who have directly and
indirectly helped me to reach up to this level in my life.

Date: (Bishan Poudel)

Place: Amritsar, Punjab

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ABSTRACT
I Bishan Poudel, a student of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture 7th semester from Amritsar Group of
Colleges, Amritsar, Punjab had prepared my report for the partial fulfillment of bachelor’s
degree in B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture. This report is prepared based on6 months internship
program completed at Agricultural Knowledge Center, Dang, from July 20,2023 to October
19,2023. This report was conducted under the supervision of Mr. Naresh Dhital (Chief of
AKC), Ms. Deva Mahara (Field Technician) and other Crop Science Staffs of AKC.
During these period I was involved in different Agronomical activities. This report includes a
brief summary of the work done under that period.
As a part of my training, my fellow friend Avrak Hamal has conducted a village survey in the
rural municipality of Gandaki province named Biruwa Rural Municipality, Syangja. We have
conducted a village survey in different wards.

Name: Bishan Poudel

B.Sc. Agriculture, 7th semester
2000403

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 CONTENT

S.N. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

1. General orientation & On campus training
(BSAG-701-19) 01-16

2. Village Attachment (RAWE Component- I)

(BSAG-702-19) 17-28

3. Unit attachment in Univ./ College, KVK/ Research Station,

State Agricultural Extension Services
(BSAG-703-19) 29-49

4. Plant clinic
(BSAG-704-19) 75-76

5. Agro-Industrial Attachment (RAWE Component II)

(BSAG-705-19) 77-82

6. Project Report Preparation, Presentation and Evaluation

(BSAG-706-19) 82

7. Annexure
83-85

8. Bibliography
86

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Contents
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................................
ON CAMPUS TRAINING................................................................................................................
HYDROPONICS SYSTEM..........................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................
COMPONENTS OF HYDROPONICS SYSTEM....................................................................
PREPARATION OF VERMICOMPOST.....................................................................................
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................
PROCESS OF VERMICOMPOSTING....................................................................................
BENEFITS OF VERMICOMPOST..........................................................................................
AIM............................................................................................................................................
PRINCIPLE...............................................................................................................................
PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST PIT..............................................................................
RESULT....................................................................................................................................
ORIENTATION OF RAWE..............................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................
What is RAWE?.............................................................................................................................
Importance Of RAWE...............................................................................................................
Objective Of RAWE......................................................................................................................
Survey and farm planning..............................................................................................................
Implication of RAWE program.....................................................................................................
RURAL SURVEY.............................................................................................................................
Introduction....................................................................................................................................
Objective......................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Methodology:...............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Site:..............................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Population distribution:................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Health...........................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Occupation...................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Agricultural distribution of Chinnebas village.............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Problems Faced By Farmers:.......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Major achievements.....................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Major problems............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CONCLUSION............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
UNIT ATTACHMENT OF RESEARCH STATION.......................................................................

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 Abbreviations:............................................................................................................................
4. AGRO-INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT (AIA) / IN-PLANT TRAINING..............................
SEAN Seed Service Ltd...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
..........................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
BIBLIOGRAPHY..............................................................................................................................

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ON CAMPUS TRAINING

HYDROPONICS SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

Hydroponics is a high-tech method of growing plants in water rich in mineral nutrients instead
of soil. The word hydroponics comes from the Greek words “hydro,” meaning water, and
“ponos” meaning labor literally “working water.” Hydroponics is basically growing plants
without soil. Plants don’t use soil; they use the food and water that are in the soil. So, it is a
more efficient way to provide food and water to the plants. The basic concept of hydroponics is
to provide essential nutrients, water, and oxygen to the root zone, and to create a uniform aerial
growing environment to maximize plant growth and quality.

COMPONENTS OF HYDROPONICS SYSTEM

Nutrient rich solution

One of the most important components of the entire system is hydroponic nutrient solution. The
nutrient solution can be premixed, or a variety of solutions can be mixed into water to create
the solution. Water should not contain any harmful contaminants.
Reservoir
A reservoir is essential in storing and delivering nutrients to the plants. It holds the nutrient-
rich water solution.
PVC Pipe or Tubes
It is used for holding net pots, nutrient solution, etc.
Grow trays or Net pots.
It is a small pot with holes which holds and supports the plant along with the growing medium.
They are also great in providing adequate drainage to the plants.
Growing medium
It acts as a soil substitute. It does not provide any nutrition to the plants but because of its
porous properties it retains moisture and absorbs nutrients from the nutrient-rich water solution,
delivering them to the plants.
Submersible pump
This is also known as nutrient pump. It moves nutrients from the reservoir to the growing trays.

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 Fig-: Hydroponics system

Commonly used growing media for hydroponics are:

1. Vermiculite
2. Coconut fiber
3. Perlite

HOW DOES A HYDROPONICS SYSTEM WORK?

1. Plants are suspended in a PH neutral medium and then nutrient rich water is pumped
through allowing the plants to absorb what they need.
2. An air pump oxygenates the water for the roots and the water is recycled, until the
nutrients are nearly all absorbed by the plants and then disposed of in a responsible way.

Advantages of Hydroponics:
Increased Growth Rate: Plants in a hydroponic system often grow faster than those in
traditional soil-based systems because they have direct access to nutrients.
Water Efficiency: Hydroponics uses significantly less water compared to traditional soil
farming since water is recirculated in the system, and there is minimal wastage.
Space Efficiency: Hydroponic systems can be set up vertically or in limited spaces, making
them suitable for urban environments or areas with limited arable land.
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Control over Nutrients: Growers have precise control over the nutrient levels in the water,
allowing for optimal nutrient ratios, which can result in healthier and more productive plants.
Reduced Need for Pesticides: Soil-borne pests and diseases are minimized in hydroponic
systems, reducing the need for pesticides and promoting a cleaner and more controlled growing
environment.
Year-Round Cultivation: Hydroponics enables year-round cultivation regardless of external
weather conditions, providing a consistent supply of fresh produce.
Customizable Growing Conditions: Factors such as pH, nutrient concentration, and
temperature can be closely monitored and adjusted to create ideal growing conditions for
specific plants.

Disadvantages of Hydroponics:
Initial Cost: Setting up a hydroponic system can be expensive due to the need for specialized
equipment such as pumps, grow lights, and nutrient solutions.

Technical Expertise: Successful hydroponic cultivation requires knowledge of the system,

nutrient management, and other technical aspects. Novice growers may face a learning curve.
Dependency on Power: Hydroponic systems often rely on electricity to maintain pumps,
lights, and other components. Power outages can disrupt the system and affect plant growth.
Equipment Maintenance: Regular maintenance is essential to prevent system failures. Pumps,
filters, and other components may require cleaning and replacement over time.
Risk of Disease Spread: While hydroponics reduces the risk of soil-borne diseases, there is
still a risk of water-borne diseases spreading through the nutrient solution if not properly
managed.
Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of materials used in hydroponic systems,
such as plastics, can have environmental implications. Sustainable practices should be
considered.
Limited Crop Variety: Some plants may not adapt well to hydroponic systems, limiting the
range of crops that can be effectively grown using this method.

