Dangerous Goods

Classes, divisions, packing groups

Definitions
Substances (including mixtures and solutions) and articles
subject to the provisions of this Code are assigned to one of
the classes 1 -9 according to the hazard or the most
predominant of the hazards they present. Some of these
classes are subdivided into divisions. These classes or
divisions are as listed below:
Class 1: Explosives
Division 1.1: substances and articles, which have a mass
explosion hazard
Division 1.2: substances and articles, which have a
projection, hazard but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.3: substances and articles, which have a fire
hazard and either a minor blast hazard or a minor
projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard
Division 1.4: substances and articles, which present no
significant hazard
Division 1.5: very insensitive substances, which have a
mass explosion hazard
Division 1.6: extremely insensitive articles which do not
have a mass explosion hazard
Class 2: Gases
Class 2.1: flammable gases
Class 2.2: non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3: toxic gases

Class 3: Flammable liquids

Class 4: Flammable solids; substances liable to
spontaneous combustion; substances which, in contact
with water, emit flammable gases
Class 4.1: flammable solids, self-reactive substances and
desensitized explosives
Class 4.2: substances liable to spontaneous combustion
Class 4.3: substances, which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases
Class 5: Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1: oxidizing substances
Class 5.2: organic peroxides
Class 6: Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1: toxic substances -
Class 6.2: infectious substances
Class 7: Radioactive material
Class 8: Corrosive substances
Class 9: Miscellaneous dangerous substances and
articles
The numerical order of the classes and divisions is not that
of the degree of danger.

Marking, labelling and placarding

Packages containing dangerous goods shall be durably
marked with the correct technical name; trade names alone
shall not be used.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be provided
with distinctive labels or stencils of the labels, or placards,
as appropriate, so as to make clear the dangerous
properties of the goods contained therein.
The method of marking the correct technical name and of
affixing labels or applying stencils of labels, or of affixing
placards on packages containing dangerous goods, shall be
such that this information will still be identifiable on
packages surviving at least three months’ immersion in the
sea. In considering suitable marking, labelling and
placarding methods, account shall be taken of the
durability of the materials used and of the surface of the
package.
Packages containing dangerous goods shall be so marked
and labeled except that:
.1 packages containing dangerous goods of a low degree of
hazard or packed in limited quantities or
.2 when special circumstances permit, packages that are
stowed and handled in units that are identified by labels or
placards; may be exempted from labelling requirements.
General information prior loading/ discharging
The duty officer entrusted with the loading of the
dangerous goods should have all the relevant data
regarding the dangerous goods that would be loaded, these
would include:
Copy of the document from the shipper regarding the cargo
Classification of the DG
Quantity to be loaded
Proposed stowage
Type of packages
Shipping name – that is the correct technical name
Segregation required from other cargo as well as from other
DG
MFAG and EmS requirement for the safe handling of the
cargo
Any fire hazard as per IMDG
Any temperature/ wetness restriction for the loading of the
cargo
UN Numbers and Proper Shipping Names
Dangerous goods are assigned to UN Numbers and Proper
Shipping Names according to their hazard classification
and their composition.
Dangerous goods commonly transported are listed in the
Dangerous Goods List. Where an article or substance is
specifically listed by name, it should be identified in
transport by the Proper Shipping Name in the Dangerous
Goods List. For dangerous goods not specifically listed by
name, “generic” or “not otherwise specified” entries are
provided to identify the article or substance in transport.
Each entry in the Dangerous Goods List is assigned a UN
Number. This list also contains relevant information for
each entry, such as hazard class, subsidiary risk(s) (if any),
packing group (where assigned), packing and tank
transport provisions, EmS, segregation and stowage,
properties and observations, etc.
Entries in the Dangerous Goods List are of the following
four types:
Single entries for well-defined substances or articles e.g.
UN 1090 acetone
UN 1194 ethyl nitrite solution
Generic entries for well-defined groups of substances or
articles e.g.
UN 1133 adhesives
UN 1266 perfumery product
Information on the special measures to be taken when
a certain dangerous cargo is handled
Additionally the chief officer should have attached relevant
extracts from the IMDG code in particular all the
emergencies that could arise with the handling of the
cargo. Also the emergency clean-up measures as well as
the first aid requirement as per the EmS (Emergency
Schedule of the IMDG) and MFAG.
Any special precautions mention as per the Dangerous List
should be extracted. Compatibility risks should be
ascertained.
For example if the following cargo (class 3) is to be loaded,
then:
Stowage of goods of class 3
The vapours from all substances of class 3 have a narcotic
effect, and prolonged inhalation may result in
unconsciousness. Deep or prolonged narcosis may lead to
death.
Class 3 substances should be stowed as indicated in the
Dangerous Goods List. However, substances with a
flashpoint of 23˚C (c.c). or less packaged in jerricans,
plastics (3Hl, 3H2), drums, plastics (lHl,lH2) and plastics
receptacles in a plastic drum (6HH1,6HH2)should be
stowed on, deck only unless packed in a closed cargo
transport unit.
The substances of this class should be kept as cool as
reasonably practicable during transit. They should, in
general, be stowed “away from” all possible sources of heat.
Adequate precautions should be taken to protect the
flammable liquids from heat emanating from bulkheads or
other sources. Ventilation should be provided which
should effectively remove flammable vapours from the
cargo space.
Adequate measures should be taken to prevent the
penetration of leaking liquid or vapour into any other part
of the ship. Vapours may not necessarily be lighter than
air and may sink to the lower levels of a cargo space where
they may be accidentally ignited and a “flashback” to the
flammable liquids may occur.
Whenever flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 23˚C c.c.
or less are transported in portable tanks, the stowage
should be such that leaking vapours are unlikely to
penetrate the accommodation, machinery spaces and other
work areas via entrances or other openings in bulkheads or
through ventilation ducts.
Where it is deemed necessary for a substance of this class
to be stowed “clear of living quarters”, it is included in the
Dangerous Goods List.
On ships carrying passengers, substances in this class
should be stowed well away from any deck or spaces
provided for the use of passengers. When such substances
are transported on board roll-on/roll-off ships, see chapter
7.4.
End extract

Reporting of incidents involving dangerous goods

When an incident takes place involving the loss or likely
loss overboard of packaged dangerous goods into the sea,
the master, or other person having charge of the ship, shall
report the particulars of such an incident without delay
and to the fullest extent possible to the nearest coastal
State. The report shall be based on the guidelines and
general principles adopted by IMO for dangerous goods,
harmful substances and/or marine pollutants.
In the event of the ship referred to in paragraph 1 being
abandoned, or in the event of a report from such a ship
being incomplete or unobtainable, the owner, charterer,
manager or operator of the ship, or their agents shall, to
the fullest extent possible, assume the obligations placed
upon the master by this regulation.
The duty officer when he discovers an incident or accident
has to immediately raise the alarm and inform the Master
regarding the same. The crew on deck should be the first to
renders assistance as well as start the clean up operations
as well as try to minimise the incident under the
supervision of the duty officer as per the guidelines laid
down for that cargo as per the IMDG code and the
Dangerous cargo list.
Actions to be taken
All actions after an accident are to be as per the following
documents – which have detailed instructions for all types
of emergencies.
The following gives a basic layout of a rescue scenario.
The IMO/WHO/ILO Medical First Aid Guide for Use in
Accidents Involving Dangerous Goods (MFAG) is the
Chemicals Supplement to the International Medical Guide
for Ships (IMGS), which is published by the World Health
Organization (WHO), Geneva.
The Maritime Safety Committee adopted this revised text of
the Guide in May 1998, for use in association with
Amendment 30-00 of the IMDG Code, and will be further
amended as and when, necessary.
Table 1
RESCUE
Rescuers must be adequately protected from exposure
before entering a contaminated area in order to avoid
injury.
When a chemical is unidentified, worst-case assumptions
concerning toxicity must be assumed.
ARRIVAL AT SCENE
Upon arrival at the scene, an initial assessment of the
situation should be made and the size of the incident
should be determined.
Rescuers must NOT:
Enter a contaminated area without using a pressure-
demand self-contained breathing apparatus and wearing
full protective clothing;
Enter an enclosed space unless they are trained members
of a rescue team and follow correct procedures;
Walk through any spilled materials;
Allow unnecessary contamination of equipment;
Attempt to recover shipping papers or manifests from
contaminated area unless adequately protected;
Become exposed while approaching a potentially
contaminated area;
Attempt rescue unless trained and equipped with
appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) and
protective clothing for the situation.
QUICKLY ESTABLISH AN EXCLUSION OR HOT ZONE
Assume that anyone leaving the exclusion zone is
contaminated and should be assessed and
decontaminated, if necessary.
Do not remove non-ambulatory casualties from the
exclusion zone unless properly trained personnel with the
appropriate PPE are available and decontamination has
been accomplished.
INITIAL TRIAGE OF CASUALTIES (SORTING AND
PRIORITY)
One unconscious casualty
Give immediate treatment to the unconscious casualty
only, and
Send for help.
Several unconscious casualties
If there is more than one unconscious casualty:
Send for help, and
Give appropriate treatment to the worst casualty in the
priority order of:
Casualties who have stopped breathing or have no pulse
(see Table 2).
Casualties who ARE UNCONCIOUS (see Table 4).
Casualty is unconscious but breathing
If the casualty is unconscious or cyanotic (bluish skin) but
breathing, connect to portable oxygen.
Neck or back trauma
Apply neck and back support before moving casualty if
there is any question of neck or back trauma.
Priority. Airway, Breathing, Circulation (A-B-C)
Initial management of Airway, Breathing and Circulation
(A-B-C, see table 2) is all that should be undertaken while
there is potential for further injury to the casualty or to
response personnel.
Gross decontamination
If the casualty is contaminated with chemicals, gross
decontamination should be performed.
Cut away or remove all suspected contaminated clothing,
including jewellery and watches.
Brush or wipe off any obvious contamination.
Care should be taken to protect open wounds from
contamination.
Every effort should be made by personnel to avoid contact
with potentially contaminated casualties. Rescuers should
wear protective clothing, if necessary.
Cover or wrap casualty to prevent spread of contamination.
Removal of casualties from exclusion zone
Once gross decontamination has been performed, the
casualties should be removed from the exclusion zone.
If casualties can walk, lead them out of the exclusion zone
to an area where decontamination and further evaluation
can take place.
If casualties are unable to walk, remove them on
stretchers. If stretchers are unavailable, carefully carry or
drag casualties to an area where decontamination and
further evaluation can take place.
DECONTAMINATION
Decontaminate from head down
Take care not to introduce contaminants into open
wounds.
Decontaminate exposed wounds and eyes before intact skin
areas.
Cover wounds with a waterproof dressing after
decontamination.

For external contamination, begin with the least aggressive

methods
Limit mechanical or chemical irritation of the skin.
Wash contaminated area gently under a stream of water for
at least ten minutes, and wash carefully with soap and
warm (never hot) water, scrubbing with a soft brush or
surgical sponge.
Reduce level of contaminants
Remove contaminants to the level that they are no longer a
threat to casualty or response personnel.
Isolate the casualty from the environment to prevent the
spread of any remaining contaminants. Contain runoff; bag
contaminated clothing
If possible, contain all runoff from decontamination
procedures for proper disposal.
Ensure that all potentially contaminated casualty clothing
and belongings have been removed and placed in properly
labelled bags.
SUMMARY OF TREATMENT OF CASUALTIES
Assign highest priorities to Airway, Breathing, Circulation
(ABC) and then decontamination.
Complete primary and secondary assessments as
conditions allow.
Obtain information on chemicals to which the casualty has
been exposed from shipping papers, labels or other
documents.
If there are multiple casualties, direct attention to the most
seriously affected individuals first.
Treat symptoms and signs as appropriate and when
conditions allow.
Obtain RADIO MEDICAL ADVICE when conditions allow.
Perform invasive procedures only in uncontaminated areas.
Reassess the casualty frequently, because many chemicals
have latent physiological effects.
Delay preventive measures until the casualty is
decontaminated.
TRANSFER TO SHIP’S HOSPITAL
Casualties who have been stabilized (airway, breathing and
circulation) and decontaminated can be transported to the
ship’s hospital for further evaluation.
Further advice: see IMDG appendix 1
Packing requirements as per the Dangerous Goods List
of the IMDG Code
Structure of the Dangerous Goods List.
The Dangerous Goods List is divided into 18 columns.
Among them the packing requirements are specified in
column 8 and in column 9
Column 8 Packing Instructions: This column contains
alpha – numeric codes, which refer to the relevant packing
instructions. The packing instructions indicate the
packagings (including large packagings) which may be used
for the transport of substances and articles.
A code including the letter ‘P’ refers to packing instructions
for the use of packagings described in IMDG Chapters –
6.1, 6.2 or 6.3
A code including the letter ‘LP’ refers to packing
instructions for the use of large packagings described in
IMDG Chapters – 6.6
A code including the letter ‘BP’ refers to the bulk
packagings described in IMDG Chapters – 4.3
When a code including the letters ‘P’, ‘LP’ or ‘BP’ is not
provided, it means that the substance is not allowed in that
type of packaging.
When ‘N/R’ is included in this column, it means that the
substance or article need not be packaged.
Column 9 Special packing provisions: This column
contains alphanumeric codes, which refer to the relevant
special packing provisions specified in 4.1.4. The special
packing provisions indicate the packagings (including large
packagings).
A special packing provisions including the letters ‘PP’ refers
to a special packing provision applicable to the use of a
packing instruction bearing the code ‘P’ in 4.1.4.1
A special packing provision including the letter ‘L’ refers to
a special packing provision applicable to a packing
instruction bearing the code ‘LP’ in 4.1.4.3

Reporting if the suitability and integrity of packages is

found to be suspect
Documents
In all documents relating to the carriage of dangerous
goods by sea where the goods are named, the correct
technical name of the goods shall be used (trade names
alone shall not be used) and the correct description given
in accordance with the classification.
The shipping documents prepared by the shipper shall
include, or be accompanied by, a signed certificate or
declaration that the shipment offered for carriage is
properly packaged and marked, labelled or placarded, as
appropriate, and in proper condition for carriage.

