BUILDING DISASTER RESILIENT MOUNTAIN ROADS USING BIO-ENGINEERING

TECHNIQUES

INDU DHAKAL
Former Director General, Department of Roads, Nepal
isdhakal@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Nepal is one of the most disaster-prone countries in the world. It is vulnerable to a wide
range of natural hazards, such as earthquakes, floods and landslides. There are several
major active faults and thrust with very high risk of earthquakes. Additional challenges
arise from impact of climate change. The frequency of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOF) events is predicted to increase with climate change. The threat of landslides in
mountains is increased after the earthquake. Lands in mountain are cracked and there is
increased possibility of landslides triggered by monsoon precipitation. Study shows that
weather patterns have changed and that there is more risk from heavy rains in monsoon
periods. The runoff flowing from the mountains give rise to erosion and landslides through
flooding.

Road constructions in mountains disturb the slopes and damage to vegetation causing
adverse environmental consequences. Landslides are the most common problems
resulting damage to road structures and road blockage. The road authority should take
special care to select the type of stabilization techniques during road construction to
ensure the stability of roadside slopes. Careful attention is needed in disposal of spoil,
slope drainage and road surface drainage management. Road structures should be more
resilient to prevent from growing concern over the increased risk of flooding, erosion and
landslide.

The use of bio-engineering makes a mountain road disaster resilient and sustainable. The
bio-engineering techniques developed in Nepal are labor intensive and cost-effective for
erosion control and landslide protection. The use of easily available indigenous species,
planted in different configurations is becoming highly effective means of erosion control
improving slope hydrology, This process provides employment to local people and income
generation activities by the use of local productive species. This paper deals with bio-
engineering experience of Nepal and a case study of recovery and reconstruction of
Sankhu-Palubari-Nagarkot Road following the devastating earthquake of 25 April 2015.
Built back better features are implemented to achieve strengthened resilience to future
disasters.

Key Words
Road, earthquake, climate change, disaster, bio-engineering, resiliency.

1. INTRODUCTION

Mountains of Nepal are among the most steep and unstable landscapes in the world. The
geology is highly mixed and there are several major active faults and thrust running
parallel to the length of the country. The intense seasonal rainfall also leads to high
groundwater tables and large quantities of surface runoff. These problems are
compounded by landslides, erosion and river floods. The down-cutting of rivers and
steepening of slopes are common features. Roads alignment passes through the zones of
instability, weak materials and geologically volatile slopes. The unique geo-physical

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settings and the tropical location makes Nepal vulnerable to a wide range of natural
hazards, such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, droughts and Glacial Lake Outburst
Floods (GLOF). The plain areas are prone to flooding and the hilly areas are prone to
landslides.

1.1. Disaster risk

Nepal is one of the most disaster-prone and vulnerable countries in the world. The
disaster data of Nepal between 1990 and 2014, shows that landslides have claimed the
maximum number of death (33%) followed by floods (29%). Over the same period of time,
floods have affected the maximum number of families and caused the maximum economic
impact (53%) followed by fire (24%) and landslides (13%). For instance, the floods and
landslides of 1993 resulting in 1,300 deaths, had caused direct physical damage of $55
million in the 5 most affected districts out of the 43 affected districts. The Koshi and far-
western floods of 2008 displaced 47,000 people and affected 43,500 families; damaged
5,000 hectares of farmland and 14 kilometers of road; and slowed progress in poverty
reduction, with the poor suffering most in terms of losses to livelihoods and property.

Thus disasters impact the socio-economic development of Nepal. This is due to increase
in vulnerability and exposure of people to natural hazards as development in the country
has taken place with insufficient regard to disaster risk. The degradation of forest area has
increased landslides, soil erosion and flooding. The disturbance of natural drainage by the
construction of roads has increased the incidence of flooding.