In summary, while hydroponics offers several benefits, it also presents challenges that need to
be addressed, particularly in terms of initial costs, technical expertise, and environmental
considerations. Growers should carefully weigh these factors when deciding whether to adopt
hydroponic farming.

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PREPARATION OF VERMICOMPOST
INTRODUCTION
The use of earthworms to create enriched compost is known as vermicomposting. They are
frequently observed residing in soil, consuming biomass, and excreting it after it has been
digested. By not treating organic waste, it helps to reduce environmental pollution and resource
consumption. It is one of the simplest ways to create high-quality compost from agricultural
waste.
The two most popular earthworms used for vermicomposting are the red earthworm,
Lumbricusrubellus, and Eisenia fetida, also known as the red wigglers. These two species make
excellent composting worms because they are very easy to maintain and prefer a compost
environment to plain soil.

PROCESS OF VERMICOMPOSTING
 To prepare compost, either a plastic or a concrete tank can be used. The size of the tank
depends upon the availability of raw materials.
 Collect the biomass and place it under the sun for about 8-12 days. Now chop it to the
required size using the cutter.
 Prepare a cow dung slurry and sprinkle it on the heap for quick decomposition.
 Add a layer (2 – 3 inch) of soil or sand at the bottom of the tank.
 Now prepare fine bedding by adding partially decomposed cow dung, dried leaves and
other biodegradable wastes collected from fields and kitchen. Distribute them evenly on
the sand layer.
 Continue adding both the chopped bio-waste and partially decomposed cow dung layer-
wise into the tank up to a depth of 0.5-1.0 ft.
 After adding all the bio-wastes, release the earthworm species over the mixture and
cover the compost mixture with dry straw or gunny bags.
 Sprinkle water on a regular basis to maintain the moisture content of the compost.
 Cover the tank with a thatch roof to prevent the entry of ants, lizards, mice, snakes, etc.
and protect the compost from rainwater and direct sunshine.
 Have a frequent check to avoid the compost from overheating. Maintain proper
moisture and temperature.
 Bed should be turned once after 30 days for maintaining aeration and for proper
decomposition.
 Compost gets ready in 45-50 days.
 The finished product is 3/4th of the raw materials used.

BENEFITS OF VERMICOMPOST
 Helps better plant growth and crop yield with no harm to ecosystem.
 Improves physical structure of soil.
 Enriches soil with micro-organisms.

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  Increases water holding capacity of soil.
 Improves root growth of plants.
 Helpful in elimination of biowastes.
 Accelerates germination.

AIM
The most important aim of vermicomposting is manufacturing and generating organic manure
that has a greater quality than other inorganic manure, to enrich the soil which lacks nutrition.
Waste generated from agricultural practices, from dairy and animal industries are disposed of in
a place which causes a very unhygienic environment. Hence, by using these materials,
organically rich manure can be made to grow nutritious plants. The aim is to generate
vermicompost using organic wastes along with the aid of earthworms.

PRINCIPLE
The process of vermicomposting is to raise the number of nutrients present in the soil. Compost
has a property of allowing water to the plants that are growing. The choice of organism used
here are earthworms as the consumer of the organic matter and castings are produced when
they excrete.
The Nutrients Profile of Vermicompost is:
1. 0.75 to 1.00% of Nitrogen
2. 2. 0.60 to 0.75% of Diphosphorus Pentoxide
3. 1.00 to 1.50% of Dipotassium oxide

PREPARATION OF THE COMPOST PIT

The compost pit can be made of numerous dimensions by digging the soil in the decided area.
It could be a single pit or a tank of a variety of sizes with mortar as well as brick, proper water
outlet being mandatory. Make a column of water at the center of the worm pits (beside the
parapet wall) to avoid the ant menace. The four-chambered pit will allow the natural as well as
continuous movement for the earthworms from the chamber with matter that is fully composed
to the chamber with waste that has been processed already.

Fig: Vermicompost Workshop

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RESULT
In a period of 2-3 months, the compost will be ready. The material will become moderately
loose, will weigh less, shaped like granules, black in color, crumbly and rich with humus. If the
earthworm casting is present on the bed of compost, it means that the compost is ready. Prior to
2 or 3 days of emptying the compost bed, adding water to compost must be ceased. This helps
in separation of the worms from the compost. The idea is to keep the compost in the sun so that
most of the earthworms move to the lower part of the compost which is moister and colder. In
the multi-pit system, supplying water should be ceased in the first pit, which will allow the
worms to automatically migrate to another pit. In the other pit the worms have appropriate
conditions for their growth and hence maintained cyclically, and continuous harvesting could
be done. Vermicomposting turns the green organic waste into dark, nutrient-rich soil, which,
due to the presence of microorganisms, maintains healthy soil for growing healthy plants.
Vermicomposting transforms the organic waste which is green in color, to a dark soil which
enriches in nutrients. This is mainly because of the degradation of microorganisms, and
therefore maintaining a soil which is healthy for growing plants. Vermicomposting is one of the
very few eco-friendly processes that recycle biomass and wastes of organic matter into a
compost which has valuable nutrients. It should be encouraged around the world to encourage
nature-friendly methods of waste management.

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ORIENTATION OF RAWE

INTRODUCTION
Agricultural Education is an important tool in ensuring increased agricultural productivity,
sustainability, environmental and ecological security, profitability, job security & equity. In
India, Randhawa Committee (1992) recommended the Rural Agriculture Work Experience
(RAWE) program for imparting quality, practical and production-oriented education for
agriculture degree program. The World Bank (1975) stated that there was little emphasis on
curricula on preparing agricultural graduates for a better career in agriculture or agribusiness
outside govt. jobs. Therefore, the agenda for the 21st century in agricultural education should
be drawn up on the basis of the challenges it has to meet in the near future. RAWE program
provides significant hands-on experience in acquiring knowledge and skill.

What is RAWE?
RAWE (Rural Agricultural Work Experience) is a program for imparting quality, practical and
production-oriented education for agriculture degree

Importance Of RAWE

1. Preparing Agricultural Graduates for better career in agriculture/ agribusiness

2. Preparing Agricultural Graduates to face the challenges by acquiring knowledge & skill
through hands on experience.

Objective Of RAWE
 Understanding of rural life by students
 Familiarity with the socio-economic situation of village
 Opportunity for practical training
 Development of Communication skill in Transfer of Technology
 Understanding of technologies followed by farmers.
 Preparation of production plan suitable for local situation
 Development of confidence and competency for facing problematic situation and
finding solutions

Survey and farm planning

 Make PRA survey of village (both irrigated and non-irrigated), preparation of report
and presentation.
 Collection of data in socio-economic condition, population, irrigation facilities,
cropping pattern, resources available, labour and employments.
 Preparation of alternate farm plans including family system approach for host farmer
and village in consultation with government and local resource/ extension scientists of
university for reorganization of farm business foe higher income and sustainable
production.
 Identifying the constraints in marketing of agricultural produce, institutional credit
facilities, input supply facilities and cooperative enterprise.
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  Students shall record budget of host farmer.