The persons responsible for the packing of dangerous

goods in a freight container or road vehicle shall provide a
signed container packing certificate or vehicle packing
declaration stating that the cargo in the unit has been
properly packed and secured and that all applicable
transport requirements have been met. Such a certificate
or declaration may be combined with the document above.
Where there is due cause to suspect that a freight
container or road vehicle in which dangerous goods are
packed is not in compliance with the requirements, or
where a container-packing certificate or vehicle packing
declaration is not available, the freight container or vehicle
shall not be accepted for shipment.
Each ship carrying dangerous goods shall have a special
list or manifest setting forth, in accordance with the
classification, the dangerous goods on board and the
location thereof. A detailed stowage plan, which identifies
by class and sets out the location of all dangerous goods on
board, may be used in place of such a special list or
manifest. A copy of one of these documents shall be made
available before departure to the person or organization
designated by the port State authority.
Cargo transport units, including freight containers, shall be
loaded, stowed and secured throughout the voyage in
accordance with the Cargo Securing Manual approved by
the Administration. The Cargo Securing Manual shall be
drawn up to a standard at least equivalent to the
guidelines developed by the IMO.
The above are as per SOLAS. If the duty officer feels that
there is some discrepancy between the document
submitted and the markings on the cargo, he is to stop
loading and inform the Master.
If the packaging is suspect or if the duty officer feels that
the packaging looks worn out or is not sufficient then again
he is to stop the loading and inform the Master.
General fire precautions
The prevention of fire in a cargo of dangerous goods is
achieved by practicing good seamanship, observing in
particular the following precautions:
I. keep combustible material away from ignition
sources;
 II. protect a flammable substance by adequate
packing;
III. reject damaged or leaking packages;
IV. stow packages protected from-accidental
damage or heating;
V. segregate packages from substances liable to
start or spread fire;
VI. where appropriate and practicable, stow
dangerous goods in an accessible position so that
packages in the vicinity of a fire may be protected;
VII. enforce prohibition of smoking in dangerous
areas and display clearly recognizable “NO SMOKING”
notices or signs; and
VIII. the dangers from short-circuits, earth leakages
or sparking will be apparent. Lighting and power
cables, and fittings should be maintained in good
condition. Cables or equipment found to be unsafe
should be disconnected. Where a bulkhead is
required to be suitable for segregation purposes,
cables and conduit penetrations of the decks and
bulkheads should be sealed against the passage of gas
and vapours. When stowing dangerous goods on deck,
the position and design of auxiliary machinery,
electrical equipment and cable runs should be
considered in order to avoid sources of ignition.
Fire precautions applying to individual classes, and where
necessary to individual substances, are recommended in
following paragraphs and in the Dangerous Goods List.
Special fire precautions for class 1
The greatest risk in the handling and transport of goods of
class 1 is that of fire from a source external to the goods,
and it is vital that any fire should be detected and
extinguished before it can reach such
goods. Consequently, it is essential that fire precautions,
fire-fighting measures and equipment should be of a high
standard and ready for immediate application and use.
Compartments containing goods of class 1 and adjacent
cargo spaces should be provided with a fire detection
system. If such spaces are not protected by a fixed fire-
extinguishing system, they should be accessible for fire-
fighting operations.
No repair work should be carried out in a compartment
containing goods of class 1. Special care should be
exercised in carrying out repairs in any adjacent space. No
welding, burning, cutting, or riveting operations involving
the use of fire, flame, spark, or arc-producing equipment
should be carried out in any space other than machinery
spaces and workshops where fire-extinguishing
arrangements are available, except in any emergency and,
if in port, with prior authorization of the port authority,
Special fire precautions for class 2
Effective ventilation should be provided to remove any
leakage of gas from within the cargo space or spaces,
bearing in mind that some gases are heavier than air and
may accumulate in dangerous concentrations in the lower
part of the ship.
Measures should be taken to prevent leaking gases from
penetrating into any other part of the ship.
If there is any reason to suspect leakage of a gas, entry into
cargo spaces or other enclosed spaces should not be
permitted until the master or responsible officer has taken
all safety considerations into account and is satisfied that
it is safe to do so. Emergency entry under other
circumstances should only be undertaken by trained crew
wearing self-contained breathing apparatus, and protective
clothing when recommended, and always under the
supervision of a responsible officer.
Leakage from receptacles containing flammable gases may
give rise to explosive mixtures with air. Such mixtures, if
ignited, may result in explosion and fire.
Special fire precautions for class 3
Flammable liquids give off flammable vapours which,
especially in an enclosed space, form explosive mixtures
with air. Such vapours, if ignited, may cause a “flashback”
to the place in which the substances are stowed. Due
regard should be paid to the provision of adequate
ventilation to prevent accumulation of vapours.
Special fire precautions and fire fighting for class 7
The radioactive contents of Excepted, Industrial, and Type
A packages are so restricted that, in the event of an
accident and damage to the package, there is a high
probability that any material released, or shielding
efficiency lost, would not give rise to such radiological
hazard as to hamper fire-fighting or rescue operations.
Type B (U) packages, Type B (M) packages and Type C
packages are designed to be strong enough to withstand
severe fire without significant loss of contents or dangerous
loss of radiation shielding.
Precautions while loading discharging explosives
Following are the emergency schedule1-01 with respect to
explosives under Class 1 Division 1.1
Primary hazard: Explosive substances and articles, which
may detonate all at once in a fire
Associated hazards: Heavy debris and high speed
fragments; possibility of the formation and escape of toxic
fumes.
Special Emergency equipment to be available: Protective
clothing – gloves, fire resistant coveralls, fire mans helmet
with visors
SCBA
Non sparking footwear
Soft brushes and plastic trays – to pick up spillage
Emergency procedures:
Wear non sparking footwear when dealing with spillage.
Use SCBA and protective clothing when dealing with a
spillage of materials having a subsidiary class 6.1 and or 8
label. Avoid sources of ignition – naked lights, unprotected
light bulbs, electric hand tools, mechanical shock and
friction.
Use SCBA and protective clothing when dealing with fire.
Understanding the nature of the precautions that have
been laid down under the EmS (Emergency Schedule) it is
important to note that all the above precautions need to be
taken.
Regarding whether water is to be kept available with a
charged hose, is debatable as far as the cargo is concerned
– however the likelihood of other non IMDG cargo catching
fire does remain as such for the other cargo the fire mains
may be utilized.
Water if warranted by the IMDG code for the particular
cargo may be used else it should not be used unless
shipper says it is OK to use water or to cover spillage on
deck with water.
Additionally fire extinguishers – CO2 systems should be
kept in readiness.
The ship generally loads this type of cargo last – some ports
have special anchorages or berths where such cargo is
loaded, thus it is necessary to have the ship ready to leave
berth in case of any fire. As such prior loading the ship
should be ready to sail at a short notice.
Segregating of dangerous goods
Segregation
General
The provisions of this chapter should apply to all cargo
spaces on deck or under deck of all types of ships and to
cargo transport units.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea
(SOLAS), 1974, as amended, requires in regulation 6.1 of
part A of chapter VII that incompatible goods should be
segregated from one another.
For the implementation of this requirement, two
substances or articles are considered mutually
incompatible when their stowage together may result in
undue hazards in case of leakage or spillage, or any other
accident.
The extent of the hazard arising from possible reactions
between incompatible dangerous goods may vary and so
the segregation arrangements required should also vary as
appropriate. Such segregation is obtained by maintaining
certain distances between incompatible dangerous goods or
by requiring the presence of one or more steel bulkheads or
decks between them, or a combination thereof. Intervening
spaces between such dangerous goods may be filled with
other cargo compatible with the dangerous substances in
question.
The following segregation terms are used throughout this
Code:
“Away from”;
“Separated from”;
“Separated by a complete compartment or hold from”;
“Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete
compartment or hold from”.
The general provisions for segregation between the various
classes of dangerous goods are shown in the
segregation table”.
In addition to the general provisions, there may be a need
to segregate a particular substance, material or article from
other goods, which could contribute to its
hazard. Particular provisions for segregation are indicated
in the Dangerous Goods List and, in the case of conflicting
provisions, always take precedence over the general
provisions.
For example:
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for ACETYLENE,
DISSOLVED, class 2.1, UN 1001, the following particular
segregation requirement is specified:
“separated from” chlorine
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BARIUM CYANIDE,
class 6.1, UN 1565, the following particular
segregation is specified:
“separated from” acids
Where the Code indicates a single secondary hazard (one
subsidiary risk label), the segregation provisions applicable
to that hazard should take precedence where they are more
stringent than those of the primary hazard.
Except for class 1, the segregation provisions for
substances, materials or articles having more than two
hazards (2 or more subsidiary risk labels) are given in the
Dangerous Goods List.
In the Dangerous Goods List entry for BROMINE
CHLORIDE, class 2.3, UN 2901, subsidiary risks 5.1 and 8,
the following particular segregation is specified:
“segregation” as for class 5.1 but “separated from” class 7”.
Segregation of packages
Applicability
The provisions of this subsection apply to the segregation
of:
packages containing dangerous goods and stowed in the
conventional way;
dangerous goods within cargo transport units; and
dangerous goods stowed in the conventional way from
those packed in such cargo transport units.
Segregation of packages containing dangerous goods and
stowed in the conventional way
Definitions of the segregation terms Legend
Reference package - BLUE
Package containing incompatible goods - RED
Deck resistant to fire and liquid – BOLD LINE
NOTE. Full vertical lines represent transverse bulkheads
between cargo spaces (compartments or holds) resistant to
fire and liquid.

Away from:
Effectively segregated so that the incompatible goods
cannot interact dangerously in the event of an accident but
may be transported in the same compartment or hold or on
deck, provided a minimum horizontal separation of 3
metres, projected vertically, is obtained.

Separated from:
In different compartments or holds when stowed under
deck. Provided the intervening deck is resistant to fire and
liquid, a vertical separation i.e. in different compartments,
may be accepted as equivalent to this segregation. For on
deck stowage, this segregation means a separation by a
distance of sit least 6 metres horizontally.
Separated by a complete compartment or hold from:
Either a vertical or a horizontal separation. If the
intervening decks are not resistant to fire and
liquid, then only a longitudinal separation, i.e. by an
intervening complete compartment or hold, is acceptable.
For on deck stowage, this segregation means a separation
by a distance of at least 12 metres horizontally. The same
distance has to be applied if one package is stowed on deck
and the other one in an upper compartment.
Note: One of the two decks must be resistant to fire
and to liquid.
Separated longitudinally by an intervening complete
compartment or hold from:
Vertical separation alone does not meet this requirement.
Between a package under deck and one on deck, a
minimum distance of 24 metres, including a complete
compartment, must be maintained longitudinally. For on
deck stowage, this segregation means a separation by a
distance of at least 24 metres longitudinally.

Containment covered by the term “packaged form”

Chapter 4.1 describes the different types of packaging for

use with goods under the IMDG code.
Definitions
Effectively closed: liquid-tight closure.
Hermetically sealed: vapour-tight closure.
Securely closed: so closed that dry contents cannot escape
during normal handling; the minimum provisions for any
closure.
General provisions for the packing of dangerous goods,
other than goods of classes 2, 6.2 or 7, in packagings,
including Intermediate Bulk Containers (IBCs) and large
packagings
Dangerous goods should be packed in good quality
packagings, including IBCs and large packagings, which
should be strong enough to withstand the shocks and
loadings normally encountered during transport, including
trans-shipment between cargo transport units and/or
warehouses as well as any removal from a pallet or
overpack for subsequent manual or mechanical
handling. Packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, should be constructed and closed so as to
prevent any loss of contents when prepared for transport,
which might be caused under normal conditions of
transport, by vibration, or by changes in temperature,
humidity or pressure (resulting from altitude, for
example). No dangerous residue should adhere to the
outside of packages, IBCs and large packagings during
transport. These provisions apply, as appropriate, to new,
re-used, reconditioned or remanufactured packagings and
to new and re-used IBCs and large packagings.
Parts of packagings, including IBCs and large packagings,
which are in direct contact with dangerous goods:
.1 should not be affected or significantly weakened by those
dangerous goods; and
.2 should not cause a dangerous effect, such as catalyzing
a reaction or reacting with the dangerous goods.
Where necessary, they should be provided with a suitable
inner coating or treatment.
Unless provided elsewhere in this Code, each packaging,
including IBCs and large packagings, except inner
packagings, should conform to a design type successfully
tested in accordance with the provisions in the IMDG code.
When filling packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, with liquids, sufficient ullage (outage) should
be left to ensure that neither leakage nor permanent
distortion of the packaging occurs as a result of an
expansion of the liquid caused by temperatures likely to
occur during transport. Unless specific provisions are
prescribed, liquids should not completely fill a packaging at
a temperature of 55˚C. However, sufficient ullage should
be left in an IBC to ensure that at the mean bulk
temperature of 50˚C it is not filled to more than 98% of its
water capacity.
Inner packagings should be packed in an outer packaging
in such a way that, under normal conditions of transport,
they cannot break, be punctured or leak their contents into
the outer packaging. Inner packagings that are liable to
break or be punctured easily, such as those made of glass,
porcelain or stoneware or of certain plastics, materials,
etc., should be secured in outer packagings with suitable
cushioning material. Any leakage of the contents should
not substantially impair the protective properties of the
cushioning material or of the outer packaging.
Cushioning and absorbent material should be inert and
suited to the nature of the contents.
The nature and the thickness of the outer packagings
should be such that friction during transport does not
generate any heating likely to alter dangerously the
chemical stability of the contents.
Dangerous goods should not be packed together in the
same outer packaging, or in large packagings, with
dangerous or other goods if they react dangerously with
each other and cause:
.1 combustion and/or evolution of considerable heat;
.2 evolution of flammable, toxic or asphyxiant gases;
.3 the formation of corrosive substances; or
.4 the formation of unstable substances.
Unless otherwise specified in the Dangerous Goods List,
packages containing substances should be hermetically
sealed:
.1 evolve flammable gases or vapour;
.2 may become explosive if allowed to dry;
.3 evolve toxic gases or vapour;
.4 evolve corrosive gases or vapour; or
.5 may react dangerously with the atmosphere.
Liquids may only be filled into inner packagings which
have an appropriate resistance to internal pressure that
may be developed under normal conditions of
transport. Where pressure may develop in a package by
the emission of gas from the contents (as a result of
temperature increase or other cause), the packaging may
be fitted with a vent, provided that the gas emitted will not
cause danger on account of its toxicity, its flammability,
the quantity released, etc. The vent should be so designed
that, when the packaging is in the attitude in which it is
intended to be transported, leakages of liquid and the
penetration of foreign matter are prevented under normal
conditions of transport.
New, remanufactured or re-used packagings, including
IBCs and large packagings, or reconditioned packagings
and repaired IBCs should be capable of passing the tests
prescribed in IMDG code. Before being filled and handed
over for transport, every packaging, including IBCs and
large packagings, should be inspected to ensure that it is
free from corrosion, contamination or other damage and
every IBC should be inspected with regard to the proper
functioning of any service equipment. Any packaging
which shows signs of reduced strength as compared with
the approved design type should no longer be used or
should be so reconditioned that it is able to withstand the
design type tests. Any IBC which shows signs of reduced
strength as compared with the tested design type should
no longer be used or should be so repaired that it is able to
withstand the design type tests.

Empty packagings, including IBCs and large packagings,

that have contained a dangerous substance should be
treated in the same manner as is required by this Code for
a filled packaging, unless adequate measures have been
taken to nullify any hazard.
Every packaging, including IBCS, intended to contain
liquids should successfully undergo a suitable leak
proofness test, and be capable of meeting the appropriate
test level indicated in IMDG code for the various types of
IBCs:
.1 before it is first used for transport;
.2 after remanufacturing or reconditioning of any
packaging, before it is re-used for transport;
.3 after the repair of any IBC, before it is re-used for
transport.
For this test, the packaging, or IBC, need not have its
closures fitted. The inner receptacle of a composite
packaging or IBC may be tested without the outer
packaging, provided the test results are not affected. This
test is not necessary for inner packagings of combination
packagings or large packagings.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for solids which may
become liquid at temperatures likely to be encountered
during transport should also be capable of containing the
substance in the liquid state.
Packagings, including IBCS, used for powdery or granular
substances should be sift-proof or should be provided with
a liner.
Explosives, self-reactive substances and organic
peroxides
Unless specific provision to the contrary is made in this
Code, the packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, used for goods of class 1, self-reactive
substances of class 4.1 and organic peroxides of class 5.2
should comply with the provisions for the medium danger
group (packing group 11).
Use of salvage packagings
Damaged, defective or leaking packages or dangerous
goods that have spilled or leaked may be transported in
special salvage packagings. This does not prevent- the use
of a bigger size of packagings of appropriate type and
performance level.
During transport, packagings, including IBCs and large
packagings, should be securely fastened to or contained
within the cargo transport unit, so that lateral or
longitudinal movement or impact is prevented and
adequate external support is provided.

Additional general provisions for the use of IBCs

When IBCs are used for the transport of liquids with a
flashpoint of 61˚C (closed cup) or lower, or of powders liable
to dust explosion, measures should be taken to prevent a
dangerous electrostatic discharge.
For rigid plastics IBCs and composite IBCs with plastics
inner receptacles, unless otherwise approved by the
competent authority, the period of use permitted for the
transport of dangerous liquids should be five years from
the date of manufacture of the receptacle except where a
shorter period of use is prescribed because of the nature of
the liquid to be transported.
General provisions concerning packing instructions
Packing instructions applicable to dangerous goods of
classes 1 to 9 are specified in chapter 4.1. They are
subdivided in three sub-sections depending on the type of
packagings to which they apply:
sub-section 4.1.4.1 for packagings other than IBCs and
large packagings: these packing instructions are
designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the letter
“P”;
sub-section 4.1.4.2 for IBCS; these are designated by
an alphanumeric code comprising the letters “IBC”;
sub-section 4.1.4.3 for large packagings; these are
designated by an alphanumeric code comprising the letters
“LP”.
Special packing provisions may also be specified in the
packing instruction for individual substances or
articles. They are also designated by an alphanumeric
code comprising the letters:

“PP” for packagings other than IBCs and large

packagings
“B” for IBCs
“L” for large packagings.
Column 8 of the Dangerous Goods List shows for each
article or substance the packing instructions) that should
be used. Column 9 indicates the special packing
provisions applicable to specific substances or articles.
Each packing instruction shows, where applicable, the
acceptable single and combination packagings. For
combination packagings, the acceptable outer packagings,
inner packagings and, when applicable, the maximum
quantity permitted in each inner or outer packaging are
shown. Maximum net mass and maximum capacity are as
defined in chapter 1.2.1.
Where the packing instructions in this chapter authorize
the use of a particular type of outer packaging in a
combination packaging (such as 4G), packagings bearing
the same packaging identification code followed by the
letters “V”, “U” or “W” marked in accordance with the
provisions of part 6 (such as “4GV”, “4GU” or “4GW”) may
also be used under the same conditions and limitations
applicable to the use of that type of outer packaging
according to the relevant packing instructions. For
example, a combination packaging marked with the
packaging code “4GV” may be used whenever a
combination packaging marked “4G” is authorized,
provided the provisions in the relevant packing instruction
regarding types of inner packagings and quantity
limitations are respected.
The capacity of gas cylinders should not exceed 450 litres.
The capacity for gas receptacles should not exceed 1000
litres.
Bulk Cargo (Grain)

Loading and Stowage of Bulk Grain

Before loading bulk the following preparations should be
done:
Holds and tween deck thoroughly swept down.
All dunnage removed from cargo spaces or stowed at one
and covered.
Bilges should be cleaned and sweetened
Bilges suctions should be tested
Tween deck scuppers should be covered with double weave
separation cloth, edges to be fixed with cement.
Any cracks between limber boards to be covered with
separation cloth nailed down to prevent the cargo from
going into the bilges.
All pipelines passing through the bilges should be tested
and any leaks discovered should be fixed – esp. fire mains,
water ballast lines and bilge pumping out lines.
After the holds are swept and if required hosed down, the
holds/ compartments are to be inspected for any
infestation.
The inspection should include all easily accessible areas
together with inaccessible areas including under the beams
and hatch pontoon frames. In case fumigation is carried
out prior loading then the compartment has to be swept
and again inspected for any dead insects and rodents. The
fumigant used should be compatible with the cargo to be
carried.
For loading of Rice the fumigation may be carried out twice
– prior loading and on completion of discharging.
The inspection for infestation should be very thorough
since apart from later claims, some ports especially in
the US, the USDA inspectors would have to clear the ship
for loading – and these inspectors are known to be very
thorough.
Shifting of cargo
Certain bulk cargos have a tendency to shift and
precautions must be taken to counteract this
tendency. These precautions are dealt with below:
Recommendation are made about the stowage of the cargo:
Weight = db (3L+B) tonnes
4.6
where d is the summer load draft
b is average breadth of lower hold
L is length of lower hold
B is the maximum moulded breadth
The height of the cargo pile peak should not exceed:
1.89 x d x S. F. (m3/tonne) metres

Angle of repose
This is the greatest angle from the horizontal to which a
substance can be raised without it shifting. Cargoes most
liable to shift are those having a small angler of repose.
Angle of repose of 35˚ is taken as being the dividing line for
bulk cargoes of lesser or greater shifting hazard and
cargoes having angles of repose of more or less than this
figure are considered separately.