1.2. Climate change

The predicted impacts of climate change for Nepal indicate a rise in maximum
temperatures at an annual rate of 0.04 - 0.06°C and annual mean temperatures to
increase by 3°C by 2050. Precipitation projections are noted to increase for the whole
country in the range of 15-20%. The projections indicate an increase in monsoon and post-
monsoon rainfall as well as an increase in the intensity of rainfall and a decrease in winter
precipitation. There will be a general increase in the intensity of heavy rainfall events in the
future and an overall decrease by up to 15 days in the annual number of rainy days over a
large part of South Asia.
The projections indicate that the key impacts for Nepal are likely to include significant
warming, particularly at higher elevations, leading to reductions in snow and ice coverage
and increased frequency of extreme events, including droughts and floods and an overall
increase in precipitation during the wet season. Climate threat studies of Kathmandu have
concluded the following:
 Increase in average maximum temperature of up to 1.85°C;
 Increase intensity of rainfall events;
 Increase in number of extreme rainfall events that now occur every 5 years are
projected to occur every 2 years;
 Increase in peak monthly average flow in wet season flow on the Bagmati River by
up to 68%;
 Greater likelihood of pooling;
 Increase in irrigation demand by up to 980mm, and
 Increase in risk and severity of flash floods during the wet season.

The impacts of climate change in Nepal may be intense at high altitude and in regions with
complex topography. Current climate change events are already causing major impacts
and the economic costs are estimated to be equivalent to an annual cost of 1.5 to 2% of
GDP. The future impacts of climate change on water-induced disasters will be increased

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risk of flood damage costs with a higher risk of larger events. Recent analysis has
estimated that Nepal experiences an annual average loss of $173 million as a
consequence of natural hazards and of $143 million for floods. The 50-year probable
maximum loss is estimated at $263 million for earthquake. This grim context of increasing
disaster and climate risk calls for actions to systematically embed disaster risk
considerations into development processes, and to strengthen the policy and institutional
set up for disaster risk management (DRM). The climate change impact will be on
followings:
 Flooding caused by the combination of torrential rains during the monsoon period
and rapid snow and ice melt in the mountains will seriously affect to roads built in
the middle hill region
 Rainfall will affect drainage structures, bridges, road pavements. It may also result
in increase in scouring of bridge foundations and increase in frequency of landslides
 Temperature can cause pavement deterioration due to liquidation of bitumen

Many glacial lakes in Nepal are expanding at a considerable rate so that the danger they
pose appears to be increasing. Scientists predict that the frequency of GLOF events will
increase with climate change.

1.3. Earthquake-induced disaster

Nepal is the 11th most earthquake-vulnerable country, with major earthquakes occurring
about every 80 years. The entire country lies in a high earthquake intensity belt. Starting
1900, Nepal has experienced four major earthquakes – in 1934, 1980, 1988 and the most
recent ones of April and May 2015. The seismic zoning map divides the country into three
zones elongated in northwest-southeast direction, with the middle part of the country being
at slightly higher risk than the northern and the southern part. The plains and valleys are
highly susceptible to liquefaction and the middle hills and higher mountains are highly
susceptible to earthquake-induced landslides.

Nepal experienced an earthquake of 7.8 Magnitude on 25 April 2015, causing widespread

damage. The epicenter was in Gorkha district, 77 kilometer west of Kathmandu. The
earthquake of 25 April 2015 and major aftershock of 12 May 2015 measuring 7.3
Magnitude and hundreds of other aftershocks have resulted in over 8,600 casualties,
23,000 injuries and affected 8 million people. More than 785,000 homes were destroyed or
damaged. Education of around 1.5 million children has also been affected, as the
earthquake destroyed or damaged about 7,000 schools. The largest component was
private housing, which amounts to $1.2 billion–$3.9 billion, followed by education at $250
million. The damage and losses was expected to be in the order of $5 billion. The
damages rural road was estimated to be $185million. There was widespread destruction of
rural infrastructure, including roads, bridges, irrigation schemes and loss of food stocks
and livestock. The landslides triggered by the earthquake have swept away farmland in
some of the severely affected villages in hilly regions.