Implication of RAWE program

 Sensitization towards agriculture field
 Hands-on experience in village condition
 Development of favorable and required skills and attitude among agriculture graduates.
 Development of human resources in agriculture education

RURAL SURVEY

Introduction

The student take-up a survey of the village as per the prescribed scheduled. The student is
required to collect the data on overall condition of village, resource endowment and its
utilization, problems of labour and employment and other important economic aspect detailed
in the schedule. The student should also conduct a PRA of the village. For the project of rural
survey I conducted a survey of a village named Mauriphanta which is located in Sudurpashim
province, kanchanpur district, Krishnapur municipality, Nepal. During the survey I visited
some individual farmers of the village and collected various information and also learned about
their lifestyle,understand their socio-economic condition and agriculture scenario along with
different problems associated with agriculture

An opportunity of rural survey came to us during our training period. I along with Avrak on a 3
days survey programme conducted in a village of Kanchanpur district. The love and hospitality
of villagers was really heart whelming. Without their cooperation we would not have been able
to complete our work properly.

General information:

District: Kanchanpur

Municipality: Krishnapur municipality

Village: Mauriphata

Survey conducted by:

Bishan Poudel

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Avrak Hamal

No. of day in survey: 3

Introduction about the Site

Krishnapur is a municipality located within the Kanchanpur District of Sudurpashim Province

of Nepal. The rural municipality spans 95.79 square kilometers, with a total population of 5,371
according to a 2011 Nepal census.

Objective
a) To record data and analyze the economic condition of farmers.
b) To study agriculture technology used by commercial and non-commercial farmers.
c) To study and investigate the major problem that is faced by the farmers.

Methodology:
For the preparation of strategic plan, a group of multi-disciplinary experts was formed the
group carried out survey in Krishnapur. The survey was conducted with the aim of finding out
the agricultural problems of the selected area and create a solution to overcome the problems. A
field visit was done to analyze the cropping pattern.

Site:
Mauriphata, krishnapur rural municipality, Kanchanpur

Population distribution:

The total population of Mauriphata is 5371 with 2477 males and 2894 females living in total of
1059 households.

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Health
Health is one of the most important aspects needed for human beings. In this village due to
superstitious beliefs every year people dies due to minor diseases that can be easily cured by
going to the hospital. Instead of going to hospital, they believe in dhami and jhankri.

Occupation
Out of total Population 20% are government job holder and some of the adult group people are
moving to abroad for earning better money. Farming is main occupation of this area and they
also have sub-occupation like animal husbandry, poultry farming, fisheries, mushroom
cultivation etc. more importantly people are engaged in large scale cultivation of oranges and
coffee.
Table 1.3: Information about occupation and income

Occupation Income per month (rupees)

Government job 20000-40000
Agriculture farming 25000-45000
Poultry farming 20000-30000
Mushroom cultivation 15000-20000
Labourers 18000-24000
Papaya cultivation 30000-35000

Agricultural distribution of Mauriphata village

The major crops that are grown in this village are rice, maize, wheat, millet etc. Crops like
cabbage, cauliflower, beans, pulses, buckwheat, mustard, are cultivated by farmers in small
scale. Farming operations like poultry, animal husbandry are adopted by farmers to improve
their economic status and uplift their living standard.

Problems Faced By Farmers:

a) Lack of higher education facility.
b) Lack of input supplements like quality seeds, fertilizers etc.
c) Lack of modern tools and implements.
d) Lack of information about plant and animal diseases and their treatments.
e) Lack of animals feed and fodder.

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Major achievements
a) We came to know that this village is most prominent and major part of commercial
production of citrus, cereals and potato.
b) Straws are used for the mulching purpose in vegetable farming.
c) There are very few tunnels most of the farmer are cultivate farming operation open field
d) Use of machineries implement like mini tillers and power sprayers.
e) Some of farmers are farming in lease.
f) Farmers aggregated by forming co-operatives and group helping build their strength.

Major problems
a) Lack of input supplements and machineries.
b) Most of the farmers are farming in traditional way.
c) Difficulties in storage of cereals and potato due to lack of improved storage facilities
d) Higher loss of crops due to improper storage facility.
e) Loss due to lack of insecticide and pesticides.
f) There is a need of extension worker who can teach them about IPM and IDM
g) Lack of facilitation of agricultural loan that’s why farmer can’t afford agricultural tool
by themselves.

CONCLUSION
The study used both primary as well as secondary data for analyzing the living
standard of farmers.
a) The condition or the living standard of the farmers in these places has
improved as compared to the previous years.
b) The farmers have started to use modern tool and technology for the purpose
of agriculture.
c) They have started to opt for loan for agricultural and educational purpose
from the reliable source i.e. Co-operative bank.
d) They have proper access to water and electricity for proper and effective
agricultural operations.
e) We suggested them to follow safe food farming instead of using more
pesticides and inorganic fertilizers.

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 f) We shared about the importance of organic farming.

Plate1.1. Map of Krishnapur

Plate1.2. Farmers working on the field Plate1.3 Maize field

Plate1.4 Farmer Levelling the

field

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Agronomic Practices in Maize

Maize, also known as corn, is an important cereal crop in Nepal, and its agronomic
practices vary based on factors such as climate, soil type, and elevation. Here are
some general agronomic practices for maize cultivation in Nepal:

1.Selection of Varieties:

•Choose maize varieties that are well-adapted to the agro-climatics conditions of

the specific region.

•Consider factors such as altitude, temperature, and rainfall patterns when selecting
varieties.

2.Land Preparation:

•Prepare the land by plowing and harrowing to create a fine seedbed.

•Maize prefers well-drained soils, so ensure good soil drainage.

3.Sowing Time:

•Maize is grown in both the Kharif (monsoon) and Rabi (winter) seasons in Nepal.
The timing of sowing depends on the region and the specific climate.

•In the Terai region, Kharif maize is sown from May to June, while Rabi maize is
sown from November to December.

4.Spacing and Planting:

•Optimal plant spacing depends on the variety, but generally, rows should be
spaced adequately to allow proper plant development and facilitate cultivation
practices.

5.Fertilization:

•Conduct soil tests to determine nutrient levels and apply fertilizers accordingly.

•Maize requires nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. The application of organic

manure or compost is also beneficial for soil fertility.

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6.Irrigation:

•Adequate and timely irrigation is crucial for maize cultivation. The water
requirement varies throughout the growing season.

•Drip irrigation or sprinkler systems can be efficient in areas where water resources
are limited.

7.Weed Control:

•Control weeds through timely and proper weeding.

•Mulching can also help in suppressing weed growth and conserving soil moisture.