Trimming
In compartments entirely filled with bulk grain the grain
shall be trimmed so as to fill all the spaces between the
beams and in the wings and ends. In compartments partly
filled with bulk grain the grain shall be levelled whenever
practicable.
The provision of a shifting boards or longitude bulkheads
within 5% of the vessel’s moulded breadth from the centre
line or two or more longitudinal bulkheads or shifting
boards with a distance between of not more than 60% of
the vessel’s moulded breadth. In the latter case suitable
sized trimming hatches are to be provided in the wings at
intervals of not more than 7.62m., the end hatches being
not more than 3.66m from transverse bulkheads.
In holds the shifting boards must extend downwards from
the deck at least 2. 44m or ½ depth of hold whichever is
the greater. In ‘tween decks and in feeders, unless there is
some exemption they must extend from deck to deck. If
the compartment is only partly filled with grain, the
shifting boards must extend from the bottom of the
compartment to at 0.6m above the surface of the bulk
grain, however no shifting boards are necessary if the bulk
grain does not occupy more than ½ of the hold or ½ of the
hold where there is a shaft tunnel.
The Shifting boards must not be less than 50mm in
thickness and are to have a 80mm housing at the
bulkhead. They must be adequately supported by wood
minimum size 250mm x 50mm or metal uprights with a
maximum spacing of 3.96mm and set in 80mm housings
top and bottom. The jointing of 50mm shifting boards
must overlap by at least 230mm in way of the uprights.
If the uprights are made sufficiently strong and the
length is not too great, shoring or staying may be
unnecessary. If wood shores are used they must be in a
single piece securely fixed at each end and heeled against
the permanent structure of the ship, but not directly
against the side plating. The angle between the shore and
the horizontal should be kept as small as possible and
must never exceed 45˚.
The size of the shore is dependent upon its length; a shore
over 6.1m in length would be at least 200m x 150mm. If
stays are used they will be fitted horizontally and will
consist of 75mm – 6 x 12 galvanised flexible steel wire rope,
secured with 25mm shackles to uprights and frames and
fitted with 32mm rigging screws in accessible positions.
If the uprights are not secured at the top, the uppermost
shore or stay is to be not less than 0.46m from the top.
The vertical spacing of the shores or stays is obtained from
tables in the rules.
GM
If a GM after correction for FSC of not less than 0.31m is
maintained throughout the voyage in one or two deck ships
or 0.36m in other ships longitudinal bulkheads or shifting
boards are not required in the following positions, (except
when linseed in bulk is being carried therein)
Below and within 2.13m of a feeder which contains not less
than 5% of the quantity of grain in the space it feeds, but
only in way a hatchway,
In feeders as above provided that the free grain surface will
remain within the feeders throughout the voyage allowing
for a sinkage of 2% of the volume of the compartment fed
and a shift of the free grain surface to 12˚,
In way of the hatchway where the bulk grain has been
saucered, provided that the hatchway is filled with bagged
grain or other suitable bagged cargo. The minimum depth
of the bagged cargo in the centre of the saucer to be 1.83m
below the deck level. The grains to be stored tightly up to
the deck head in the other parts of the compartment,
In way of a hatchway in a compartment partly filled with
bulk grain.

The surface of grain in a partly filled compartment is to be

saucered with a minimum height of 1.52m of bagged grain
or other suitable cargo over the portion where there are no
shifting boards and 1.22m where there are shifting boards.
This latter height is also required when the bulk grain does
not occupy more than 1/3 of the hold or ½ of the hold
where there is a shaft tunnel.

The bagged grain shall be carried in sound bags, which

shall be securely closed and well filled. The bags or other
suitable cargo shall be supported on suitable platforms
which consist of strong separation cloths with adequate
overlapping or 25mm boards spaced not more that 100mm
apart laid on bearers not more than 1.22m apart.
Feeders are to be fitted to feed compartments entirely filled
with bulk grain, except in deep tanks not over ½ moulded
breadth of vessel in case ‘GM c’ above.
They are to contain not less than 2% of the quantity of
grain carried in the compartment, which they feed. The
boarding may be horizontal or vertical but must be
sufficiently supported by binders, shores or stays as laid
down in the rules. Feeding holes are to be provided about
0.61m apart in coamings, which extend more that 0.39m
below the deck. The diameter of the hole is 50mm or 88mm
depending on coaming depth. Feeders are assumed to be
capable of feeding a distance of 7.62m.

If any part of the compartment is more that 7.62m

(measured in a fore and aft line) from the nearest feeder,
the grain in the space beyond 7.62m is to be levelled off at
a depth of at least 1.83m below the deck and the space
above is to be filled with bagged grain or suitable cargo.
Loading two different cargoes in the same hold
Very occasionally, different types of grain are loaded into
the same hold. The heavier grain is loaded first and
trimmed level over the entire area of the hold. The surface
is covered with separation cloths/ canvas, allowing for
ample overlaps, at least 1m. The cloths are carried well up
the sides and ends of the compartment so that the next
grain loaded will force them against the plating between the
frames and stiffeners, it has to be ensured that adequate
leeway is allowed for the separation cloth being taken up
the sides and ends of the compartment, since the lower
cargo would settle down during the voyage and if this
leeway is not allowed for the cloth would exert a pull and
tear off from the side moorings. This would result in the
cargo being mixed.
The lighter grain should be loaded carefully at first to avoid
displacing the separation cloths. Once the lighter cargo has
been leveled off to a height of 0.5m all over the loading may
begin at the usual rate, care being taken to see that it is
constantly leveled by adjusting the loading chute inflow
direction.
When bulk grain is carried in the ‘tween deck of a two deck
ship or in the upper ‘tween deck of a ship having more
than two decks or above deck the following are to be
complied with:
Either the GM shall not be less than that specified in
paragraph ‘GM’ or the total quantity of bulk grain or other
cargo carried in the specified space shall not exceed 28%
by weight of the total cargo below the ‘tween deck.
Partly filled deck area in the above space is not to exceed
93m2,
The spaces which contain bulk grain are to be divided into
lengths of not more than 30.5m by transverse bulkheads,
or if not so divided the excess space – beyond 30.5m is to
be entirely filled with bagged grain or other suitable cargo.
Vessels having a GM less than that specified in paragraph
‘GM’ are not permitted to have more than two holds or
compartments partly filled with bulk grain wherein the
overstowing cargo does not fill the space to the deck head.
Feeders are not compartments and so they are exempted
from this requirement.
Double bottom tanks used to meet a stability requirement
are to be adequately subdivided longitudinally unless the
width of the tank at its ½ length does not exceed 60% of
the vessel’s moulded breadth.
A grain-loading plan may be supplied to certain ships,
which may then be exempted from some of the provisions
outlined above due to their special construction (such as
tanker and bulk carriers), which prevents shifting of the
bulk cargo. However, the resulting list of the vessel must
not exceed 5˚ if the grain settles by 2% and shifts to an
angle of 12˚ from its original position.
Bulk Cargo (Not Grain)

Bulk cargoes (other than grain)

The officer of the watch should know the pre-planned

loading procedure regarding quantities to be loaded in each
space, the order of deballasting tanks and shifting the
vessel under loading chutes. The procedure will have been
worked out to keep stresses within acceptable limits and to
finish with a satisfactory weight distribution and trim. The
officer of the watch should see that the plan is followed,
particularly at berths with only one loading chute, to avoid
over-stressing the ship.
Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk Cargoes BC Code is
intended to set a standard for the safe stowage and
carriage of solid bulk cargoes.
This Code is a recommended guide for ship owners,
shippers and masters and shall apply to all shipments of
bulk cargoes.
The list of products appearing in the Appendices of the BC
Code, however, is by no means exhaustive. Consequently,
before any bulk cargo is loaded, it is essential to ascertain
(normally from the shipper) the current physical and
chemical properties of the cargo, as required under SOLAS
Chapter VI.

General requirements
Before and during loading, transport and unloading of bulk
cargoes, all necessary safety precautions including any
regulations or requirements should be observed, including
the following:
1. Dangerous Bulk Material Regulations
2. Safe Working Practices Regulations
3. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMDG
Code)
4. Emergency Procedures For Ships Carrying Dangerous
Goods
5. Medical First Aid Guide for Use in Accidents Involving
Goods (MFAG)
6. IMO BC Code - Code of Safe Practice for Solid Bulk
Cargoes

Poisoning and asphyxiation hazards

Certain bulk cargoes are liable to oxidation, which in t urn
may result in oxygen depletion, emission of toxic fumes
and self-heating. Other bulk cargoes may not oxidize but
may emit toxic fumes.
It is important therefore that the shipper inform the master
before loading of the existence of any chemical hazards.
The master should refer to Appendix B of the BC Code and
take the necessary precautions, especially those pertaining
to ventilation.
Certain cargoes may emit toxic gases when wetted. In these
cases the ship should be provided with the appropriate gas
detection equipment.
A flammable gas detector is only suitable for testing the
explosive nature of gas mixtures.
Emergency entry into a cargo space should be undertaken
only by trained personnel wearing self-contained breathing
apparatus, and protective clothing if considered necessary,
always under the supervision of a responsible officer.
In the event of emergency entry into a cargo space, in
addition to the above requirement, spare self-contained
breathing apparatus, safety belts and safety lines should
be readily available.

Health hazard from dust

To minimize the chronic risks from exposure to the dust of
certain materials carried in bulk, a high standard of
personal hygiene for those exposed to the dust cannot be
too strongly emphasized. The precautions should include
not only the use of appropriate protective clothing and
barrier creams when needed but also adequate personal
washing especially before meals, and laundering of outer
clothing.

Flammable atmosphere
Dust created by certain cargoes may constitute an
explosion hazard, especially, during loading, unloading and
cleaning. This risk can be minimized at such times by
ensuring that ventilation is sufficient to prevent the
formation of a dustladen atmosphere and by hosing down
rather than sweeping.
CARGOES THAT MAY LIQUEFY (section 7 of the BC
Code)

Properties, characteristics and hazards

Cargoes that may liquefy include concentrates, certain
coals and other materials having similar physical
properties. Appendix A of the BC Code contains a list of
such cargoes, which generally consist of a mixture of small
particles in contrast with natural ores that include a
considerable percentage of large particles or lumps.

Section 5 of the BC Code - Trimming Procedures

At moisture content above that of the transportable
moisture limit, shift of cargo may occur as a result of
liquefaction.
The major purpose of the sections of this Code dealing with
these cargoes is to draw the attention of masters and
others to the latent risk of cargo shift, and to describe the
precautions deemed necessary to minimize this risk.
Such cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular
when loaded, but may contain sufficient moisture as to
become fluid under the stimulus of compaction and the
vibration that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one
side of the ship when it rolls one way, but not completely
return when it rolls the other. Thus, the ship sways
progressively until it reaches a dangerous heel and
capsizes.
To prevent subsequent shifting, and also to decrease the
effects of oxidation of material with a predisposition to
oxidize, these cargoes should be trimmed reasonably level
on completion of loading, irrespective of the angle of repose.

Amended Extract from SOLAS Chapter VI

Part B
Special provisions for bulk cargoes other than grain
Regulation 6
Acceptability for shipment
Concentrates or other cargoes which may liquefy shall only
be accepted for loading when the actual moisture content
of the cargo is less than its transportable moisture limit.
However, such concentrates and other cargoes may be
accepted for loading even when their moisture content
exceeds the above limit, provided that safety arrangements
to the satisfaction of the Administration are made to ensure
adequate stability in the case of cargo shifting and further
provided that the ship has adequate structural integrity.
Prior to loading a bulk cargo which is not a cargo classified
but which has chemical properties that may create a
potential hazard, special precautions for its safe carriage
shall be taken.
Regulation 7
Loading, unloading and stowage of bulk cargoes
To enable the master to prevent excessive stresses in the
ship’s structure, the ship shall be provided with a booklet,
which shall be written in a language with which the ship’s
officers responsible for cargo operations are familiar. The
booklet shall, as a minimum, include:
.1 stability data,
.2 ballasting and de-ballasting rates and capacities;
.3 maximum allowable load per unit surface area of the
tank top plating;
.4 maximum allowable load per hold;
.5 general loading and unloading instructions with regard
to the strength of the ship’s structure including any
limitations on the most adverse operating conditions
during loading, unloading, ballasting operations and the
voyage;
.6 any special restrictions such as limitations on the most
adverse operating conditions imposed by the
Administration or organization recognized by it, if
applicable; and
.7 where strength calculations are required, maximum
permissible forces and moments on the ship’s hull during
loading, unloading and the voyage.
Before a solid bulk cargo is loaded or unloaded, the master
and the terminal representative shall agree on a plan*
which shall ensure that the permissible forces and
moments on the ship are not exceeded during loading or
unloading, and shall include the sequence, quantity and
rate of loading or unloading, taking into consideration the
speed of loading or unloading, the number of pours and the
de-ballasting or ballasting capability of the ship. The plan
and any subsequent amendments thereto shall be lodged
with the appropriate authority of the port State.
Bulk cargoes shall be loaded and trimmed reasonably level,
as necessary, to the boundaries of the cargo space so as to
minimize the risk of shifting and to ensure that adequate
stability will be maintained throughout the voyage.
When bulk cargoes are carried in ‘tween-decks, the
hatchways of such ‘tween-decks shall be closed in those
cases where the loading information indicates an
unacceptable level of stress of the bottom structure if the
hatchways are left open. The cargo shall be trimmed
reasonably level and shall either extend from side to side or
be secured by additional longitudinal divisions of sufficient
strength. The safe load-carrying capacity of the ‘tween-
decks shall be observed to ensure that the deck-structure
is not overloaded.
The master and terminal representative shall ensure that
loading and unloading operations are conducted in
accordance with the agreed plan.
If during loading or unloading any of the limits of the ship
are exceeded or are likely to become so if the loading or
unloading continues, the master has the right to suspend
operation and the obligation to notify accordingly the
appropriate authority of the port State with which the plan
has been lodged. The master and the terminal
representative shall ensure that corrective action is taken.
When unloading cargo, the master and terminal
representative shall ensure that the unloading method does
not damage the ship’s structure.
The master shall ensure that ship’s personnel continuously
monitor cargo operations. Where possible, the ship’s
draught shall be checked regularly during loading or
unloading to confirm the tonnage figures supplied. Each
draught and tonnage observation shall be recorded in a
cargo logbook. If significant deviations from the agreed plan
are detected, cargo or ballast operations or both shall be
adjusted to ensure that the deviations are corrected.
At a moisture content above that of the transportable
moisture limit, shift of cargo may occur as a result of
liquefaction.
Many cargoes may appear to be relatively dry and granular
when loaded, but may contain sufficient moisture as to
become fluid under the stimulus of compaction and the
vibration that occurs during a voyage.
In the resulting viscous fluid state, cargo may flow to one
side of the ship when it rolls one way, but not completely
return when it rolls the other. Thus, the ship way
progressively reaches a dangerous heel and capsize.
Ships other than specialist suited ones shall carry only
those cargoes having a moisture content that is not in
excess of the transportable moisture limit as defined in this
Code.