Key characteristics of the disaster were (i) the prolonged period of large-scale aftershocks;
and (ii) catastrophic damages to poorly built buildings and infrastructure in vast and rugged
rural terrain that is difficult to access. Development Goals were adversely affected due to
the widespread damage to schools, houses, and health posts.

1.4. Road network

The construction of roads in Nepal started since 1950. Now the strategic road network
(SRN), the core network of national highways and feeder roads connecting district
headquarters, covers about 15,000 km. In the past, most of the engineering techniques

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used in construction of roads and roadside slope management were implemented from
donor’s experience. Now, the Department of Roads has developed its own design
guidelines as well as specifications and is capable for the construction and maintenance of
the strategic road networks throughout the country. Nepal has the low road density where
around 20% of the population still has no access to roads.. Of this, 51% is paved, 13% is
graveled, and 36% is earthen. Only 10% of the SRN is deemed to be in good condition,
74% is in fair condition, and 16% requires urgent repairs. The overall road system includes
50,944 km of local road network (LRN), of which about 3% is blacktopped, 30% is
graveled, and 67% is earthen.

Road alignments that are high up in the landscape tend to be more stable than alignments
low down the landscape. This is because of the landslides coming down from the above
and undermining from below, as the river scours away at the base of the slope. When
constructing roads through unstable mountainous terrain such as exists in Nepal, the aim
must be to minimise as far as possible the volume and extent of cut slopes. Cut slopes cause
disturbance to both the terrain and the local vegetation. This is achieved by setting the
alignment to follow the natural contours. However, it is also necessary to bench the road into
the hillside to achieve a good foundation. This immediately increases road side cut slope,
which often requires stabilisation in itself. It also gives rise to a problem of spoil disposal.
Traditional practice has been to dispose of unwanted material by simply throwing it down
the slope. This has given rise to much increased rates of erosion and slope failure at
valley side Attempts to produce a mass balance across the road section are often
hampered because in doing so the topographic irregularities may hinder attempts to
achieve the geometrical standard of the road alignment. Disposal of runoff generated
during storms along roads is essential to protect road surface as well as side slopes.
Water generally comes from three sources: rainfall, lateral runoff and subsoil water. There
is relatively little runoff or seepage from surrounding slopes but even the width of a road’s
surface can give rise to large volumes of water during heavy rain. Water must be
disposed of carefully to prevent erosion from expanding rapidly, undercutting the road and
causing large scale collapses. This may necessitate running side drains long distances in
order to reach safe gullies into which the water can be discharged. Once gullies are
reached, downstream check dams and cascades are often required.

2. BIO-ENGINEERING

Bio-engineering is defined as the use of vegetation in accordance with engineering

principles to prevent damage to the environment. The roots of vegetation can interrupt
shear planes and stop them from instability. Bio-engineering has been introduced for the
stabilisation of roadside slopes in Nepal since 1980s. The bio-engineering techniques
used in the Nepal road sector are from standard international methods but adapted to local
conditions emerged from the research phase. Emphasis has been given to techniques
which improve slope drainage. Major trials were done on roads such as the Dharan-
Dhankuta Road and a number of techniques were identified as the optimum solutions on
specific sites. This was made by use of demonstration, awareness-raising, information
provision, training, budget programming and provision of technical advice.