8.Disease and Pest Management:

•Monitor the crop regularly for signs of diseases and pests.

•Common maize pests include armyworms, aphids, and stem borers. Biological
control and the use of resistant varieties can be effective.

9.Harvesting:

•Maize is typically ready for harvest 90 to 120 days after sowing, depending on the
variety and growing conditions.

•Harvest when the grains are in the milky stage for silage or when they are fully
mature for grain.

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 Fig: Harvesting of maize

10.Post-Harvest Management:

•Dry the harvested maize properly before storage to prevent mold and fungal
growth.

•Store maize in well-ventilated structures.

11.Crop Rotation:

•Practice crop rotation to maintain soil health and reduce the risk of diseases and
pests.

12.Climate Smart Practices:

•Given the changing climate, adopting climate-smart agricultural practices, such as

conservation agriculture and agroforestry, can enhance the resilience of maize
farming.

Farmers in Nepal may need to adapt these practices based on their specific local conditions.
Extension services, agricultural research institutions, and local agricultural experts can provide
valuable guidance for optimizing maize cultivation practices in different regions of Nepal.

Diseases of Maize
Maize, a staple crop in Nepal, is susceptible to various diseases that can affect yield and
quality. Some common diseases of maize in Nepal and their control measures include:

1.Maize Downy Mildew (Peronosclerospora maydis)

Symptoms: Yellow to white streaks on leaves, white

downy growth on the lower surface of leaves.

•Control Measures:
•Use resistant varieties.
• Crop rotation with non-host crops.
•Application of fungicides (consult local agricultural
extension services for recommendations). Fig: Downy mildew

2.Maize Rust (Puccinia sorghi):

•Symptoms: Orange to brown pustules on leaves.

•Control Measures:

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•Plant resistant varieties.
•Remove and destroy infected plant debris.
•Fungicide application if necessary.
Fig: Rust

3.Maize Leaf Blight (Helminthosporium turcicum):

•Symptoms: Oval to elliptical lesions with tan centers and dark borders on leaves.

•Control Measures:
•Use resistant varieties.
•Crop rotation with non-host crops.
•Foliar fungicide applications.

4.Maize Smut (Ustilago maydis):

•Symptoms: Galls or tumors on various parts of the plant.

•Control Measures:
•Remove and destroy infected plant parts.
•Use certified disease-free seeds.
•Apply fungicides as a preventive measure.

5.Maize Stalk Rots (Fusarium spp., Colletotrichum graminicola, etc.):

•Symptoms: Rotting of the stalks, wilting, and lodging of plants.

•Control Measures:
•Crop rotation with non-host crops.
•Plant resistant varieties.
•Use balanced fertilization to maintain plant health.
•Avoid water stress by providing adequate irrigation.

6.Maize Viral Diseases (e.g., Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus, Maize streak virus):

•Symptoms: Stunting, mosaic patterns on leaves, yellowing.

•Control Measures:
•Use virus-free seeds.
•Control insect vectors through insecticide applications.
•Remove and destroy infected plants to prevent the spread of the virus.

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27
UNIT ATTACHMENT OF RESEARCH STATION

Agriculture Knowledge Centre Dang, Nepal

INTRODUCTION:
After the implementation of the federal system in the country Agriculture Knowledge Centre,
Dang was established in 2018 A.D, under the Ministry of Land Management, Agriculture and
Cooperatives. The main responsibility of this office is to improve the living standard of the
entire district by modernizing, commercializing the agriculture sector through timely new
technology.
Objectives:
 To work out the programs approved by the state government for Dang and Pyuthan districts
to the farmers.

 To conduct validation test.

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 General laboratory services related to testing of pesticide residues.

 To conduct advanced training.

 Specialist technical service.

 Acting as agricultural development program, project coordination and contact point.

 Assistance to the government in agricultural development program.

 Acting as a resource center.

 Capacity development work.

 Operation and control of federal projects.

 Technical service for pockets, blocks, zones and super zones.

 Crop Commodity Development Plan, Value Added Chain Development and Implementation.

 Conducting internship programs,

 To collect and update the data related to agriculture and send it to the federal bodies.

On-going programmes under AKC:

1. Subsidy for purchasing machinery.

2. Assistance for community rooftop farming.

3. Subsidy for establishing a Model (exemplar) agriculture farm.

4. Subsidy for organic farms.

5. Assistance for Mushroom Tunnels.

6. Pesticide residue testing facilities for farmers.

7. Training on various topics to farmers. For eg. Improved agriculture practices under plastic
tunnel farming, organic

Abbreviations:
AKC: Agriculture Knowledge Centre
ARS: Agriculture Research station
RCBD: Randomized Complete Block Design
DOAR: Directorate of Agriculture Research
CFFT: Coordinated farmers Field Trial

29
IYT: Integrated Yield Trial
IET: Initial Evaluation Trial
CVT: Coordinated Varietal Trial
CFFT: Coordinated Farmer’s Field Trial
FFT: Farmer’s Field Trial
PRVT: Pre-released Varietal Trial

Cultivation of Tomato Under Plastic Tunnel:

Introduction:
Tomato is the third most important vegetable after cauliflower and cabbage in term of area and
production in Nepal. Its scientific name is Solanum lycopersicumwhich lies under family
“Solanaceae” and order “Solanales”. It is usually round, large, edible, pulpyberry of an herb of
nightshade family. It is typically red, but it may be yellow, orange, or purpulish in colour and is
eaten raw or cooked as vegetable.

Fig: Tomato Plant

Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Spermatophyta
Class: Dicotyledonae
Order: Solanales
Family: Solanaceae
Genus: Solanum
Species: S. lycopersicum

30
Importance:
 Tomato is the major dietary source of the antioxidant lycopene, which has been linked to
many health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease and cancer.

 Tomato helps to maintain harmful blood pressure by maintaining a low sodium intake.

 The fiber, potassium, vitamin C, and choline content in tomatoes all support heart health.

 Tomatoes are a rich source of lycopene, lutein, and beta-carotene. These are powerful
antioxidants that have been shown to protect the eyes trusted source against light-induced
damage, the development of cataracts, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
 Collagen is an essential component of the skin, hair, nails, and connective tissue which can
be obtained from tomatoes.