Specially suited ships

Specially suited ships may carry concentrates having a
moisture content in excess of the transportable moisture
limit if the ship possesses a valid document of approval
from her administration, accompanied by such stability
information as her administration may require. The
document of approval must clearly state “For carriage of
concentrates having a moisture content in excess of the
transportable moisture limit”.
When concentrates are loaded that have a moisture content
in excess of the transportable moisture limit, the whole
surface area of each cargo space shall be trimmed level.
Cargoes having a moisture content in excess of the flow
moisture point shall not be carried in bulk.
Before loading, the shipper or his appointed agents shall
provide to the master and the port warden, if requested,
details, as appropriate, of the characteristics and
properties of any material constituting bulk cargo, such as
flow moisture point, stowage factor, moisture content,
angle of repose, chemical hazards, etc. so that any
necessary safety precautions can be put into effect.
To do this the shipper shall arrange, possibly in
consultation with the producers, for the cargo to be
properly sampled and tested. Furthermore, the shipper
should provide the ship’s master and the port warden, if
requested, with the appropriate certificates of test, as
applicable for a given cargo.
Before and during loading, auxiliary check tests of the
moisture content may be carried out using instruments
designed specifically for that purpose, such as the
“SPEEDY MOISTURE TESTER”. Tests conducted with this
instrument indicate a precision of ±1% compared with the
laboratory method, i.e., with a laboratory reading of 10%,
the “SPEEDY” reading could range from, 9% to 11%. If the
readings obtained by this method are consistently higher
than those shown on the certificate, loading of the cargo
should cease and a further laboratory test be conducted.
If the master has doubts as regards the appearance of
condition of the cargo for safe shipment, the following
auxiliary method may be used on board ship or at the
dockside to perform a check test for approximately
determining the possibility of flow:
Half fill a cylindrical can or similar container (0.5-1 litre
capacity) with a sample of cargo. Take the can in one hand
and bring it down sharply from a height of about 0.2m to
strike a hard surface such as a solid table. Repeat the
procedure twenty-five times at one or two second intervals.
Examine the surface for free moisture or fluid conditions. If
free moisture or a fluid condition appears, make
arrangements to have additional laboratory tests on the
cargo conducted before it is accepted for loading.
COAL is very liable to spontaneous heating. If there is
sufficient oxygen available, combustion is liable to take
place. The amount of heating that takes place depends on
the type of type coal and how much heat can be dispersed
by ventilating the coal. Ventilation can be a double-edged
weapon as although it takes heat from the coal it also
allows unwanted oxygen into the coal. To keep the coal as
cool as possible it should be stowed away from hot
bulkheads. To keep oxygen away from the coal only
surface ventilation should be allowed.
All spar ceiling or cargo battening should be removed as
besides the liability of it to damage, it can give unwanted
air pockets in the coal. Unwanted air may also get into a
cargo through a temporary wooden bulkhead. If such a
bulkhead has been constructed all cracks should be
sealed, preferably by pasting paper over both sides of the
bulkhead.
Freshly mined coal absorbs oxygen, which, with extrinsic
moisture, forms peroxides. These in turn breakdown to
form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Heat is produced by this exothermic reaction causing
further oxidation and further heat. If this heat is not
dissipated ignition will occur. This is called Spontaneous
combustion.
As this is essentially a surface reaction the smaller the
surface available for the absorption of oxygen the better.
Every attempt should be made to prevent undue breakage
of the coal whilst it is being loaded. It may be noted that 1
MT of coal in an unbroken cube has a surface area of
about 3.72m2, whereas if it is broken up to pass through a
1.5mm mesh screen its surface area is nearly 4000m2. If a
large amount of breakage occurs the small coal with the
large surface area is found in the centre of the hold, whilst
the large coal will roll down the sides. This aggravates the
situation, as the large coal gives a good path for air to flow
to the smaller coal where the spontaneous heating is most
liable to occur.
Most coal fires in cargo occur at about ‘tween deck level
and this is the area where the greatest attention should be
paid to temperature and the restriction of through
ventilation.
The following are recommendations for the carriage of coal.
The ventilators to the lower holds should be so arranged
that they might be opened or closed at will during the
voyage.
As the critical temperature at which the process of
spontaneous heating in coal becomes greatly accelerated is
in some varieties of coal as low as 36˚C, and generally is
not much higher, the need of keeping the exteriors surface
of the hull, and thereby the interior of the ‘tween decks and
holds, as cool as possible is manifest.

The iron decks of ships carrying coal in the tropics can be

covered with dunnage to lessen heating.
Suitable means should be provided for ascertaining from
time to time the temperature of the lower mass of coal,
particularly below the hatchways, and this might be done
by means of two pipes leading down to the bottom of the
coal at each hatchway.
The temperature tubes should have closed ends to prevent
admission of air into the cargo. The temperature of the coal
at three heights should be taken daily.
Gas from the holds or ‘tween decks space may find its way
into shaft, peaks, chain lockers or similar space unless the
bulkheads and casings are maintained in gas tight
conditions.
Naked lights should not be used in holds or other spaces in
which gas may accumulate until the spaces have been well
ventilated.
Full use should, when necessary, be made of the breathing
apparatus or smoke helmet and the safety lamp, which
form part of the ship’s statutory fire appliances.
The employment of the crew in chipping and painting below
decks during the voyage should be avoided. The danger
from smoking should be realized and no oily waste, wood,
old rope, sacking etc. should be left below where it can
become ignited by spontaneous heating
On arrival at the port of discharge the hold ventilators
should be unplugged and the lower hold well ventilated
before commencing to work cargo.
Coal is frequently loaded from a single tip and earlier it was
necessary to drift the vessel fore and aft so that all holds
may be filled. To keep these shifts to a minimum No.2 was
first put under the tip.
After about one third the capacity of the hold was loaded
the vessel was shifted so that No. 3 was loaded to about
one third of its capacity. Likewise the remaining after
holds were loaded and then the tip was shifted astern to
reach No. 1, half the capacity was put in, before shifting to
No. 2, which was then filled.
The other after holds were now filled in order excepting the
aftermost. The aftermost hold and the No.1 were now
worked so that the vessel would complete loading in a good
trim.
Coal is sometimes graded, when this in so, care should be
taken to prevent undue breakage.
Lowering the first few truckloads into the hold helps as do
control of the rate of tipping down and chute.
Some ports have conveyor belts and an endless bucket
system for loading; this is excellent for graded coal and also
keeps the dust down with the ordinary coal.
Fortunately it is mainly the better coals, which are graded,
and in generally these are not so friable.
Coal will need to be trimmed and its angle of repose is quite
high, especially if large coal is loaded.
There is no danger for coal shifting unless it is the very
small stuff known as mud coal, slurry or duff.
This is very fine coal, almost dust, and if the moisture
content is high it behaves almost like a liquid.

Deck Cargo
Cargo which are normally carried on deck include the
following but are not limited to these and many exceptional
cargoes may be carried and also have been carried in the
past.
Dangerous cargo – IMDG cargo not permitted on deck
Large packages which due to any size restriction may have
to be loaded on to the deck
The above includes engineering or construction equipment
Odd size package
Where the bulk volume far exceeds the weight of the cargo
– knocked down bridges, port equipment – not easily liable
to weather damage.
Occasionally livestock in limited numbers
Onions or other perishables – short voyages with the
weather holding
Yachts – luxury boats.
Cast iron goods – man hole covers – pipes.
The list is endless and it all depends on the routes, the
trading pattern and the weather.
The cargo whether on deck or under deck stow has to be
stowed well and the cargo should be prevented from
moving and gaining enough momentum to part lashings
and damage the ship structure.
Deck cargo is liable to damage itself – fall overboard and
thus be lost. However the misery does not stop here in the
act of parting lashing and going overboard the deck cargo
unleashes considerable damage to the ship structure as
well as the crewmembers.
Small apparently insignificant items such as sounding
pipes and air pipes are often torn out and this may
endanger the ship from the resulting chances of flooding
lower down compartments.
Crewmembers ordered to lash cargo where the lashings
have parted have been seriously injured and some have
lost lives combating the shifting cargo.
The point is to have a good solid stow – prevent the cargo
from shifting and gaining momentum with the shift. Since
this would part any strong lashing. The lashing undertaken
should be for the worst sea condition that may be
experienced.
Deck cargo loading on top of hatch covers should be
carefully planned. All loading of under deck spaces should
have been completed – lashing may continue with portable
lights.
The hatch covers should be closed and battened down – all
side wedges as well as cross wedges (centre wedges) should
have been fitted. With the hatch cover sealed for sea, the
space should then be given out for loading of deck cargo.
The permissible load density of the hatch covers should be
checked and timbers laid to spread the weight of the cargo.
The load density of the hatch covers are given for a new
vessel and as the ship ages the load density would reduce
due to fatigue of the metal as well as wear and tear. Thus
the utmost need to spread the weight using timber.
Shoring and toming of the hatch cover from below deck is
practically useless since the hatch cover moves/ slides
somewhat with the motion of the ship.
The height of the cargo on the hatch covers as well as that
on deck should not be so high that the view is obstructed
from the Navigating Bridge.
Ice accumulation on hatch cover and on deck
The above photographs show the extent of the weight that
Ice accumulation can pose for a ship. The weight on deck
may eventually lead a ship to progress to a condition of
‘angle of loll’.
The weight of the ice may be in excess of a hundred tonnes,
and thus the danger of a ship regarding stability.
As with the above any deck cargo for that matter would
have a very high KG as such the GM (F) would be quite
small. Especially in the case of GC vessels, which do not
have a very large GM (F) the loading of deck cargo, is
bound to lead to further loss of GM (F). If the ship loads the
deck cargo with her own gear then the ship would during
the loading operation have still further low GM (F) due to
the KG of the load being at the top of the derrick/ crane for
part of the loading sequence.

Containers on deck
Containers when they are loaded on deck are subject to the
following consideration – barring stability, which would
have been planned for.
The load density of the deck
Spreading the load of the container evenly
Chocking the container base to prevent shifting due to
rolling or pitching
Lashing the container for the above as well to prevent the
container from being bodily lifted.
Placing the containers in as close a group as possible
Safeguarding the sounding pipes and the air pipes within
the periphery of the container space.
Keeping the fire hose boxes clear as well as the passage
leading to them, the fire hydrants should similarly be kept
clear.
No lashing should be taken which would damage or cause
to be damaged the fire lines.
Checking that the leads for the lashing wires are adequate
as well as that the chocking points are well supported
Keeping a passage for crew members to check the lashings
during g voyage.
In general the close stow is difficult on GC vessels where
the container is usually loaded between the hatch coaming
and the bulwark. So the container should be loaded as
close as possible to the hatch coaming, as well as close to
the Mast House structure. If few containers are being
loaded then the shelter offered by the Mast House
structure should be kept in mind.
The load is spread by having the container loaded onto
timbers at least 4” x 4”. The timbers should be extended to
well beyond the shoe of the container in all directions to
spread the load. Once this is done the chocking of the
container is started. Again heavy timbers are used and the
container is first secured to prevent any lateral and
transverse shifting. While selecting chocking points all
heavy framework should be selected. Bulwark stays are not
strengthened enough to be used as chocking points. Hatch
coamings may be used and as a last resort bulwark stays.
After the chocking is completed the container is lashed.
The lashing is further to prevent the longitudinal as well as
the transverse shifting. For this the base shoes offer the
best lashing points. To prevent the container being bodily
shifted out the lashings are continued to the top shoes.
All lashing should be separate in the sense that a single
lashing wire should not be passed over a few shoes and
then lashed at the final point. Each lashing should have a
turnbuckle or bottle screw incorporated and there should
be at least 60% free thread in them after completion of
lashing.
The bottom lashing and the top lashing should not be
counted together fore the purpose of assessing the total
number of lashings taken for the container.
The top lashings are for bodily rise and as such should be
counted separately.
As a thumb rule, if the SWL of the lashing wire is 2T then
to lash the top of a 20T container the number of lashings
should be a minimum of 10 (all well positioned), similarly
the bottom should have 10. The bottom lashings may be
reduced depending upon the chocking of the container and
the availability of the lashing point.
Note that a single strong point for lashing should not have
more than 2 lashing wires – the preferred would be 1,
however it is often impossible to find so many lashing
points.
This shows a container ship lashing; note that the
container is loaded onto the ship shoe slots which are
strengthened, the rod lashings are only for the top of the
containers.
Here the bottom shoes are not lashed since the ships
sunken shoes and twist locks effectively chock and lash the
bottom of the container.
Stowage and Lashing of Timber deck cargoes as laid
down by IMO code of Safe Practice for Ships Carrying
Timber Deck Cargoes
Purpose
The purpose of the Code is to make recommendations on
stowage, securing and other operational safety measures
designed to ensure the safe transport of mainly timber deck
cargoes.
Application
This Code applies to all ships of 24 m or more in length
engaged in the carriage of timber deck cargoes. Ships that
are provided with and making use of their timber load line
should also comply with the requirements of the applicable
regulations of the Load Line Convention.
Timber means sawn wood or lumber, cants, logs, poles,
pulpwood and all other type of timber in loose or packaged
forms. The term does not include wood pulp or similar
cargo.
Timber deck cargo means a cargo of timber carried on an
uncovered part of a freeboard or superstructure deck. The
term does not include wood pulp or similar cargo.
Timber load line means a special load line assigned to
ships complying with certain conditions related to their
construction set out in the International Convention on
Load Lines and used when the cargo complies with the
stowage and securing conditions of this Code.
Weather deck means the uppermost complete deck exposed
to weather and sea.
The stability of the ship at all times, including during the
process of loading and unloading timber deck cargo, should
be positive and to a standard acceptable to the
Administration. It should be calculated having regard to:
The increased weight of the timber deck cargo due to:
Absorption of water in dried or seasoned timber, and
Ice accretion, if applicable;
Variations in consumables;
The free surface effect of liquid in tanks; and
Weight of water trapped in broken spaces within the timber
deck cargo and especially logs.
Safety precautions to be taken as far as stability of the ship
is concerned
The master should:
Cease all loading operations if a list develops for which
there is no satisfactory explanation and it would be
imprudent to continue loading;
Before proceeding to sea, ensure that:
The ship is upright;
The ship has an adequate metacentric height; and
The ship meets the required stability criteria.
Ships carrying timber deck cargoes should operate, as far
as possible, with a safe margin of stability and with a
metacentric height which is consistent with safety
requirements but such metacentric height should not be
allowed to fall below the recommended minimum.
However, excessive initial stability should be avoided as it
will result in rapid and violent motion in heavy seas which
will impose large sliding and racking forces on the cargo
causing high stresses on the lashings. Operational
experience indicates that metacentric height should
preferably not exceed 3% of the breadth in order to prevent
excessive accelerations in rolling provided that the relevant
stability criteria are satisfied.
This recommendation may not apply to all ships and the
master should take into consideration the stability
information obtained from the ship’s stability manual.
STOWAGE
General
Before timber deck cargo is loaded on any area of the
weather deck:
Hatch covers and other openings to spaces below that area
should be securely closed and battened down;
Air pipes and ventilators should be efficiently protected and
check valves or similar devices should be examined to
ascertain their effectiveness against the entry of water;
Accumulations of ice and snow on such area should be
removed; and
It is normally preferable to have all deck lashings, uprights,
etc., in position before loading on that specific area. This
will be necessary should a preloading examination of
securing equipment be required in the loading port.
The timber deck cargo should be so stowed that:
Safe and satisfactory access to the crew’s quarters, pilot
boarding access, machinery spaces and all other areas
regularly used in the necessary working of the ship is
provided at all times;
Where relevant, openings that give access to the areas can
be properly closed and secured against the entry of water;
Safety equipment, devices for remote operation of valves
and sounding pipes are left accessible; and
It is compact and will not interfere in any way with the
navigation and necessary working of the ship.
During loading, the timber deck cargo should be kept free
of any accumulations of ice and snow.
Upon completion of loading, and before sailing, a thorough
inspection of the ship should be carried out. Soundings
should also be taken to verify that no structural damage
has occurred causing an ingress of water.
On ships provided with, and making use of, their timber
load line, the timber deck cargo should be stowed so as to
extend:
.1 over the entire available length of the well or wells
between superstructures and as close as practicable to end
bulkheads;
.2 at least to the after end of the aftermost hatchway in the
case where there is no limiting superstructure at the aft
end;
.3 athwartships as close as possible to the ship sides, after
making due allowance for obstructions such as guard rails,
bulwark stays, uprights, pilot boarding access, etc.,
provided any area of broken stowage thus created at the
side of the ship does not exceed a mean of 4% of the
breadth; and
.4 to at least the standard height of a superstructure other
than a raised quarterdeck.
The basic principle for the safe carriage of any timber deck
cargo is a solid stowage during all stages of the deck
loading. This can only be achieved by constant supervision
by shipboard personnel during the loading process.
SECURING
General
Every lashing should pass over the timber deck cargo and
be shackled to eye plates and adequate for the intended
purpose and efficiently attached to the deck stringer plate
or other strengthened points. They should be installed in
such a manner as to be, as far as practicable, in contact
with the timber deck cargo throughout its full height.
All lashings and components used for securing should:
.1 possess a breaking strength of not less than 133 kN;
.2 after initial stressing, show an elongation of not more
than 5% at 80% of their breaking strength; and
.3 show no permanent deformation after having been
subjected to a proof load of not less than 40% of their
original breaking strength.
Every lashing should be provided with a tightening device
or system so placed that it can safely and efficiently operate
when required. The load to be produced by the tightening
device or system should not be less than:
.1 27 kN in the horizontal part; and
.2 16 kN in the vertical part.
NOTE: 1 Newton equals 0.225 lbs. force or 0.1 kgf.
Upon completion and after the initial securing, the
tightening device or system should be left with not less
than half the threaded length of screw or of tightening
capacity available for future use.
Every lashing should be provided with a device or an
installation to permit the length of the lashing to be
adjusted.
The spacing of the lashings should be such that the two
lashings at each end of each length of continuous deck
stow are positioned as close as practicable to the extreme
end of the timber deck cargo.
If wire rope clips are used to make a joint in a wire lashing,
the following conditions should be observed to avoid a
significant reduction in strength:
.1 the number and size of rope clips utilized should be in
proportion to the diameter of the wire rope and should not
be less than four, each spaced at intervals of not less than
15 cm;
.2 the saddle portion of the clip should be applied to the
live load segment and the U-bolt to the dead or shortened
end segment;
.3 rope clips should be initially tightened so that they
visibly penetrate into the wire rope and subsequently be
retightened after the lashing has been stressed.
Greasing the threads of grips, clips, shackles and
turnbuckles increases their holding capacity and prevents
corrosion.
Uprights
Uprights should be fitted when required by the nature,
height or character of the timber deck cargo.
When uprights are fitted, they should:
.1 be made of steel or other suitable material of adequate
strength, taking into account the breadth of the deck cargo;
.2 be spaced at intervals not exceeding 3 m;
.3 be fixed to the deck by angles, metal sockets or equally
sufficient means; and
.4 if deemed necessary, be further secured by a metal
bracket to a strengthened point, i.e., bulwark, hatch
coaming.
Loose or packaged sawn timber
The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its
length by independent lashings.
The maximum spacing of the lashings should be
determined by the maximum height of the timber deck
cargo in the vicinity of the lashings:
.1 for a height of 4 m and below, the spacing should be 3
m;
.2 for heights of above 4 m, the spacing should be 1.5 m.
The packages stowed at the upper outboard edge of the
stow should be secured by at least two lashings each.
When the outboard stow of the timber deck cargo is in
lengths of less than 3.6 m, the spacing of the lashings
should be reduced as necessary or other suitable
provisions made to suit the length of timber.
Rounded angle pieces of suitable material and design
should be used along the upper outboard edge of the stow
to bear the stress and permit free reeving of the lashings.
Logs, poles, cants or similar cargo
The timber deck cargo should be secured throughout its
length by independent lashings spaced not more than 3 m
apart.
If the timber deck cargo is stowed over the hatches and
higher, it should, in addition be further secured by:
.1 a system of athwarthship lashings (hog lashings) joining
each port and starboard pair of uprights near the top of the
stow and at other appropriate levels as appropriate for the
height of the stow; and
.2 a lashing system to tighten the stow whereby a dual
continuous wire rope (wiggle wire) is passed from side to
side over the cargo and held continuously through a series
of snatch blocks or other suitable device, held in place by
foot wires.
The dual continuous wire rope should be led to a winch or
other tensioning device to facilitate further tightening.