2.1. Bio-engineering structures

Only swallow failures can be treated by bio-engineering structures (Table1). Deeper-

seated problems are first addressed by civil engineering structures and appropriate bio-
engineering structures are applied in combination. Availability survey of plants has to be
done and provisions have to be made for nursery as well as collection of plants, cuttings,

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seeds etc. Bio-engineering techniques incorporate indigenous skills and knowledge of
local people.
Table 1 - Common bio-engineering techniques and structural functions
Techniques Structural Functions
Grass planting They armour, reinforce the slope with their roots. This technique is
commonly used in conjunction with jute netting, where surface better
protection is needed on steep and harsh slopes.
Grass seeding This technique is often used in conjunction with mulching and jute
netting to aid establishment.
Shrub and They create a dense network of roots in the soil. The main engineering
tree planting functions are to reinforce, to anchor and to support.
Shrub and Shrubs or trees seeds are applied directly to the site. The main
tree seeding engineering functions are to reinforce and, later, to anchor.
Bamboo Large bamboos can reinforce and support a slope. They can reduce
planting movement of material and stabilise slopes.
Brush layering They form a strong barrier, preventing the development of rills, and trap
material moving down the slope. The main functions are to catch, to
armour and to reinforce the slope.
Palisades These form a strong barrier and trap material moving down the slope.
The main functions are to catch, to armour and to reinforce the slope.
Live check These form a strong barrier and trap material moving downwards. The
dams main functions are to catch debris, and to armour and reinforce the
gully floor.
Fascines The bundles of live branches are laid in shallow trenches to put out
roots and shoots forming a line of vegetation. The functions are to
catch, to armour and to reinforce the slope.

Figure 1 - Grass plantation site of a mine haul road in Liberia: before and after 3 months

Careful site assessment is the key to success in selecting the techniques. It is not possible
to design effective measures to resolve the problems without an understanding of the
exact processes at work in every part of a site.

2.2. Bio-engineering species

It is possible to use a large number of appropriate plant species for which seeds are
available. Following points should be considered for the selection of species to perform the
required bio-engineering functions:

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  Suitable species for the environmental conditions on site
 Performance of the required functions on site
 Useful to local farmers
 Availability of species at the right place and in the right quantities
 Use of fast-growing species for rapid establishment

Table 2 - Examples of local species and their effective depths of rooting

SN Plant type Example in Nepal Rooting depth
Dubo Cynodon dactylon
1 Small grass 10 cm
Kikiyu Pennisetum clandestinum
Kans Saccharum spontaneum
2 Large grass 1 metre
Amliso Thysanolaena maxima
Large
3 Mal bans Bambusa nutans 1 metre
bamboo
Dhanyero Woodfordia fruticosa
4 Shrubs 1.5 metres
Bhujetro Butea minor
Khayer Acacia catechu
5 Trees 2 metres
Utis Alnus nepalensis

The technical part involves the selection of the right means of plant propagation, and site
suitability (Table 2). The final choice of species, according the technique for which they are
to be used, and the site characteristics are determined by altitude and moisture.

2.3. Combination of bio-engineering and civil engineering

Slope stabilisation requires a number of engineering functions to be fulfilled. Both civil and
bio-engineering techniques are required to serve the purposes. Therefore, a combination
of civil and bio-engineering offers the most complete solution to the roadside slope
management (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Combination of civil engineering and bio-engineering

The strength of bio-engineering and civil engineering structures varies with time.
Vegetations take few years to reach maximum strength. As the relative strength of
engineering structures decrease, the relative strength of plant structures increases. Jute
net and grass can be used in combination to perform a catching function. The capacity of
the jute net to retain soil is very high at first. With time the jute decays and weakens the
net and consequently its soil-retaining capacity decreases. In contrast, the capacity of

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grass slips to retain soil increases as their root systems develop. As the relative strength of
the jute net declines, the relative strength of the grass increases and the soil-retaining
function of the jute net will be handed over to the grass. To protect a slope from a shallow
planar failure, a retaining wall is provided to support the toe but also requires bio-
engineering measures to armor against erosion. Civil and bio-engineering structures serve
complementary functions on the same site.