Description:
Tomato is cultivated in about 20,000 hectares in Nepal and around 0.3 million Metric tons
tomato is produced in the country Tomato is best suited to Terai, low and mid-hills and it is
also becoming attractive for cash generation in the high hills. Tomato is grown from
subsistence to commercial and from east to west and terai to mid-hills and mountain region in
Nepal.
Climatic requirement: Tomato is a warm season crop and can be grown between 10°C -
30°C. The optimum temperature is 21°C-30°C. It is neither tolerant to frost nor to waterlogged
condition.
Soil:
Tomato grows well on soils that have proper water holding capacity and aeration and are free
of salt. It prefers deep, well drained, sandy loam soils. The upper layer needs to be permeable.
In heavy clay soils, deep ploughing allows better root penetration. Tomato is moderately
tolerant to a wide range of pH but grows well in soils with a pH of 5.5 – 6.8 with adequate
nutrient supply and availability. Addition of organic matter is, in general, favorable for good
growth. Soils with very high organic matter content, like peat soils, are less suitable due to their
high water holding capacity and nutrient deficiencies.
About five thousands seed Variety Description
are sown two times in the
tray at the interval of 15
days. 38 Date of sowing
sowing Shrijana ( 75-80 )% of seed were germinated

31
26th/july/2023

Nursery Raising:

Seed rate: 1500 to 1200 per ropani. (400-500 gm seeds per hectare)
Sowing method: Dibbling
Field preparation:

Fig: Field Preparation of Tomato

Procedure:
 At initial stage we ploughed the field by the help of mini tiller, where we FYM was already
kept.
 Then we prepared the ditches at the interval of 30 cm for transplanting of new seedling.
 We prepared two big rows in one tunnel.

Transplanting:
After field preparation, according to recommendation we transplant tomato from nursery to the
field after one month of sowing. Due to proper temperature and moisture provided in the
nursery, the seedlings became ready for transplanting in time.

32
Date of Transplanting:
 Transplanting: 26th and 27th of July 2023

Spacing:
 Plant-Plant: 30 cm
 Row-Row : 60cm
 Between furrow: 2.4 feet,
 Bed width : 2.4 feet

Fertilizer Requirements:
 During our field preparation we apply only compost fertilizer (2-3 tonnes/ropani), which
contain cow dung, poultry dung, ash, neem cake, mustard cake and bone meal.
 Then after 7days of transplanting micronutrients like Zn, Br, Mg, S, Humic acid 5gm/plant
were given.
 At last before flowering top dressing was done with urea for better growth of plants.

Intercultural Operation:
 Irrigation:
First irrigation was done just after transplanting. Then as per the need of plants for some days
irrigation was done on daily basis. When the plants became stable then irrigation was done in
the gap of 2-3 days.
Basically the irrigation was done by drip irrigation system.
Tube well is the main source of water which was used for irrigation purpose. First of all water
was collected in the pond and distributed in the field through drip irrigation system.

Gap Filling:
Gap was filled with the new seedlings where old seedlings failed to withstand in outer
environment.

 Weeding:
Hand weeding was done for weed control in the field. This helps plants to get more nutrients,
light, water and space.

 Pruning:
33
Pruning is important for tomatoes, especially for thick bushes and indeterminate types. It
improves light penetration and air circulation. Pruning was done in V-shape.
. Fig: Tying of tomato plant
 Staking: Due to the tall habit and heavy bearing nature of the hybrids staking is essential.
Staking facilitates intercultural operations and helps in maintaining the quality of the fruits. It is
done 2-3 weeks after transplanting. Staking with laying overhead wires to which individual
plant is tied.

Flowering and Fruiting:

First flowering started after one month of transplanting i.e 6th April and 24th April.
Then after one week of flowering, first fruiting started.
Pests:
1. Red mites
We observed some symptoms of red mites. They couldn't be seen easily with the naked eye, so
we used magnifier. Red mites were seen underneath the leaves after few days of plant
establishment on the field.

Red mites feed on the underside of leaves. Feeding damage caused by sucking sap appears as
many shiny pale-yellow marks on the top of the tomato leaf. Eventually the leaves turn brown
and die or fall off.

2. Whitefly
White flies were seen on plants and stuck to yellow sticky traps.
Whiteflies damage tomato plants by sucking on the
phloem, they will divert the nutrients from your
tomato plant, and make the plant weak unable to carry
out photosynthesis. Leaves will wilt and turn pale or
yellow slowly.

Diseases:
Tomatoes are susceptible to various diseases that can impact their growth and yield. Here are
some common tomato diseases along with control measures:

34
 Early Blight (Alternaria solani):

Symptoms: Dark lesions with concentric rings on leaves.

Control Measures:

Rotate crops to break the disease cycle. Fig: Early Blight

Apply fungicides preventatively.

Provide proper spacing for air circulation.

Late Blight (Phytophthora infestans):Symptoms:

Water-soaked lesions on leaves, rapid spread in humid
conditions.

Control Measures:

Use resistant tomato varieties.

Apply fungicides preventatively.

Avoid overhead irrigation.

Fig: Late Blight

Bacterial Spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria):

Symptoms: Water-soaked lesions with a yellow halo on

leaves and fruit.

Control Measures:

Use copper-based sprays preventatively. Fig: Bacterial spot

Rotate crops to reduce bacterial populations.

Avoid overhead irrigation.

Tomato Mosaic Virus:

Symptoms: Mottled leaves, stunted growth, and fruit

deformities.

Control Measures:

Use virus-free seeds and disease-free transplants. Fig: Tomato Mosaic Virus

35
Control insect vectors (aphids and whiteflies).

Remove and destroy infected plants.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici):

Symptoms: Yellowing and wilting of lower leaves,

vascular discoloration.

Control Measures:

Plant resistant tomato varieties.

Rotate crops with non-susceptible plants.

Fig: Fusarium wilt

36
 Beekeeping in Nepal: A Comprehensive Overview
Introduction
Beekeeping, also known as apiculture, has been an integral part of agriculture in Nepal for
centuries. The rich biodiversity and favorable climatic conditions make Nepal an ideal environment
for beekeeping. This report aims to explore the practice of beekeeping in Nepal, focusing on its
benefits, advantages in agriculture, market context, and the challenges faced by farmers in this
sector.

Benefits of Beekeeping
Beekeeping in Nepal offers a myriad of benefits to both rural
communities and the ecosystem. One of the primary advantages is
the production of honey, which serves as a valuable source of
income for many households. Additionally, bees play a crucial role
in pollination, enhancing crop yields and promoting biodiversity.
The production of beeswax, royal jelly, and propolis further adds to
the economic and medicinal value of beekeeping.
Moreover, beekeeping is an environmentally friendly practice that
aligns with sustainable agriculture. Bees contribute to the overall
health of ecosystems by facilitating the pollination of various plants,
ensuring the reproduction of flora and the preservation of
biodiversity.

Advantages of Beekeeping in Agriculture

The integration of beekeeping into agricultural practices in Nepal provides numerous advantages.
The most notable benefit is the enhancement of crop productivity through
increased pollination. Bees play a vital role in pollinating a wide range of
crops, including fruits, vegetables, and cash crops like mustard and sunflower.
This symbiotic relationship between beekeeping and agriculture not only
improves yields but also ensures the genetic diversity of plants.
Furthermore, the use of honeybee products, such as beeswax and propolis, can
have positive effects on soil fertility. These products contain natural
compounds that enrich the soil and contribute to sustainable farming practices.