Testing, examination and certification

All lashings and components used for the securing of the
timber deck cargo should be tested, marked and certified
according to national regulations or an appropriate
standard of an internationally recognized standards
institute. Copies of the appropriate certificate should be
kept on board.
No treatments, which could hide defects or reduce
mechanical properties or strength, should be applied after
testing.
A visual examination of lashings and components should
be made at intervals not exceeding 12 months.
A visual examination of all securing points on the ship,
including those on the uprights, if fitted, should be
performed before loading the timber deck cargo. Any
damage should be satisfactorily repaired.

Lashing plans
One or more lashing plans complying with the
recommendations of this Code should be provided and
maintained on board a ship carrying timber deck cargo.
Personnel Protection And Safety Devices
During the course of the voyage, if there is no convenient
passage for the crew on or below the deck of the ship giving
safe means of access from the accommodation to all parts
used in the necessary working of the ship, guard lines or
rails, not more than 330 mm apart vertically, should be
provided on each side of the deck cargo to a height of at
least 1 m above the cargo. In addition, a lifeline, preferably
wire rope, set up taut with a tightening device should be
provided as near as practicable to the centreline of the
ship. The stanchion supports to all guard rails or lifelines
should be spaced so as to prevent undue sagging. Where
the cargo is uneven, a safe walking surface of not less than
600 mm in width should be fitted over the cargo and
effectively secured beneath, or adjacent to, the lifeline.
Where uprights are not fitted, a walkway of substantial
construction should be provided having an even walking
surface and consisting of two fore and aft sets of guard
lines or rails about 1 m apart, each having a minimum of
three courses of guard lines or rails to a height of not less
than 1 m above the walking surface. Such guard lines or
rails should be supported by rigid stanchions spaced not
more than 3 m apart and lines should be set up taut by
tightening device.
As an alternative a lifeline, preferably wire rope may be
erected above the timber deck cargo such that a
crewmember equipped with a fall protection system can
hook onto and work about the timber deck cargo. The
lifeline should be:
.1 erected about 2 m above the timber deck cargo as near
as practicable to the centreline of the ship;
.2 stretched sufficiently taut with a tightening device to
support a fallen crewmember without collapse or failure.
Properly constructed ladders, steps or ramps fitted with
guard lines or handrails should be provided from the top of
the cargo to the deck, and in other cases where the cargo is
stepped, in order to provide reasonable access.
Action To Be Taken During The Voyage
Tightening of lashings
It is of paramount importance that all lashings be carefully
examined and tightened at the beginning of the voyage as
the vibration and working of the ship will cause the cargo
to settle and compact. They should be further examined at
regular intervals during the voyage and tightened as
necessary.
Entries of all examinations and adjustments to lashings
should be made in the ship’s logbook.
Container Cargo

Sea Containers were invented in the mid 1950s by Malcolm

McLean, a North Carolina trucking owner who grew tired of
wasting his trucking company’s time with trucks standing
idle in line as ships were unloaded bit by bit by
dockworkers.
McLean developed sealed truck trailers and the concept of
loading and unloading the trailer interiors only at the
points of origin and destination.
The first ship modified to accept these “containers” on
deck, sailed with 58 of them from New York to Houston in
April 1956. This was the start of McLean’s company, the
Sea-Land Corporation.
The Matson Line (Hawaii) put the first fully containerized
ship into service in 1960.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) first
established container standards in 1961. The ISO
standard is not prescriptive and instead simply stipulates
tests that the containers must pass.
Modern container ships have only one problem – when the
ship arrives in port, the object is to unload the containers
quickly to get them on to their final destination and to get
the container ships back out to sea fully loaded heading for
the next port.
To accomplish this, container ships are equipped with steel
skeletons called “cell guides”.
A special lifting fixture is used with remote actuators,
which engage the corner blocks on the top of the
container.
A recent survey indicates that port crane operators can
execute full crane cycles to remove and position containers
at rates of between 30 and 60 boxes per hour.

Containers come in two basic sizes – 20 Footer and 40

Footer and are commonly known as TEU (Twenty
Equivalent Units) and FEU (Forty Equivalent Units).
The external body of the container is made of corrugated
sheet metal and is not capable of taking any load. The four
corners have shoes and are strengthened to take in load.
The inside bottom has a wooden ceiling. There are weather-
insulted vents provided to facilitate venting.
The weights marked on the containers are TARE weight
and LADEN weight. TARE weight is the weight of the empty
container and is usually 2200KGS for a TEU, while the
LADEN weight may be anything from 20000KGS to
32000KGS (strengthened steel construction).

The container shoes fitted at the corners are hollow with 5

oval slots to facilitate the fitting of container fittings as well
as for lifting the container – either by using conventional
wire slings or by spreaders.
Since the containers are concentrated weights the loading
of the same require special heavy dunnaging to spread the
load evenly over the deck – if carried as deck cargo on
conventional general cargo ships.
However the carriage of containers are primarily on
container ships or on ships, which have been built to take
in general cargo as well as containers to a limited extent.
Lashing of containers on purpose ships are supplied from
reputed lashing makers and have been tested for the loads
they are to lash. Various fittings are used and all of these
are generally carried on board.
Base stacker Twist
Lock Double Stacker

Corner Eye Pad Side Stack

Thrust Bridge Fitting

Twist Lock Rod Lashing

Bar Spacer Stacker
A spacer stacker is used where there is a difference
between adjacent containers as loaded in their heights, one
being the 8ft and the other 8.5FT.
On normal ships where these fittings may not be available
wire ropes are used however the number of ropes to be
used would be decided by the weight of the container.
On GC ships with no provision for built in shoes only single
height loads are carried.
However on container ships the hold stacks may extend to
7 high and on hatch top/ deck to 5 high.
The hold and the deck/ hatch top being strengthened.
The lashings to be done are specified in the container-
lashing manual supplied to the ship from the building
yard. This is not to be reduced since the stresses have been
calculated and the number of lashings incorporated.
The containers are loaded onto a container ship in a
specified manner. The ship is divided into BAYS or ROWS.
Looking from the side the bays are marked from forward to
aft.
The containers are stacked in tiers and are in general
called the stacks.
This way ensures that any container can be located very
easily – knowing the bay number and the row number
isolates the location and the stack height give the exact
position of the container.
On container ships the containers are lowered onto slots
inside the holds, the holds bottom is provided with sunken
shoes, twist locks/ stackers are fitted onto these and the
container is lowered onto them.
Cell Guides on Deck – Open hatch concept:
Some containers are designed to carry refrigerated cargo,
these special containers have their own cooling plant in
built on one end of the container, and all that is required
for the ship to provide is a power point for the electricity.
The containers come with their own recording device and
card, the ships officers has to renew the card on the expiry
of the same, and is to see that the cooling plant does not
stop functioning, manuals are provided whereby ships staff
can do some minor repairs to the plant.
Today a variety of cargo which previously was thought
could only be loaded onto a general cargo ship, is
transported on container ships. An example is a tank, thus
small parcels of liquid is carried on container ships.

Lashing of containers is very important since a typical

container ship has a low GM(F), consequently the ship rolls
quite a bit and the stresses developed by the cargo swaying
is liable to break the lashings and put the containers into
the sea.
All lashings are to be done following the ships lashing
manual. In general the following is a typical lashing
system, others may also be accepted if permitted by the
manual.
The planning of loading of a container ship is normally
undertaken ashore, but the officer in charge of the watch
should keep an eye on the loading to detect errors in
stowage which may occur. A particular watch should be
kept for containers with dangerous goods placards to see
that their stowage satisfies segregation requirements as
laid down in the IMDG code.
Other things to watch for are that container marked for
underdeck stowage do not end up on deck – this is serious
since the container may be for second port by rotation, also
the heavier containers are generally loaded underdeck to
increase the GM. Thus in addition to a loss of GM the ship
would also have a mess up at the disport.
Refrigerated containers should be loaded where they can be
connected to the ship’s power supply and the duty officer is
to ensure the same. While loading a slight slackening of
watch can become a liability since the gantries load very
fast and to unload or to shift is expensive and time
consuming – even if the fault actually is of the port.
Sometimes containers are loaded which due to the nature
of the contents have to be overstowed, in this case the
container is loaded and the container is then blocked off so
that there would be no chance of any pilferage – such
containers may carry – currency/ coins, drugs, and mail or
other high value cargo.
Oil Tanker

A tanker is a specialized ship intended for the carriage of

bulk liquid cargo. An Oil tanker again is further divided
into 2 basic types, namely Crude Oil Tanker and Product
Oil Tanker.
For both of the above the cargo of oil is carried within the
tanks similar to the holds of other ships, the difference
being that the bulkheads are extra strengthened to take in
the load, and the hatch or rather the tank openings are
very small, the sole purpose of having them is for Man
Entry and for small repair work in the dry docks.
The cargo of oil is loaded on to the ships tanks by
pipelines, which are fixed on the ship (permanent
structure), the shore pipelines are connected to the ships
pipelines at the manifold on either side of the ship. Note
that some special ships also have manifolds at the bow and
at the stern.
The shore pipelines may be connected using flexible steel
rimmed rubber hoses (small ports/ Ship to ship transfers/
SBM) – the flexible come in small lengths are connected to
each other to make them long pieces.
The shore pipelines may also be connected with rigid
loading arms – also called ‘chiksons’, which are remotely
controlled and take in the roll of the ship to a certain
extent but the fore and aft movement of the ship has to be
kept to a minimum.
The combined pipeline system of the shore and the ship
deliver the oil to the cargo oil tanks directly via the drop
lines. These are as the name suggests pipelines, which
drop to the bottom of the tanks vertically from the pipeline
on deck – thus bypassing the pump room.
There are various cross- over valves, which are opened in
order to load a group of tanks.
The shore system starts to pump/ delivers by gravity
(some Persian Gulf ports) at a slow rate, so that any
leakages can be detected and to check whether the right
tank is receiving the oil or not, once the shore and the
shipside are satisfied the pumping – loading of the cargo is
increased. In case of any subsequent leakages that are
detected the ship valves should not be shut abruptly,
rather the shore has to be informed first and then only the
ship valves are to shut, this to prevent pressure surge from
bursting the pipelines.
To prevent this surge from affecting the pipelines the cargo
valves have set times at which they close – this depends on
the size of the valves – typically a 550mm valve would shut
at about 24 seconds, whereas a 250mm valve would shut
at 6-8 seconds.
After the ship completes her loading the stage is set for the
unloading or discharging operation.
While loading the cargo had by passed the pump room,
now however the cargo from the tanks is allowed to flow to
the pump room through the bottom pipelines. Just within
the pumproom and at the pumproom bulkhead are
situated isolation valves known as ‘Bulkhead Master
valves’, by opening the valves the oil is led to the pump
suction valve and on opening that the oil flows to the
centrifugal pumps. Turbines, which are situated in the
Engine Room, commonly drive these pumps; the shaft
penetrates the ER bulkhead and drives the pump situated
at the bottom of the pumproom.
The pump accelerates the flow of the oil into the discharge
pipeline and this oil is thus led on the deck pipelines and
to the manifold from where it flow through the flexible
pipeline or the hard loading arm to the shore pipeline
system.