3. CASE STUDY

3.1 Background

The ADB funded Earthquake Emergency Assistance Project (EEAP) is supporting the
Government of Nepal to accelerate recovery and reconstruction following the devastating
earthquake of 25 April 2015. The project is supporting the reconstruction of schools, roads,
buildings and strengthens resilience to future disasters. The project aims to accelerate
economic and social recovery in earthquake affected districts with disaster-resilient
infrastructure. The project supports the government to build back better (BBB) and
strengthen resilience to future disasters, particularly through more resilient schools, roads
and government office buildings and by using school communities to build awareness and
capacity for disaster risk management (DRM). Extensive road blockages and
inaccessibility for a few weeks were seen in the in the days after the earthquake. The
obstructions were caused mainly by landslides, which washed out some road sections
completely. About 135 km of strategic roads and about 450 km of rural roads damaged by
the earthquake and landslides are being rehabilitated. Project roads and bridges will have
built back better features for road safety and climate resilience. All outputs are assured to
be disaster risk resilient. The project was planned to be implemented over a three year
period.

Project implementation units (PIUs) were established in each implementing agency

headed by a project implementation director. The PIU is supported through its district
implementation units (DIUs) to supervise and implement the approved subproject
activities. The implementing agency is the CLPIU under Ministry of Federal Affairs and
Local Development for rural roads. Project provides consultancy support and capacity
building for implementing agencies.

The estimated cost of the project is $232 million. The underlying principle of the
government’s recovery and reconstruction (R&R) policy is to build back better. The R&R
program will incorporate higher building standards to withstand earthquakes, and climate
proofing of existing infrastructure, including schools. The project follows environmental
guidelines in the environmental assessment and review framework.
3.2 Project description

Sankhu – Palubari – Nagarkot Road (10 km) is one of the road out of 17 district being
carried out for reconstruction under ADB Loan 3260: Earthquake Emergency Assistance
Project (EEAP). The road alignment starts from Shankharapur Municipality Ward No. 11
of Kathmandu district and passes through Sankhu, Palubari, Kattike and finally reaches
to Nagarkot of Kavre district. This road provides access to market, education institutions,
and health center and government service offices. In addition it is also a potential
heritage route to religious places of Sankhu and tourist route to Nagarkot.

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 Figure 3 – Alignment of road

3.3 Recovery Strategy

This road is designed for upgrading to blacktopped standard and the intervention
comprises:
 Widening of narrow sections
 Improvement of steep gradient
 Provision of passing bays
 Improved drainage system with lined side drain and adequate cross-drainage
structures
 Upgrade the road geometry
 Bio-engineering works

The road is designed to all weather type of district core road network standard of
general width of 5.25 m with 3.75 m carriageway including 0.75 m shoulder on
either side and with vehicle-passing zone at designed intervals. In order to manage
the surface run-off lined drain is being carried out with cross-drainages at frequent
interval focusing to be located at vertical intersection valley points. Consideration is
given to safe discharge of the drainage outlets in natural gullies. Type of crossings
has been determined keeping view of nature and characteristics of gullies, river,
stream and spring.

Figure 4 - Bio-engineering work in Sankhu-Palubari-Nagarkot Road

3.3 Summary of civil engineering and bio-engineering works:

Table 3 – Civil engineering works

SN Items Cost (NRs) Waitage Remarks
(%)
1 Earthworks for widening 10,401,380 6
2 Retaining structures 52,187,440 30
3 Drainage structures 17,870,463 10
4 Pavement works 57,676,781 34

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 5 Others 30,909,205 20
Total 169045269 100

Table 4 – Bio- engineering works

SN Items Cost Waitage Remarks
(NRs) (%)
1 Supply of plants 2,332,584 30
2 Plantation 3,545,310 46
3 Fencing 823,081 10
4 Structures 106,756 2
5 Others 885,004 12
Total 7,692,735 100

Portion of bio-engineering work in comparison with civil engineering work in Sankhu –

Palubari - Nagarkot Road is only 4.35%. The implementation of bio-engineering has
already produced good results and this will improve the condition of roadside slopes
reducing maintenance costs. Local people were involved during implementation to
promote income generation activities. Bio-engineering techniques have shown to be
reliable and cost-effective. From the experience of this road, it is recommended that a
minimum of 5% of the total cost should be allocated to implement bio-engineering in road
sector contracts.