Methods of Beekeeping in Nepal

37
Beekeeping in Nepal employs various methods, ranging from traditional to modern practices. The
two primary methods are:
1.Traditional Beekeeping:
Hive Types: Traditional hives in Nepal include log hives and cylindrical hives made from locally
available materials. These hives are often placed in natural locations such as trees or cliffs.
Management: Minimal interference in hive management, with honey extraction typically
occurring once or twice a year. Traditional beekeepers rely on indigenous knowledge for hive
maintenance.
2.Modern Beekeeping:
Hive Types: Modern beekeepers in Nepal often use Langstroth hives, top-bar hives, and frame
hives. These hive types allow for easier inspection, management, and honey extraction.
Management: Modern beekeepers adopt more proactive hive management, including regular
inspections, disease control, and the use of modern tools such as smokers and bee brushes.

Beekeeping Equipment

Bee hives were designed after the discovery of “Bee Space” or “Bee Passage” by
L.L.Langstroth. It is the optimum distance to be left in between two adjacent comb surfaces in
a bee hive which is essential for normal movement and functioning of bees. It is too small for
comb construction and is too large for propolis deposition. It varies with honeybee species. Eg.
For Indian bees – 7-9 mm and Italian bees – 10 mm

Bee keeping in movable frames

 It is the noblest innovation in bee keeping which has several advantages.

 Hive volume can be increased or decreased based on need
 Easy to assess food store position
 Bees can be fed artificially
 Brood development can be effectively monitored
 Artificial queen rearing can be done
 Old and damaged combs can be removed
 Bees can be easily observed with least disturbance
 Honey can be extracted without damaging the comb
 More honey can be extracted by giving more honey supers

Hive bodies painted externally will last longer. The colour of the paint shall be white, blue,
yellow or green. White is generally preferred for hive construction. It offers durability,
flexibility easy handling and improves the colony efficiency in regulating hive interior
temperature and humidity.

Materials: Bee hives are constructed mainly with seasonal timber such as teak, kail or toon.
The timber should be free from insect holes, dead knots, shakes, splits and cracks. The
thickness of the wooden walls should be 20 mm.
38
Besides the hives, the beekeepers need equipment and implements like the hive stand, nucleus
box and smoker. The industry also needs equipment and machinery for handling and processing
of honey, beeswax, for manufacture of comb foundation sheets, and for other operations.

Types of bee hives

Different types of bee hives were in use in various parts of our country. They are pot hive, book
hive, Madhusagar hive, house hive, nucleous hive, single walled and double walled Dadant
hives, British standard hive, Langstroth hive, Jeolikote hive and Newton hive. Of all these
types, the one designed by Rev.Fr.Newton is the most popular one in South India. Newton’s
hives, BIS hives and Marthandam hives are suited for rearing Indian bees. Langstroth hives are
suited for rearing Italian bees.

Newton’s bee hive Bis hive Marthandam hive

BIS HIVE HAVING FOLLOWING PARTS

FLOOR BOARD BROOD CHAMBER WOODEN FRAMES

SUPER CHAMBER WITH
SUPER CHAMBER TOP COVER
WOODEN FRAMES

Newton’s bee hive has the following parts made of wood

a) Floor board: 14” x 91/2” in size with an extension in front which serves as an alighting
board.

b) Brood chamber: it is mounted over the floor board

c) Wooden frames: they are hung inside the brood chamber

d) Super chamber: it is kept over the brood chamber

e) Top cover: It is board having same dimensions of brood or super chamber. In the centre
there is an opening covered with wire gauge. It is kept on super or brood chamber.

39
It is the top cover of the hive. It is a box like structure with a opening bottom portion. The
portion of the box is covered with zinc or tin sheets. The bottom open portion fits on the brood
or super chamber and completely covers them. There are two holes covered with wire mesh in
the front and back side for ventilation.

The wooden frames inside the hive should have a space of about ¼” in between any two. The
hives are painted yellow, light blue, green or pink but never with red, black or grey. Green and
light blue colours are preferable. The hive has to be fixed over a termite proof stand of
about a meter height and kept in a shady place under trees of under a roof. It has to be protected
from ants by providing oil-bands on the stand or water-trought under them.

Floor board Brood chamber Wooden frames Top cover

Parts of hive: The bee hive consists of the following parts

i) Bottom board (or) Floor board: It forms the floor of the hive made up of a single piece of
wood or two pieces of wood joined together. Wooden beading are fixed on to the lateral sides
and back side. There is a removable entrance rod in the front side with two entrance slits to
alter the size of the hive entrance based on need. The board is extended by10 cm in front of the
hive body which provides a landing platform for bees. Size of alighting board is 40x28 cm (BIS
hive).

ii) Brood Chamber: It is a four sided rectangular wooden box of cross section without a top
and bottom. It is kept on the floorboard. A rabbet is cut in the front and back walls of the brood
chamber. The brood frames rest on the rabbet walls. Notches on the outer surface of the side
walls are useful for lifting. The four sides of the chamber are joined by special joints. In brood
frames, bees develop comb to rear brood. Size of brood frame is (outer dimensions) 29x29x17
cm. There will be 8 frames. Len!gth and height of frame is 20.5x14.0 cm (BIS hive).

iii) Super Chamber: It is kept over the brood chamber and its construction is similar to that of
brood chamber. Super frames are hung inside. The length and width of this chamber is similar
to that of brood chamber. The height may be also similar if it is full depth super as in
Langstroth hive. But the height will be only half if it in a shallow super as in Newton's hive.
Surplus honey is stored in super chamber. The height of the chamber is 9.5 cm. The inner
height of the frame is 6.0 cm (BIS hive).

iv) Hive Cover: It insulates the interior of the hive. In Newton's hive it has sloping planks on
either side. On the inner ceiling plank there is a square ventilation hole fitted with a wire gauze.
Two holes present in the front and rear also help in air circulation.

In Langstroth hive and BIS hive, the hive cover consists of a crown board or inner cover and an
outercover.The inner cover is provided with a central ventilation hole covered with wire gauze.
The outer cover is covered over with a metallic sheet to make it impervious to rain water.
Circular ventilation holes covered by wire gauze help in air circulation. It protects the hive
against rain and sun.

v) Frames: The frames are so constructed that a series of them may be placed in a vertical
position in the brood chamber or the super chamber so as to leave space in between them for
bees to move. Each frame consists of a top bar, two side bars and a bottom bar nailed together.
Both the ends of the top-bar protrude so that the frame can rest on the rabbet.

40
The depth of the super frame is less than that of the brood frame in Newton's hive and ISI hive.
But in Langstroth hive it is same as that of brood frame. A groove present underneath the top
bar is useful to fix the comb foundation sheet. Holes present on the side bars are useful for wire
reinforcement. Joined wire of 28 gauge is used for wiring frames. The height of the side bar
reflects the depth of the super.