The Pump Room

This is a cofferdam kind of space – in fact it is accepted as
a cofferdam, which begins on main deck and ends at the
keel.
It may have more than 2 decks, however these decks are
not normally solid decks but are partial decks made of
expanded metal, so you are able to see right to the bottom.
There would be a companionway leading from the top to
the next deck and so on right to the bottom.
At the lowermost deck are situated the Cargo Oil Pumps
(COP’s). The numbers of pumps vary in number – for crude
oil tankers it is normal to have 4 pumps, three being used
at any one time.
For product oil tankers the number of pumps depend on
the number of grade of oil that the ship is capable of
carrying.
So if the ship can carry 4 grades of oil then she would be
having 4 pumps.
Once the gravity flow to the COP’s is not possible the
stripped pumps are started, these pumps are of the
reciprocating type and have great capacity to create partial
vacuum to suck out the remaining oil from the tanks.
Again on a product oil tanker the number of stripped
pumps would be equal to the number of grades of oil that it
can carry.
Earlier on Crude oil carrier there would be stripper pumps
of the reciprocating type however today largely eductors are
used to remove the remaining oil from the tank. Generally
2 eductors are provided on each crude oil tanker. However
1 stripper pump is always provided to strip the cargo lines
of any residual oil and to pump the same to the shore
system.
The pumproom is a hazardous area as such the light
fittings are gas tight and only tanker safety torches are
used. The ventilation system is of the exhaust type and has
intakes from all the levels with the intakes being fitted with
closing devices so that if required only a certain level can
be evacuated.
Hydrocarbon gases being heavier than air tend to settle at
the bottom of the pumproom as such the main exhaust are
always from the bottom level.
The pumproom lighting is devised in such a way that the
lights do not come on unless the ventilation has been
started and is kept on for 15 minutes.
AT the top of the pumproom a harness and lifting
arrangement is provided to lift out a person from the
lowermost deck, for this reason a clear passage is left
vertically from the top to the bottom of the pumproom.
Fire man’s outfit are also placed at the top of the
pumproom, the pumproom may have different types of
fixed fire fighting appliances such as total flooding by CO2
or by foam applicators fitted in the bilges (below the floor
plates under the lowermost deck).
Bilge alarms are fitted which give alarms when the bilges
are filled – a high level and a low level alarm is fitted which
gives indications in the Engine room as well as in the Cargo
Control room.
Picture shows the main deck layout of a Product tanker
(capable of carrying 4 grades of oil):

The same tanker – with the tank layout.

And part of the pump room layout of the same tanker.
The above shows the location of the drop valves; drop lines,
line master, bulkhead master and the bottom lines.
Cargo Oil Pumps (COP)
A centrifugal pump, in the pumproom bottom platform. The
dark green pipeline is the discharge line. The pump
consists of an impeller which rotates within the casing.
Due to this rotation which is generally about 1000 – 1700
rpm the oil is speeded up and this increase in velocity
causes the oil to flow out at a great pressure. These pumps
are capable of delivering a very high rate of discharge (up to
4000 m3/hr). With this type of pump the level of oil has to
be above the pump – as such the pump is situated at the
bottom of the pump room.

Another detail of the same centrifugal pump.

The earlier centrifugal pump situated in the pumproom is
driven by a shaft which is connected to the steam turbine –
situated in the ER. The shaft passes from the ER to the
pumproom through the pumproom bulkhead via a gas and
oil tight gasket.
The turbines are driven by superheated steam from the
boiler in the ER.
Positive displacement pumps such as the reciprocating
pump work on the principle of a hand pump – the
movement of the piston creates a vacuum which sucks out
the fluid. However the size of the pump is dependent on the
size of the piston and the length of the strokes so for
discharging at a high rate is practically impossible. In
general these pumps are used to discharge small quantities
of oil such as the strippings – the balance that the
centrifugal pump cannot discharge due to the oil going
below the level of the pump. The pump is used today on
crude tankers to strip out the pipelines after discharging
and then collecting these line content (small) and then
pumping them to shore.
Eductors
Eductors work on the principles of Bernoulli’s Principle.
A driving fluid is pumped down the main line, with very
high velocity, through a constriction, and past a relatively
smaller opening, thus creating a vacuum.
When eductors are used for clean ballast, the driving fluid
is seawater.
When used for stripping crude oil, the driving fluid is the
cargo itself- delivered by means of a bypass from one of the
main cargo pumps.
When used for stripping tank washings, the driving fluid is
from the secondary slop tank and then re-circulated back
to the primary slop tank. In the latter case the driving fluid
is either crude oil or seawater, depending on the tank
cleaning method.
Eductors are simple and rugged, have no moving parts,
and do not become air locked like other type of pumps.
They are widely used on tankers of all types and sizes.

Tank layout of a crude oil tanker:

The Pipeline system:

Pipeline systems on tankers differ in their degree of
sophistication, depending on employment of the tanker.
ULCC’s and VLCC’s have relatively simple pipeline systems
usually the direct line system.
Some product (parcel) tankers may have very sophisticated
piping systems. This could be the ring main system or in
case of a chemical product tanker it could mean an
individual pipeline and an individual pump for every tank
on board.
Basically there are three systems of pipelines found on
tankers, and the fourth system being the free flow system
found on large crude carriers
Ring Main System
Direct line system
Single line to Single tank system (Chemical/Product ship)
Free Flow system
Ring Main System:
It is generally of a square or circular layout.
It is used mostly on product tankers, as segregation of
cargo is required.
Though the system is expensive, as more piping, and extra
number valves are used.
However if the vessel is carrying many grades of cargo, the
advantages compensate for the extra cost of the original
outlay.
Direct Line System:
This system is mainly found on crude oil carriers where up
to 3 grades of cargo can be carried as most of the direct
pipeline systems is fitted with three direct lines.
This system is cheaper to construct. The disadvantages
over the ring main system, is that line washing is more
difficult, the system has fewer valves which make pipeline
leaks difficult to control, as the system lacks versatility
there is problem with line and valve segregation.
This system provides the vessel to carry as many grades as
there are tanks.
The disadvantage is the cost factor having a multitude of
pumps on board.

Free flow Tanker:

This system is usually found on large crude carriers, where
the cargo piping is not used for the discharge of cargo.
Instead, gate valves are provided on the bulkheads of the
tanks which when opened; allow the oil to flow freely in the
aft most tank and into the COP.
The advantages of this system are primarily the cost factor,
it allows for fast drainage and efficient means of pumping
the cargo tanks. Disadvantages are of single crude being
shipped.
Independent System:
This layout is not very common in the tanker trade.
This system is quite normal on chemical ships.
There are some Product Tankers that have this system
fitted on the ships.
This is a single line servicing an individual tank through an
independent pump that could be either a submersible
pump or a deep well pump.
Enclosed Space Entry
An enclosed space is one with restricted access that is not
subject to continuous ventilation and in which the
atmosphere may be hazardous due to the presence of
hydrocarbon gas, toxic gases, inert gas or oxygen
deficiency. This definition includes cargo tanks, ballast
tanks, fuel tanks, water tanks, lubricating oil tanks, slop
and waste oil tanks, sewage tanks, cofferdams, duct keels,
void spaces and trunkings, pipelines or fittings connected
to any of these. It also includes inert gas scrubbers and
water seals and any other item of machinery or equipment
that is not routinely ventilated and entered, such as boilers
and main engine crankcases.
Many of the fatalities in enclosed spaces on oil tankers
have resulted from entering the space without proper
supervision or adherence to agreed procedures. In almost
every case the fatality would have been avoided if the
simple guidance in this chapter had been followed. The
rapid rescue of personnel who have collapsed in an
enclosed space presents particular risk. It is a human
reaction to go to the aid of a colleague in difficulties, but far
too many additional and unnecessary deaths have occurred
from impulsive and ill-prepared rescue attempts.
Respiratory hazards from a number of sources could be
present in an enclosed space. These could include one or
more of the following:
Respiratory contaminants associated with organic vapours
including those from aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene,
toluene, etc.; gases such as hydrogen sulphide; residues
from inert gas and particulates such as those from
asbestos, welding operations and paint mists.
Oxygen deficiency caused by, for example, oxidation
(rusting) of bare steel surfaces, the presence of inert gas or
microbial activity.

Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of
hydrocarbons, the presence of hydrocarbon vapour should
always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the following
reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including
pumprooms, cofferdams, permanent ballast tanks and
tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of
tanks, even after cleaning and ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas
free may give off further hydrocarbon vapour if disturbed or
subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and
pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty
tanks or compartments if non-volatile cargoes have been
loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a common
ventilation system which could allow the free passage of
vapours from one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed
spaces, particularly if they have contained water, have
been subjected to damp or humid conditions, have
contained inert gas or are adjacent to, or connected with,
other inerted tanks.
Other Atmospheric Hazards
These include toxic contaminants such as benzene or
hydrogen sulphide, which could remain in the space as
residues from previous cargoes.
ATMOSPHERE TESTS PRIOR TO ENTRY
General

Any decision to enter an enclosed space should only be

taken after the atmosphere within the space has been
comprehensively tested from outside the space with test
equipment that has recently been calibrated and checked
for correct operation.
It is essential that all atmosphere testing equipment used
is:
Suitable for the test required;
Of an approved type;
Correctly maintained;
Frequently checked against standard samples.
A record should be kept of all maintenance work and
calibration tests carried out and of the period of their
validity. Testing should only be carried out by personnel
who have been trained in the use of the equipment and
who are competent to interpret the results correctly.
Care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-
section of the compartment by sampling at several depths
and through as many deck openings as practicable. When
tests are being carried out from deck level, ventilation
should be stopped and a minimum period of about 10
minutes should be allowed to elapse before readings are
taken.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be
safe for entry, pockets of gas should always be suspected.
Hence, when descending to the lower part of a tank or
compartment, further atmosphere tests should be made.
Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas should always be
considered possible, even after loose scale has been
removed. The use of personal detectors capable of
continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the
atmosphere, the presence of hydrocarbon vapour and, if
appropriate, toxic vapour is strongly recommended. These
instruments will detect any deterioration in the quality of
the atmosphere and can provide an audible alarm to warn
of the change in conditions.
While personnel remain in a tank or compartment,
ventilation should be continuous and frequent atmosphere
tests should be undertaken. In particular, tests should
always be made before each daily commencement of work
or after any interruption or break in the work.
Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the
resulting readings are representative of the condition of the
entire space.

Hydrocarbon Vapours
To be considered safe for entry, whether for inspection, cold
work or hot work, a reading of not more than 1% LFL must
be obtained on suitable monitoring equipment.

Benzene
Checks for benzene vapour should be made prior to
entering any compartment in which a cargo that may have
contained benzene has recently been carried. Entry should
not be permitted without appropriate personal protective
equipment if statutory or recommended Permissible
Exposure Limits (PEL’s) are likely to be exceeded. Tests for
benzene vapours can only be undertaken using appropriate
detector equipment, such as that utilizing detector tubes.
(Benzene causes cancer, and has a delayed action which
may be up to 20years)
Detector equipment should be provided on board all vessels
likely to carry cargoes in which benzene may be present.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour
products will contain hydrogen sulphide, general practice
and experience indicates that, if the tank is thoroughly
washed, the hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated.
However, the atmosphere should be checked for hydrogen
sulphide content prior to entry and entry should be
prohibited in the event of any hydrogen sulphide being
detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in
pumprooms and appropriate precautions should therefore
be taken.

Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space,
which is not in daily use, the atmosphere should be tested
with an oxygen analyzer to check that the normal oxygen
level in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of
particular importance when considering entry into any
space, tank or compartment that has previously been
inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned
Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) and /or Threshold Limit
Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is
often expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use
of the term Permissible Exposure Limit refers to the
maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by
an appropriate regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average,
normally averaged over an eight-hour period.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), is normally expressed
as a maximum airborne concentration averaged over a 15-
minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (PPM) by
volume of gas in air. Toxicity can be greatly influenced by
the presence of some minor components such as aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV
of 300PPM, corresponding to about 2%LEL, is established
for gasoline vapours.

Entry Procedures
General
A responsible officer prior to personnel entering an
enclosed space should issue an entry permit. An example
of an Enclosed Space Entry Permit is provided in ISGOTT.
Suitable notices should be prominently displayed to inform
personnel of the precautions to be taken when entering
tanks or other enclosed spaces and of any restrictions
placed upon the work permitted therein.
The entry permit should be rendered invalid if ventilation of
the space stops or if any of the conditions noted in the
checklist change.
No one should enter any cargo tank, cofferdam, double
bottom or other enclosed space unless an entry permit has
been issued by a responsible officer who has ascertained
immediately before entry that the atmosphere within the
space is in all respects safe for entry. Before issuing an
entry permit, the responsible officer should ensure that:
The appropriate atmosphere checks have been carried out,
namely oxygen content is 21% by volume, hydrocarbon
vapour concentration is not more than 1% LFL and no
toxic or other contaminants are present.
Effective ventilation will be maintained continuously while
the enclosed space is occupied.
Lifelines and harnesses are ready for immediate use at the
entrance to the space.
Approved positive pressure breathing apparatus and
resuscitation equipment are ready for use at the entrance
to the space.
Where possible, a separate means of access is available for
use as an alternative means of escape in an emergency.
A responsible member of the crew is in constant
attendance outside the enclosed space in the immediate
vicinity of the entrance and in direct contact with a
responsible officer. The lines of communications for dealing
with emergencies should be clearly established and
understood by all concerned.
In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances
should the attending crew member enter the tank before
help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to
ensure the safety of those entering the tank to undertake
rescue operations.
Regular atmosphere checks should be carried out all the
time personnel are within the space and a full range of
tests should be undertaken prior to re-entry into the tank
after any break.
The use of personal detectors and carriage of emergency
escape breathing apparatus are recommended.
Reference should be made to ISGOTT for additional
guidance on entry into pumprooms.
Cargo Measurement

Tank quantities are measured by noting the level of the

fluid in the tank and then referring to the tank calibration
tables and noting down the quantity specified against that
level.
Thus we take the sounding of a tank – water and fuel on all
type of ships and then follow the above practice. Note that
prior to referring to the tables the tank level has to be
corrected for error due to trim and list. These corrections
are generally given in the tank calibration tables.
The above method though fine by all are turned upside
down on a tanker. A tanker loads oil and it is not feasible
to take a sounding every now and then – besides it is very
messy. On tankers therefore instead of sounding the
reverse is measured – that is the vacant level to reach the
top of the tank – or the ullage.
Thus ullage tables are nothing but the sounding table
reversed.
Note the following:
The maximum sounding of a tank is 24.35m the maximum
ullage is also 24.35m.
When the sounding is 10m the ullage would be 24.35 – 10
= 14.35m
Thus when a tank is filling up the sounding increases,
whereas the ullage reduces.
Once the liquid level is obtained the same is seen for the
quantity (Volume) in the calibration book.
This is the Gross volume at Natural Temperature GVn
(observed temperature being taken of the liquid at three
levels and then averaged)
The sounding of any water which may be present in the
tanks is now taken (some water is usually present in crude
oil and also sometimes in product oil). The calibration
tables are again referred and the volume of Free Water is
obtained.
Thus the Net Volume at Natural (NVn) is found by
subtracting the water form the GVn.
This NVn is now converted to a volume at 15˚C by looking
up the correction in the ASTM tables – a factor is found,
which converts the Volume at Natural temperature to a
volume at 15˚C.
This would then be the Net volume of oil loaded.
The conversion is required since the loading temperature
may be 40˚C whereas the temperature of the oil after a
voyage of 30 days would drop to about 30˚C or so.
Obviously the volume would then contract, so a standard
temperature correction is done to 15˚C at both the load as
well as the disport.
For weight calculations the volume at 15˚C is taken and
this is multiplied by the density at 15˚C of the oil (actually
a factor which is 0.0011 less than the density at 15˚C is
used)
Bale Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the breadth is
taken from the inside of the cargo battens, the depth from
the wooden ceiling to the underside of the deck beams and
the length from the inside of the bulkhead stiffeners or
sparring where fitted.
Grain Capacity:
This is the cubic capacity of a space when the lengths,
breadths and the depths are taken right to the ships side
plating. An allowance is usually made for the volume
occupied by frames and beams.
Stowage Factor:
This is the volume occupied by unit weight of cargo.
Usually expressed as cubic metres/ tonne. It does not take
into account space, which may be lost due to broken
stowage. However it obtained by multiplying the greatest
length by the greatest breadth with the greatest height.
Example:
A bale of Hessian has the following dimensions: L – 1.2 M,
B – 1.2 M and H – 1.5 M. The bale weighs 800 KGS.
The SF then would be obtained by:
Volume: L x B x H = 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.5 = 2.16 CBM
So, 2.16 CBM would weigh 0.8 MT
Or 1 MT of the cargo in bales would occupy 2.7 CBM
Broken Stowage:
The space between packages which remains unutilized.
This is generally expressed as a percentage and the amount
that is to be allowed varies with differ rent cargo and the
shape of the hold. It is greatest when large cases have to be
loaded in a n end hold, where the after end narrows down
considerably.
BS is generally not given in any of the booking lists, but is
a ship/ hold experience factor or a sister ship experience
factor for that particular cargo. The most commonly
accepted figure is about 10%, thus with a BS of 10% the
available cargo space that may be loaded would be 90%.
Example: Given to load a quantity of light packaged cargo
having a SF at 2.7 CBM/MT, the hold space (bale capacity)
is given as 885 CBM. To find the amount of cargo that may
be loaded in the hold.
The bale capacity is 885 CBM but since the BS is 10% the
available space would be 885 x 90% Or 796.5 CBM Thus
the cargo that can be loaded would be 796.5/ 2.7 = 295 MT
(about). However this BS that is given is for a proper stow
as per earlier estimates, the final stow should also be a
good stow or the BS that would be obtained on final
completion would vary.
Thus on final completion of loading if the ‘tween deck was
loaded with only 275 MT then the BS that was obtained
would be:
Full capacity 885 CBM at 2.7 CBM/ MT could take in 885/
2.7 = 328 MT
But it finally took in only 275 MT thus had a shortfall was
53 MT which was due to BS.
Thus,
328 MT – 275 MT = 53
And 53 / 328 = 0.16
Expressed as a percentage = 16% was lost due to BS
instead of the earlier estimated figure of 10%.
Example-101
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity – 962 m3
Max Height – 11.945m
Permissible Load – 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth – 4.5m
After Breadth – 11.5m
Mean Breadth – 8m
Length – 10.5m