4. LESSONS LEARNT

From the experience of road construction in the mountains of Nepal, it is clear that
improved preparedness is necessary for climate change impact road infrastructure works.
This can be achieved by incorporating resilient designs and better construction standard
as below:
 Inclusion of clauses in the specifications to ensure that design and construction
standards are raised to appropriate levels. For example, stiff bitumen can be used
to withstand projected rise in temperature.
 Raising infrastructure works above the projected high flood level in low-lying flood
prone areas.
 Ensuring faster restoration and mitigation of damage after natural disaster events
due to extreme weather through regular maintenance activities.
 Increasing frequency of periodic maintenance.
 Increasing capacity of side drains, cross drains and embankment height.
 Increasing the invert levels of bridges to accommodate high flood levels for
increased flood volumes. Bridges should designed with higher return periods to
make structures more resilient to high floods.
 Providing additional protection works to resist erosion and scour for roads built in
low land and in close proximity to adjacent rivers.
 Review of specifications for construction materials to increase their resilience to the
impacts of increased rainfall, increased flows and fluctuations in temperature
variations
A number of lessons have been learned regarding the implementation of bio-engineering
in the road sector. To cope with natural disaster and for soil conservation measures to be
really effective five main criteria as mentioned below are necessary. The bio-engineering
techniques:
 should be strong enough for the purpose for which they are designed;

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  must become stronger over time or to remain strong over a significant period;
 should be flexible;
 should be able to recover from damage; and
 must be simple and robust enough to new users in remote areas with resource
constraints.

The main challenge emerged is the lack of confidence and unwillingness of road engineers
to use bio-engineering techniques in combination with geo-technical structures. Trainings
and demonstrations of successful stories is will help to convince them and gaining
confidence to the use bio-engineering techniques widely.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Improved preparedness is necessary in road sector to cope with disaster risk due to
climate change. Special care is required to ensure the stability of roadside slopes and
landslide management. Management of runoff generated during rainy seasons is essential
to protect road surface and side slopes. Resilient roads can be constructed by
incorporating proper design, better construction standard and use of vegetations.
The application of bio-engineering techniques alone or in combination with civil
engineering techniques is the most effective method of roadside slope protection on
mountain roads. Bio-engineering techniques have shown to be reliable and cost-effective
for slope protection and landslide management in the road sector of Nepal. The use of bio-
engineering techniques has improved the roadside environment reducing maintenance
costs. Extensive use of bio-engineering can reduce disaster, protect biodiversity and
improve watershed management.

REFERENCES

1. ADB. 2009. Proposed Asian Development Fund Grant Nepal: Emergency Flood Damage Rehabilitation
Project, Manila
2. Coppin, N. J. and Richards, I. G., 1990 (eds). Use of Vegetation in Civil Engineering. CIRIA, London
3. Deoja, B B, Dhital, M R, Thapa, B and Wagner, A. 1991. Mountain risk engineering handbook.
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu.
4. Howell, J H. (1999). Roadside Bio-engineering Hand Book. Geo-Environment Unit, Department of
Roads, Kathmandu
5. Howell, J H. 1999. Roadside Bio-engineering: Reference Manual. Department of Roads, Kathmandu.

6. Morgan, R P C and Rickson, R J (eds). 1995. Slope Stabilization and Erosion Control: a Bio-engineering
Approach. London: E & F N Spon.

7. Schiechtl, H M, and Stern, R. 1996. Ground Bio-engineering Techniques. Blackwell Science, Oxford.

8. United Nations. 2015. Global Assessment Report 2015 Data.

http://www.preventionweb.net/english/hyogo/gar/2015/en/profiles/GAR_Profile_NPL.pdf

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