Other Equipment

1. Comb foundation sheet

Made of wax; it is artificially provided for the colonies during honey flow season pure by
cutting them to a proper conical size and attaching them to super frames by means of thread or
fibre; It is a thin sheet of bee wax embossed with a pattern of hexagons of size equal to the
base of natural brood cells on both sides. The size of the hexagon varies with bee species. The
sheet is fixed to the frames on fine wires threaded through holes in the side bars and stretched
tight. A spur or an electrical heating device is used to embed wires into the comb foundation
sheets which are prepared in a comb foundation mill. The bees construct superstructure of
comb cells over the sheet.

Advantages
. Bees have to add cell walls only
. Combs will be vertical
. Cell size will be uniform

4. Dummy division board/Movable wall

It is a wooden board slightly larger than the brood frame. It is placed inside the brood chamber.
It prevents the bees from going beyond it. It can be used as a movable wall there by limiting the
volume of brood chamber which will help the bees to maintain the hive temperature and to
protect them from enemies. It is useful in managing small colonies.

5. Porter bee escape board or super clearer

It is a device which allows the bees to go through a self closing exit. eg. Spring bee escape or
wire gauze cone. A board having one way passage in the center can also be used. It is kept in
between honey super and brood chamber. It is used for clearing the bees from super for
extracting honey.

6. Drone excluder or drone trap

It is a rectangular box with one side open. The other side is fitted with queen excluder sheet. At
the bottom of the box there is a space for movement of worker bees. There are two hollow
cones at the bottom wall of the box. Drones entering through the cones into the box get trapped.
The narrow end of the cone is wide enough to let the bees pass out but not large enough to
attract their attention or reentry. This device is used at the entrance to reduce the drone
population inside the hive.

7. Swarm trap
It is a rectangular box used to trap and carry the swarm. It is fixed near the hive entrance with
one (or) two combs inside during the swarming period. This box traps and retains the queen
only. But the swarm coming out from the hive reenter the hive and settles on the comb, since
the queen is trapped. Thus the swarm is induced to settle in the frame, which can now be
transferred to a hive at a desired place.

41
8. Pollen trap
Pollen trapping screen inside this trap scrapes pellets from the legs of the returning foragers. It
is set at the hive entrance. The collected pollen pellets fall into a drawer type of receving tray.

9. Division Board / Sugar Feeder

It can be hung along with the frames. A wooden strip or cut bits of leaves kept inside serve as
float which prevents the drowning of bees in the sugar syrup.

10. Hive tool

It is a piece of flattened iron with flattened down edge at one end. It is useful to separate hive
parts and frames glued together with propolis. It is also useful in scrapping excess propolis or
wax and superfluous combs or wax from various parts of the hive.

11. Queen excluder

It is made up of Perforated zinc sheet. The slots are large enough to allow the workers to pass
through but too narrow for the queen. A wire grid/dividing grid with parallel wire mounts can
also be used as a queen excluder. It is inserted in between the brood frames in single storey
hive.
Uses: It is useful to confine the queen to brood chamber. But it allows the workers to have
access to super. It prevents the queen from laying eggs in honey combs. It is also used in
producing royal jelly in queen rearing and in forming multi-queen colonies.

12. Queen Gate

It is a piece of queen excluder sheet. It is fitted on the slot of entrance gate. It confines the
queen inside the hive. It is useful to prevent swarming and absconding. It also prevents the
entry of bee enemies like wasps into the hive.

13. Queen Cage

It is a cage made up of wire gauze. It is useful for queen introduction.

14. Queen Cell Protector

It is a cone shaped structure made of a piece of wire wound spirally. It fits around a queen cell.
It is used to protect the queen cell, given from a queen right to a queenless colony until its
acceptance by bees.

15. Smoker
The smoker is used to calm bees and drive away bees from super. It is a small tin with an
elastic bulb at one side; rags of cloth or wood shavings can be burnt inside and the smoke
expelled to any desired spot. Eco-friendly smoke for driving away rock bees: Special smoke
generated by using Charcoal, coconut husk and chicken feathers. Use of bucket smoker
effectively drives out rock bees.

42
 Smoker Driving away the bee

16. Bee brush

A soft-camel-hair brush is used to brush the bees off the honeycomb before it is taken for
extraction.

17. Decapping knife

Single (or) double edged steel knife is used for removing wax cappings from the honey comb.

18. Honey extractor

This equipment consists of cylindrical drum containing a rack or box inside to hold the super
frames. The box is fixed to a rod at the centre and it can be rotated by a set of two gear
wheels. The frames with, honey cells are decapped by a sharp knife after dipping it in hot
water and fixed to the slots provided in the box which is rotated by the handle. The rotation
should be very gentle and slow at first and the speed of revolution increased gradually. With
some experience the correct speed can be learnt. The honey in the cells is forced out in
droplets by the action of the centrifugal force and can be collected in vessels through an exit in
the drum. As cells are constructed on both sides of the comb, by changing the sides of the
frames and again rotating, the honey contained in the cells on the other side can also be drained
off. .

The extraction of honey should be done a distance away front the hive. Otherwise the workers
get attracted by the odour of the honey and comb and may annoy the operator.

Honey extractor

Products of Beekeeping
1. Honey:

Varieties: Nepal produces a variety of honeys, each with unique flavors and medicinal properties.
Popular varieties include rhododendron honey, litchi honey, and wildflower honey.
Market Demand: Honey is a sought-after product in both domestic and international markets. The
demand for natural and organic honey has increased, presenting economic opportunities for
beekeepers.
2. Beeswax:

Uses: Beeswax is used in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, candles, and food packaging. It has natural
moisturizing properties and is a key ingredient in various skincare products.

43
Market Potential: The market for beeswax has expanded due to the growing interest in natural and
sustainable products.
3. Propolis:

Uses: Propolis, a resinous substance collected by bees, has antimicrobial properties. It is used in
natural medicines, health supplements, and cosmetics.
Market Niche: The demand for propolis has increased as consumers seek natural alternatives with
potential health benefits.
4. Royal Jelly:

Uses: Royal jelly is a nutrient-rich secretion produced by worker bees, often used in health
supplements and cosmetics. It is associated with potential health and beauty benefits.
Market Applications: Royal jelly has niche applications in the health and wellness industry.
5. Pollen:

Uses: Bee pollen is rich in nutrients and is consumed as a health supplement. It is also used in
cosmetics and skincare products.
Health Trend: The growing interest in natural health products has contributed to the demand for
bee pollen.

Pest and diseases of Honeybees

A. Pests of honey bees

1. Wax moths
The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella L. (Galleriidae) enjoys world wide distribution and
its occurrences has been noted from the very early days of Aristotle (38322 B.C.). In South
India it is seen causing severe damage in the plains and lower altitudes but it is rare in high
altitudes. It is one of the most observed throughout the year but more common and severe
during July to October and November to December. Combs of all the species of Apis are freely
attacked. It is one of the most important enemies of the bee colony causing serious damage
particularly to weak colonies where the number of bees are not sufficient enough to cover all
the combs.