Area of the hold – Length x Mean Breadth

A = 11 x 8 = 88m2
Permissible Load density – 9.2 t/m2
Therefore the load if evenly spread all over the hold would
enable the hold to be loaded with:
88 x 9.2 = 809.6 MT
Example-102
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity – 962 m3
Max Height – 11.945m
Permissible Load – 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth – 4.5m
After Breadth – 11.5m
Mean Breadth – 8m
Length – 10.5m
Cargo – SF 2.7 m3/t
Volume – 962 m3
Cargo can load – Volume/ SF
Cargo to load – 962/ 2.7
Cargo to load – 356 MT

Example-103
Given to load No. 1 Lower Hold
Bale capacity – 962 m3
Max Height – 11.945m
Permissible Load – 9.2 t/ m2
Forward Breadth – 4.5m
After Breadth – 11.5m
Mean Breadth – 8m
Length – 10.5m
Cargo – 150 MT, SF 2.7 m3/t to load only in after half of
the hatch space
After breadth – 11.5m
Mid Breadth – 8m
Mean breadth – 9.75m
½ Length – 5.25m
Area of ½ hold as above – 51.2 m2
Volume of above – 611 m3
Max permissible load on 51.2 m2 – 9.2 x 51.2 = 471 MT
Since the cargo has a SF of 2.7 m3/t the volume occupied
by the cargo would be:
Volume/ SF
611/ 2.7 = 226 MT
So the after half of the hold would take in 226 MT of the
cargo and would remain within the permissible load
density.
Let us now fill up the forward half of the hold with a cargo
having a SF of 0.8 m3/t (heavy cargo)
Cargo – ?? MT, SF 0.8 m3/t to load in forward half of the
hatch space
After breadth – 4.5m
Mid Breadth – 8m
Mean breadth – 6.25m
½ Length – 5.25m
Area of ½ hold as above – 32.8 m2
Volume of above – 392 m3
Permissible load would be: 32.8 m2 x 9.2 (SF) = 302 MT
Cargo that could be loaded as per SF – Volume/ SF = 392/
0.8 = 490 MT
But the permissible load is – 302 MT, so the cargo could
not be loaded right up to the top of the hold. So there
would be a height restriction.
First we find the Volume as required for the permissible
load of 302 MT
Load 302 = Volume/ 0.8
Or Volume = 302 x 0.8 = 242 m3
Since we know the area as 32.8 m2 we can find the height,
Volume/ Area or 242/ 32.8 = 7.4 m
Thus the cargo of 302 MT could be loaded only up to a
height of 7.4m.

Cargo Handling Safety

Safety while working with cargo gear
Derricks are long hollow steel booms rotating on swivels
(heel), they each have a part rope guy and a steel pendant
which is used for heaving and positioning the derrick and
also to keep the derrick in place. The rope is used in a
tackle and can absorb sudden shocks, which come on the
derrick while in operation. On the opposite side to the
cargo being worked a preventer guy made of wire rope is
fitted which is kept slightly slack than the rope guy, This
enables the rope guy to stretch before any load comes on
the preventer guy. This preventer is the last shock and
strain absorber, if the preventer is weak or is damaged it
can part with disastrous consequences. So maintaining the
preventer and fixing it right is of utmost importance.
When the two derricks are used together such that one
derrick is positioned just above the loading area on the
jetty and the other is positioned above the un loading area
within the hold, and the gynfall (load lifting) wires are
joined together, the arrangement is called a UNION
PURCHASE. This is the fastest method of working cargo,
however the loads that this arrangement can lift are less
than the individual SWL of the derrick. Additionally there is
a risk of the angle subtended at the hook point between the
two-gynfall wires going beyond 120degrees when the gynfall
wires together act as a pulling force on the derricks
laterally and can part the rope guys and or the preventer
wire.
Thus while the Union Purchase may be the fastest method
it requires careful rigging of the derricks as well as
experienced winch men to handle the operation together
with the duty officer keeping an alert watch on the working
of the same.

Cargo blocks are maintained during the voyage, but due to

various reasons especially with bush bearings sheaves, the
bearing may burn out. Prior breakdown however the block
would give an indication by a shrill metallic sound, the
crew and duty officer on deck is to be alert on deck and the
moment a noise is heard the cargo work is to be stopped
and the cause investigated.
After each shift of cargo handling – when the stevedores
take a break all the cargo gear is to be examined for any
wear and tear, if required the defective items are to be
replaced. If new blocks are being put to use, they should be
greased before fitting them. The test certificates and the
cargo-rigging plan should be checked to see that the
correct item is being fitted. Often a cargo block breaks
down and on examining it is seen that it had a SWL 5T
marked on it. Instantly a 5T block is brought from the store
and fitted, it could be that the block that had been fitted
earlier was of a lesser SWL – so it is always better to check
the rigging plan.
The handling of the cargo gear also needs to be supervised
and any extreme rough handling should be stopped. Where
the gyn fall wire rubs against the hatch coaming or
gunwale suitable padding should be place.
The derricks should be properly rigged and the preventer
wire should, if it has been rigged properly, stretch when the
load is in between the two derricks (in case of union
purchase). With no load the preventer should be with some
slack.
The cargo hook should have a locking clip to prevent the
sling from slipping out of the hook.
Cargo handling areas should be cordoned off so that no
person is found walking or standing under a cargo load.
Free passage may be used of the non-working side of the
cargo hatch.
A helmet is no safety for a load if it falls – helmets are
satisfactory if some loose small objects fall.
For heavy individual loads a swinging derrick is often used
either a single derrick is used where the guy ropes are
removed and other winch wires (also called steam guys) are
used to control the movement of the derrick.
A number of other types of rigging have over the years been
tried out some with great success and some with little.
Jumbo derricks were derricks attached to a Mast and could
lift as the name suggests heavy loads, the forward Jumbo
derrick was generally for extra heavy loads while the aft
derrick was for slightly lesser loads. In preparing for
operation the Jumbo derricks required four winches – 1 for
topping the derrick, one for lifting the load and two for
swinging the derrick. As such prior using the Jumbo
derrick was rigged and the lashings were then removed.
The rigging entailed that four light derricks were inoperable
since their winches were requisitioned, so efficient planning
on the part of the chief officer was required.
Stulken derricks had a single boom but the rigging was
such that a single operator could control the movement of
the derrick, another advantage was that these derricks
could service two adjacent holds by being capable of being
plumbed for either hold.
Velle derricks (with Thomson rig) were also very popular for
ships, which often loaded heavy loads such as containers;
in this the control again was unified into a single man
operation.
The above derricks were however very difficult to rig if the
wire had to be changed, and often the crew would spend an
entire day rigging one derrick.
Cargo cranes are used on many ships and especially on
bulk cargo carriers. These may be light cranes for general
cargo ships or heavy-duty cranes for lifting huge grabs or
containers.
Ships, which have slots for containers but also load general
cargo, are often fitted with cranes with SWL up to 40
tonnes. If a single crane is incapable of being used to lift
such heavy containers then two cranes are ‘twinned’ to
handle the load. The control is unified and both the cranes
work in tandem.

Hatch Covers
Hatch covers especially the Macgregor rolling hath covers
should be opened by a responsible person and after
opening the hatch covers should be locked to prevent their
rolling and closing on their own due to excessive trim.
Partially opening of hatch covers should be avoided unless
there is a means of locking them into place.
Prior opening a hatch cover the eccentric wheels should be
examined to see whether any have not been made upright
for opening. All loose gear on top of the hatch cover should
be removed. Under no circumstances should a hatch cover
be opened with a load on it. Also the hatch cover recess
should be physically checked to see that not obstruction is
present and that no stevedore is napping in the recess.
Similarly a hatch cover should not be closed with load on it
and any deck cargo loaded onto hatch cover should be
done only after the hatch cover has be battened down
(eccentric wheels turned down, cleats and wedges locked.
Prior closing it should also be ensured that the track way is
clear of all ropes, portable light wires and any other
obstruction and that the locking has been removed.
Tween deck hatch covers once they are opened are to be
fenced off, generally stanchions (Height – 1.2m) are
provided which have to be rigged and the wire/ chains
fitted. Nobody is to be allowed to work unless these are
rigged.
Cargo Lighting
Portable lights are required to be rigged in holds where
there is no provision for fixed lighting system.
These lights are commonly called cargo cluster lights and
have 4 or more light bulbs fixed to a common pan shaped
metal holder. A wire mesh covers the front of the ‘pan’ and
the inside of the ‘pan’ is painted white to reflect the light.
The light is attached to a short length of small dia rope to
facilitate its being fixed at the coaming.
The lights are to be checked in the afternoon and should be
rigged and in place by sunset. The lights should be
switched when there is adequate light in the hold in the
morning and should be un-rigged and stored neatly.
They should be switched on only after the gangs come for
the work and should be promptly switched off once all have
left the hold. Often the cargo lights are not removed and
the hatch covers are closed especially when closing due to
rain. This is fraught with danger, for the lead is cut and the
cluster light falls into the hold, the bulbs are hot and may
cause a fire, also the cut lead has power in it and may
cause a short circuit for the system or may electrocute any
person close by.
An experienced crew should supervise the rigging of cargo
lights since if loading jute or other flammable cargo the
distance off from the cargo should be maintained. Also the
shore people may tend to drag a light inside the hold to
facilitate loading, this should be supervised.
The electric cord should never lift the lights rather the
ropes attached for the same should be used.
In holds where fixed lighting is available the light fittings
should be inspected prior switching on and then only the
lights are to be switched on. Water seepage especially
during rain may cause short circuits and may eventually
lead to fires.
All lights should be switched off when no longer required.

Cargo Handling Equipment

Care and Maintenance of Steel Wire Rope

Wire ropes have a lubricant incorporated during

manufacture. This serves a dual purpose; it provides
corrosion protection and also minimises internal
friction. The protection provided by this manufacturing
lubricant is normally adequate to prevent deterioration
due, to corrosion during the early part of a rope’s
life. However, the lubricant applied during manufacture
must be supplemented by lubrication in service. This
service lubricant is termed the ‘dressing’ the kind of
dressing used and the frequency of application varies with
the type of rope and its usage. Details of the maintenance
of steel wire rope carried, or fitted in, ships is laid down in
the Maintenance Manual of the Company or the Planned
Maintenance Schedule (PMS) of the item. Wire hawsers
should be stowed on reels under a fitted cover whenever
possible. When being reeled in or otherwise stowed, the
surface of a wire hawser should be washed with fresh water
to free it from salt, then dried with cloths and lightly
smeared with the appropriate lubricant.

Inspecting Steel Wire Rope

Steel wire ropes carried or fitted in ships must be inspected
periodically in accordance with the PMS. When inspecting,
the indications described below should be sought:
Distortion of Strands: This is the result of damage by
kinking, crushing, serious crippling round a bad nip, or
other mistreatment. If likely to cause the strands to bear
unequal stresses they must be considered as reducing the
strength of the rope by 30%; and should they be
sufficiently serious to cause the heart to protrude, the rope
must be discarded. A crushed rope may be restored to
some extent by the careful use of a mallet.
Flattening of Some of the Outer Wires by Abrasion: These
flat’s are easily seen because the abrasion gives the
flattened wires a bright and polished appearance, but they
do not affect the strength of the rope unless they are very
pronounced. Flats, which extend to three-quarters of the
diameter of the wires will reduce their cross-sections - and
therefore their individual strengths - by 10%, and as only a
limited number of wires will be affected the loss in strength
of the whole rope will be very small. (These flats must not
be confused with flattening of the whole rope, which
indicates distortion of the strands and is therefore much
more serious).
Broken Wires: These are usually the result of fatigue and
wear, and mostly occur in crane wires. It is generally
accepted that a wire rope is coming to the end of its useful
life when one wire of any strand breaks. To deal with a
broken wire, grip with a pair of pliers the broken end and
bend the wire backwards and forwards until the wire
breaks inside the rope between the strands, where it can
do no harm. A rope should be discarded if more than 5%
of its wires are broken in a length equal to 10 times the
diameter of the rope; for example a 24mm diameter, 6X24
wire rope should be discarded if seven broken wires are
found in a length of 240mm. Because of the danger to
handlers, berthing wires should be discarded if any broken
wires are discovered.
Corrosion:
Wire rope can be corroded by:
The action of damp on the wires from which the gaivanising
has worn off, if this occurs to the inner wires first it causes
rust to fall out of the rope and is therefore easily detected;
The action of fumes and funnel gases, which attack the
outside wires, the effect then becomes visible on inspection;
Contact with acid, which soaks into the heart and attacks
the inside wires; this is not necessarily noticeable on the
outside of the rope, and can be the cause of parting
without warning.
Lack of lubrication is a frequent cause of corrosion. When
a wire rope is under tension it stretches and becomes
thinner, and during this process the individual wires are
compressed and friction is set up; the fibre heart and cores
are also compressed, releasing oil to overcome the
friction. A wire rope of outwardly good appearance, but
with a dry powdery heart or core, has -not been properly
maintained and should be treated with caution.
Effect of Extreme Cold:
When subjected to extreme cold a wire rope may become
brittle and lose its flexibility, and an apparently sound rope
may part without warning. The brittleness is not
permanent and the rope will regain its resilience in a
normal temperature, but the potential danger should be
remembered when working wires in very cold climates.
Testing of Steel Wire Rope
The wire from which the rope is to be made is tested before
manufacture of the rope to ensure it complies with the
relevant Standards with regard to tensile strength, torsion
and galvanising properties. After manufacture of each
production length of rope, test samples are cut from the
finished rope and strand. These samples are used for a
tensile test to destruction, tests of preforming of the rope,
and tests on a mixture of the individual wires with regard
to diameter, tensile strength, torsion and quality of
galvanising. Each coil of wire is accompanied by a
certificate of conformity and a test certificate showing the
guaranteed minimum breaking strength of the wire. (WHEN
NEW.)
General Remarks on Steel Wire Rope
How to Measure the Size of a Rope
The size of a wire rope is the diameter in millimetres of a
true circle, which will just enclose all the strands. Measure
at each of three places at least 2m apart. The average of
these measurements is to be taken as the diameter of the
rope.
Sheaves for Wire Rope
Size of Sheave Required for a Wire Rope Hoist. The
diameter of sheave required for each type of six-strand wire
rope supplied should be at least twenty times the diameter
of the wire. The diameter of a sheave used for any wire
rope will considerably affect the life of that rope. As the
rope bends round a sheave the strands and wires farthest
from the centre of curvature move apart and those nearest
the centre of curvature move closer together. This results
in the generation of considerable friction between these
wires and strands, and the smaller the sheave the greater
will be the friction. Friction also increases rapidly with the
speed at which the rope is moving. While the rope is bent
round a sheave the outer wires are also subjected to a
marked additional stress, and the smaller the diameter of
the sheave the greater will be the stress. For these reasons
the minimum diameters of sheaves recommended from
practical experience for various types of ropes at speeds not
exceeding 60m per minute are 20 times the diameters of
the ropes. For each increase in speed of 30m per minute,
5% must be added to these figures; this will give a rope a
reasonable life, but it is emphasized that its life will be
greatly increased if still larger sheaves are used. Similarly,
if a smaller sheave than that recommended has to be
accepted it will shorten the life of the rope, and on no
account should a sheave be used that is more than 20%
smaller than that determined by reference to the above
criteria.
Use of Correct Sheave:
The life of a rope used for hoisting can also be
considerably shortened by using the wrong type of
sheave. The groove in the sheave must fit and support the
rope as it travels round the sheave, otherwise there will be
increased internal friction and external wear. Figure below
shows a sheave with too wide a groove, which results in a
flattening of the rope and considerable distortion and
internal friction.

Figure below shows a sheave with too narrow a groove,

which results in the rope not being supported, the wires of
the strands being subjected to considerable wear, and
friction being set up between the rope and the sides of the
groove.

The groove of the correct sheave should be shaped in cross-

section to the true arc of a circle for a distance equal to
one-third of the circumference of the rope, and the radius
of the groove should be between 5 and 10% greater than
the specified radius of the rope.