Wax moth

44
The insect can be controlled by frequent examination all the crevices of the hive and removing
all debris. The excess of the hive not covered by the bees are removed and stored after
fumigation with ethylene bromide. In the store rooms the spare should be stored in tightly
closed containers.

2. Ants
The black ant, Camponotus compressus, the-household red ant, Dorylus
labiams and Monomorium spp. are dangerous enemies of the bee. They attack weak colonies
and carry away the honey, pollen and the brood. Strong colonies are able to withstand the ants,
but in weak colonies ant attack will result in destruction and end of the colony. By providing
ant pans around the bases of the stand or oil bands over the stands ants can be kept away.
Underground ant nests are eliminated by dusting of Methyl parathion or carbaryl or pouring
0.1% chlorpyriphos solution.

Ant infestation in the hive

3. Wax beetles
The tenebrionid beetle, Platybolium alvearium , is found in the hives under unhygienic
conditions feeding on the debris and on old combs in weak colonies. Periodical examination of
empty combs and regular cleaning of the bottom boards will control the enemy.

4. Birds
King crow Dicrucus sp. and the bee cavers Merops spp. capture bees and devour them.

DISEASES OF HONEY BEES

There are a number of diseases which affect the honeybee in India. Of the major diseases which
affect honeybee are the Acarine and Nosema diseases of the adult bees and the brood diseases
of larval stages.

1. Nosema Disease
This disease is caused by a protozoan, Nosema apis. The Nosema infestation leads to
dysentery. The flies are unable to fly and void loose excreta on the combs, frames and ground
in front of the hive. It mainly affects the flight during cold weather. An antibiotic known as
Fumagillin is useful in controlling the infection. The drug is administered by giving a feed of
100 mg fumagillin per colony in 250 ml of sugar syrup for 10 days continuously.

45
2. Sac-brood disease (SBV)
Sac brood is a virus disease attacking Apis mellifera. The diseased larvae appear sac like and
hence the name.

Sac brood disease

Market Context of Beekeeping in Nepal

The market for beekeeping products in Nepal has witnessed significant growth in recent years.
Honey, being the primary product, is in high demand both domestically and internationally. The
global demand for organic and natural honey has created lucrative opportunities for Nepali
beekeepers to export their products. Apart from honey, other bee-related products such as beeswax
and propolis have found niche markets in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and food industries. The
rising consumer awareness about the health benefits of bee products has led to an increased demand
for these items in both local and international markets.

Issues Faced by Farmers in Beekeeping in Nepal

Despite the promising prospects, beekeepers in Nepal encounter various challenges that hinder the
growth of the sector. One significant issue is the lack of awareness and technical knowledge among
farmers. Many traditional beekeepers are not familiar with modern beekeeping techniques, leading
to suboptimal production and product quality.
Moreover, the prevalence of diseases and pests affecting honeybee colonies poses a considerable
threat to the sustainability of beekeeping. Varroa mites and Nosema are among the common
challenges faced by beekeepers, requiring effective management strategies and veterinary support.
Additionally, the impact of climate change on flora and fauna poses a threat to the availability of
forage for bees. Changes in flowering patterns and the unpredictable weather conditions can
negatively affect the bees' foraging activities, thereby impacting honey production.
Furthermore, the lack of access to markets and inadequate infrastructure for processing and
packaging limit the income potential for many small-scale beekeepers. Addressing these challenges
requires a concerted effort from the government, NGOs, and the private sector to provide training,
resources, and market linkages to beekeepers in Nepal.

46
AGRO-INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT (RAWE COMPONENT II)
Introduction
The rice milling industry has a vital role in the overall rice value chain for product
differentiation and value addition to paddy after the milling process to produce intended
products such as brown rice, polished rice, parboiled rice, and steamed rice. An efficient rice
milling machine should ensure consistency in the quality of the end product and hence enhance
the economic value of the raw material. Handling large volumes of rice consistently with the
least recurring costs by conserving energy and properly using human resources are the
desirable features of a modern rice mill. A modern rice processing machine, vis-à-vis an
outdated one, produces consistent-quality products with as much as 3% - 5% less breakage of
rice grains, a net power saving of 15% - 20%, and practically negligible downtime
Rice millers in Nepal perform three major functions in the value chain:
1) purchasing Paddy
2) milling paddy
3) selling rice and by-products.
The performance and efficiency of rice mills in terms of head rice recovery, milling percentage
and quality of milled rice depend on many things: quality of paddy, appropriate milling
technology to match with the grain type of rice, efficiency, and high throughput of machines.

Milling Process
The milling process in large commercial mills combines a number of operations that produce
better quality and higher yield of white rice from paddy or rough rice.

1. Pre-cleaning

When paddy comes into the mill, it contains foreign materials such as straw, weed seeds, soil,
and other inert materials. If these are not removed before hulling, the efficiency of the huller
and milling recovery will be reduced. The capacity of the paddy pre-cleaner is normally 1.5
times the milling capacity.

2. Removing the husk (dehusking or dehulling)

Brown rice is produced by removing the husk from rough paddy rice. The husk is removed by
friction as the paddy grains pass between two abrasive surfaces that move at different speeds.
After dehusking, the husk is removed by suction and transported to a storage dump outside the
mill. Husk accounts for 20% of the paddy weight and an efficient husker should remove 90%
of the husk in a single pass.
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3. Paddy separation

The paddy separator separates unhusked paddy rice from brown rice. The amount of paddy
present depends on the efficiency of the husker and should not be more than 10%. Paddy
separators work by making use of the differences in specific gravity, buoyancy, and size
between paddy and brown rice.

4. Whitening or polishing

White rice is produced by removing the bran layer and the germ from the paddy. The bran layer
is removed from the kernel through either abrasive or friction polishers. The amount of bran
removed is normally between 8 and 10% of the total paddy weight. To reduce the number of
broken grains during the whitening process, rice is normally passed through two to four
whitening machines connected in series.

5. Grading and Sorting:

After polishing, rice goes through two important processes to ensure it’s of high quality.

Color Sorter :To make sure every grain is perfect, another

machine called a color sorter is used. This machine uses special
sensors to look at each grain closely. If it spots any rice grain that
looks discoloured or has some defect, it removes it from the
batch. This way, only the best and most perfect rice grains make it
to your plate. It’s like having an extra set of eyes to check every
grain for you.

6. Packaging:
Packaging and storage : A packaging machine is a device used in the rice processing industry
to efficiently fill and seal rice in bags or containers. Processed rice is packaged in bags or other
containers for storage and distribution. Proper packaging and storage are essential to maintain
the quality and freshness of the rice.
By products of rice processing:

 Rice bran
 Rice germ
 Rice husk

Importance of rice processing:

 Food security
 Value addition
 Product diversification

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Challenges in rice processing:

 Loss of nutrients
 Environmental impact
 Food safety concerns

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 www.agritech.tnau.ac.in
 NARC. (2022). Retrieved from https://narcnepal.org/
 Data Collection from village
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.intechopen.com

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