Cargo Blocks
Rigging of cargo blocks:
Union Purchase – derricks with 2 sets of individual side
guys.
Union Purchase – derricks with 1 set of individual side
guys and a centre guy.

Rigging for a Gun Tackle:

Using one of a set of derricks to load heavy loads, this uses
the gynfall wire of the other derrick as a steam (power) guy
and also uses the gynfall wire of another derrick as the
other steam guy.
The derrick head block is connected to a floating block and
the gun tackle set up as shown below.
Working with Derricks:
While topping/ lowering derricks the following are to be
ensured:
Both side guys are to be rigged and attended to.
As the derrick is being lowered or topped the guys are to be
heaved up or slackened.
The gynfall wire is to be slackened when topping up the
derrick
The person attending to the lock should be attentive and at
the slightest doubt about the speed or range of topping/
lowering he has to release the lock. So that the derrick is
prevented from having a free fall.
Lowering of the derrick should be within limits as set out in
the derrick rigging plan
While parking the derrick, the control over the side guys
should be especially good since with a slight swing the
boom is liable to damage other structures.
The derricks should not be lowered or topped if the ship is
rolling as this would make controlling the derrick very
difficult.
The end rope of the controlling side guys should be held
after a full turn on the rams horn and there should be
adequate clear slack. In case of an emergency the next
turns should be put on quickly
If a ram’s horn is not available then other suitable points
may be used, however railing are not to be used.
Derricks are secured either on a horizontal crutch (light
derricks) or vertically with clamping to the mast.
Prior to lowering the derrick the following are to be
inspected and if any are found wanting they are to be made
good:
The crutch post and the bracket at the base are to be
inspected
The grommet attached to the eye pad (for the gynfall wire)
is to be inspected
The crutch wood sheathing is to be checked if damaged
then a canvas packing may be made in lieu
After the derrick is parked, the crutch clamp is to be fitted
and the locking arrangement fixed. There should be no
play.
The side guys are to be tightened and fixed on either side,
the extra rope of the guys being neatly coiled onto pallets or
slung on railings and tied as a whole – the rope should be
covered by a canvas cover
The gynfall wire hook is to be hooked to the grommet and
the wire tightened (just).
The topping wire should not have any weight, but neither
should it be slack
The heel of the derrick should be covered with canvas and
so should be the gynfall and the heel block
The preventer wire should be coiled and placed on a pallet
Types of Slings in common use:
Beside those mentioned there are various other slings in
use.
Plate sling: Normally the hinges clamp hangs loose, but
once fitted on to the plate and the wire pulled up, the
clamps hold the plate very firmly.
Open rope sling: This is used for various types of delicate
cargo. Not good for heavy weights.

Canvas sling: Used for lifting small bags of rice and other
cereals, the canvas is useful for collecting any spillage that
may be caused.

Snotter: This is used for various cargos. It is the most

versatile form of sling. Has been used even for container
loading, by attaching hook/ shackles to one end and using
for such snotters.
Pallet:
This is unitized cargo on a wooden pallet (the bottom
double tier of wood). Such cargo may be handles using
wore slings but the more safe and common is to use nylon
straps or rope slings.
If the cargo is loaded on to the ship and the pallet retains
the nylon strap then it is termed as pre-slung cargo. The
strap is returned to the ship after discharging the cargo.

Hook Handling:
Bales are soft cargo and they liable to be damaged by
hooks, which penetrate the surface and go deep inside.
Bales especially of hessian, bagged cargo and other such
cargo are rendered useless if the hooks punch holes into
them.
Such cargo have a label saying use no hooks.
However many port workers use the same hooks to handle
these cargo
The preferred hooks for such cargoes are shown below.
These contain about 3 rows of small raised metal pieces
that good at gripping but do not damage the cargo.
Some bagged cargo come with ‘ears’ protruding from the
four corners of the bags, these ‘ears’ are material of the bag
and facilitate the handling of the cargo.

Unitized cargo and Pre-slung cargo

Unitized cargo are cargo such as tea or bagged sugar/
asbestos which are placed on top of a wooden pallet and
are strapped together into a unit.
The advantages of this is that the pallet (now referred to
the whole) is easily moved and stored by forklifts.
Much manual labour is not required. These types of pallets
may be stacked more than one high, though genially 2
high.
Ease of lashing and faster loading is the essential
advantages. However a lot of broken stowage occurs if the
hold dimensions are not square. Thus these type of cargo
were unsuitable in old ships which had a tunnel in the
after holds and the bilges were rounded.
Since these cargo came with their own wooden pallets the
dunnaging cost was also saved.
After the development of unitized cargo, to speed up further
the handling process the cargo pallets were pre-slung with
nylon straps.
Thus a trailer arriving on the jetty had the pallets neatly
arranged and with their own slings. All it took from the
shore labour was for a person to hook on the slings. Once
on board the slings were not returned but the pallets was
stowed with the sling. At the discharging port the forklift
brought the pallet top the hatch square and aging the
pallet was lifted out with the same sling. On completion of
discharge if no cargo was being loaded on the ship the
slings were brought back on the ship. The slings were the
property of the ship and a strict tally was maintained. The
slings were made of nylon straps in various colours and
were certified as to the SWL.
With the advent and popularization of containers pre-slung
cargo system died out. Unitized cargo is still existent and
containers are loaded with unitized cargo.
Cranes versus Derricks
Using various cargo gear for handling of cargo.
Until the early ‘80’s the primary gear was the derrick. A
ship would have a set 0of derricks for each hatch,
sometimes if the hatch was big the two sets of derricks.
One for the fore part and the other for the after part. The
advantages of the derricks is that the boom never moved
after it was rigged into position. The only moving parts are
the sheaves of the blocks and the wires. As such it was and
still is the fastest means of discharging cargo.
The advantages of discharging with derricks are:
Very few moving parts
Time to discharge the least
Not much skill required to operate the derricks
Breakdown rate low
Easy to maintain and to repair on board
Spares are easily obtained from even small workshops
Spares are cheap
The disadvantages are:
Cannot discharge large and heavy packages
To be effective the derrick plumbing position has to be
properly judged.
Has to be re-rigged every time the discharge area or loading
square changes
Requires forklifts to feed the loading area
Cranes are used to handle heavy and large packages
including grabs on bulk carriers.
The advantages of the cranes are:
Can discharge from 360˚ angle
Can handle cargo from anywhere in the hatch square
Depending on the SWL of the crane can handle very heavy
packages
Sophisticated and has various safety cut outs to prevent
damage and accident.
The disadvantages are:
Is slow
Requires skilled person to operate
With unskilled labour requires frequent resetting of the
safety cut outs.
Maintenance difficult and time consuming
The good service provided by a crane is dependent on the
maintenance
Repairs even more difficult and time consuming
Spares are to be ordered in advance from the manufacturer
Wires are of special construction and are very expensive.
Rigging other derricks:

Velle Derrick Rigging

The above is a Velle derrick. This type of derrick is a
swinging derrick and is capable of lifting heavy weight and
may be found on container-oriented vessels (GC as well as
container cargo).
The rig is one of the most complicated. On a ship the crew
has to be very well experienced to rig up this derrick. The
length of the wire is also of special length and may be of
250 – 280 metres.
There are 3 winches in operation; the 2 extreme winches
have separate barrels, which turn in the opposite direction.
The extreme winches share 2 wires, 1 wire starts at 1
winch and ends on the other. The same is for the other
wire.
The gynfall wire is on a single centre winch. The controls
are usually joystick control – 1 for the swinging and the
other for the lifting. Thus the extreme winches control the
swinging as well as the topping/ lowering action and are
controlled by a single control joystick.
This is a rare rigging plan and the author has taken great
pains to personally draw it out while serving on a ship
rigged with 22T Velle derricks.
Use of Forklifts:
The precautions prior lowering and using forklifts inside
the holds:
The forklift should not have any oil leakages
The height of the hold should be considered while lowering
a tall forklift
The weight of the forklift together with the cargo should not
exceed the load density of the hold
The forklift should not be emitting profuse quantities of
smoke
Adequate fire fighting arrangements should be inside the
hold for any fire of the forklift
Jute and other flammable cargo should be kept away from
any ingress of oil from any leaking forklift
The driver should not drive the forklift rashly
Adequate lighting should be ensured
Saw dust and sand should be kept stand by for any
unforeseen oil leaks.

Cargo Care

Inspection of Holds prior Loading:

All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading
this may be done while the ship is enroute or just after
completion of discharging and prior loading at the same
port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges
are cleaned and tried out with an amount of water. If
required the hold is hosed down and the water pumped to
holding tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds
and that the bilges after loading would if necessary be
capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from
being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked
for leaks. Air pipes and sounding pipes passing through
the hold spaces are to be checked up with a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is
minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the
plating.
Some DB’s may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such
this would give a fair idea if the plates have set in or if their
appears to be a deep indentation/
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the
frames at the sides have to be inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside
steel does not come in contact with the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all
temporary eyes, which had been made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be
inadvertently be used for new lashing – lashing wires are
for one use only and the risk of parted lashing arises by
using old lashings.

Use of Dunnage
There are basically a few reasons why dunnage is so
necessary on general cargo ships while loading general
cargo.
Of prime importance is to keep the cargo away from the
steel bottom of the hold. The steel bottom condenses the
moisture in the air and these droplets of moisture over a
period of time can damage cargo. This is known as ship
sweat. And only by dunnage can the cargo be safeguarded
against this. Good ventilation certainly helps but some
amount of sweat is ever present.
The second reason why dunnage is spread about on the
holds is to bring about some amount of frictional resistance
between the cargo and the steel bottom. Thus lashing
becomes easier. Another factor is the dunnage helps in
spreading the cargo weight evenly.
In the event of small ingress of water the dunnage helps in
channeling the water into the bilge wells, if this were not
prevented then any accidental ingress of water would be
absorbed or retained in pools by the cargo.
If the hold bottom is dirty due to stain and hard coating of
earlier cargo and hosing down is not possible then a double
layer of dunnage would prevent the cargo in coming into
contact with the stain.
In general holds are laid with double dunnage while tween
decks are layered with single dunnage.
The size of the dunnage may vary but usually they are
about 6” X 1” X 6 feet. These are laid about 6” to 10” apart,
though the gaps may again vary depending upon the
nature of the cargo. The bottom tier of the hold dunnaging
may be laid in the fore and aft direction and the top tier in
the athwart ship direction. At the aft of the hold a clearing
of two feet is laid with the bottom tier in the athwart ship
direction. This helps in the water/ condensation from
trickling to aft and then subsequently finding the bilge well.
Tween deck dunnaging is of one tier – exceptionally may be
two tiers and it really doesn’t make much difference if the
dunnage is laid out in the fore and aft direction or in the
athwart ship direction.
For heavy cargo where spreading the weight takes
precedence over other hazards, the dunnage or timber used
is generally 4” X 4” X 6 feet (they may be also of stouter
variety).
These heavy timbers are laid out in the fore and aft
direction in order that the load is spread on as many frame
spaces as possible.
Dunnaging also forms a very important factor when
ventilation is of primary concern especially when loading a
consignment of Rice. Extra channels are created within the
bagged cargo to allow good ventilation. Together with
double dunnaging being provided between stacks of 4-6
bags. If this is not done then the cargo sweat that may be
generated is not removed and condenses on the cargo itself
allowing the cargo to rot.
Dunnage is used primarily for the protection of the cargo
from sweat related damage and consequently it is used so
that the cargo does not get too closely packed thereby
obstructing to the flow of air.
Special cargoes use more dunnage where air channels have
to be kept so that the airflow is not hampered. Rice is one
such cargo.
Advantage of dunnaging is also from the fact that it
spreads the weight of the cargo evenly all across the tank
top or tween deck top, but this advantage is a side benefit,
the main reason is protection from sweat. And to some
extent from heat from the boiler spaces in the engine room.
Dunnage is thus primarily for the prevention of sweat
damage to cargo.
The structure of the ship is made of steel, this steel being a
good conductor of heat cools down faster than wood as
such the temperature of the steel may fall below the dew
point of the air within the compartment leading to sweat.
However if this steel can be prevented from coming into
contact with the cargo by a layer of wood, which being a
poor conductor of heat does not cool down so drastically,
then the effect of the sweat coming into contact with the
cargo and thus damaging the same may be limited.

If despite precautions being taken, sweating does occur,

the damage caused may be minimized by adequate
dunnaging of the boundaries of the compartment.
The permanent dunnage of the ships side is known as
SPAR Ceiling or CARGO BATTENS. It consists of timber
about 150mm x 50mm fitted over the side frames. It is
usually fitted horizontally into cleats on the frames. There
is a vertical distance of not more than 230mm between the
battens. On some ships the spars are fitted vertically and
this gives better protection to the cargo as well as it suffers
less damage and is thus more long lasting. Spar ceiling
may also be fitted on the bulkheads at the ends of the
compartment; this is especially the case where the
bulkhead is the engine room bulkhead.

The tank top should be covered with a double layer of

dunnage. The bottom layer is usually 100mm x 50mm or
150mm x 50mm spaced about 300mm apart and laid
athwart ships to ensure free drainage to the bilges. If the
ship has only bilge wells then it is preferable to lay the
dunnage in the fore and aft direction.
The upper layer consists of 25mm boards about 150mm in
width laid at right angles to the bottom layer, about
150mm - 300mm apart.
Occasionally burlap/Hessian is laid over the dunnage - this
improves the appearance of the hold but restricts air
circulation through the cargo,
A permanent wooden ceiling more than 65mm thick is
often laid on the tank top in the square of the hatch; this is
to protect the tank top and does not replace the dunnaging.
A similar arrangement of dunnage will be found in the
tween decks, although double dunnaging is not so
commonly found here. Care should be taken to have a
good layer of dunnage at the ship’s side over the stringer
plate, as water tends to accumulate there.
Secondhand timber is frequently used for dunnage. It
should always be inspected to ensure that it is free of
stains, odour, nails and large splinters. New timber also
has its drawbacks; it should be free of resin and should not
have a strong smell of new wood.

The top of the cargo is protected by a covering (especially

under the stringer plate) by matting, wood dunnage or
some sort of waterproof paper, or plastic sheets.
Single Fore and Aft dunnaging the most common
dunnaging:
The second Layer

Contamination of Cargo
Cargoes -which taint easily, e.g. tea, flour, sugar, should be
kept well away from strong smells. If a pungent (strong
smelling) cargo e.g. cloves, cinnamon has been carried
previously, deodorizing of the compartment will be
necessary.
Dirty Cargoes should never be carried in the same
compartment as “clean” cargoes.
A very general classification for “dirty” cargoes could
include paints and oils, steelwork, animal products other
than foodstuffs. Similarly a general classification of clean
cargo could include food products and manufactured
vegetable products e.g. clothing. Naturally there will be
exceptions to both of the above groups.
Reasons for a general inspection of holds
All holds should be inspected prior commencing loading
this may be done while the ship is enroute or just after
completion of discharging and prior loading at the same
port.
A thorough cleaning of the hold is undertaken; the bilges
are cleaned and tried out with an amount of water. If
required the hold is hosed down and the water pumped to
holding tanks.
This ensures that there is no refuse lying within the holds
and that the bilges after loading would if necessary be
capable of being pumped out.
The bilges if with offensive smell have to be sweetened.
This is again a necessity to prevent any food cargo from
being tainted.
All other lines in the hold are to be pressed up and checked
for leaks. Air pipes and sounding pipes passing through
the hold spaces are to be checked up with a head of water.
The above ensures that ingress of water into the hold is
minimized.
The hold bottom has to be inspected for any dents in the
plating.
Some DB’s may be dedicated for fuel oil/ ballast as such
this inspection would give a fair idea if the plates have set
in or if their appears to be a deep indentation.
All spar dunnage at the ship sides are to be fitted and the
frames at the sides have to be inspected.
This is done so that if bale cargo is loaded the shipside
steel does not come in contact with the cargo.
The used lashing material has to be removed including all
temporary eyes, which had been made.
And if this is not done then the same eyes may be
inadvertently be used for new lashing - lashing wires are
for one use only and the risk of parted lashing arises by
using old lashings.

Bilge and Suction Wells

Bilges and bilge wells should be thoroughly cleaned prior
loading any cargo and especially if the previous cargo was
oil cakes or such other cargo.
Bilges should be cleaned, the suctions tried out and then
the bilges should be sweetened with pine oil or such. The
bilges should be finally dried.
Prior loading of cargo all bilge wells should be cleaned and
then filled with water and the water then pumped out.
Timings for pumping out the water should be noted and
compared with the pump efficiency.
While filling the bilge well the sounding as measured by the
sounding rod should be checked against the actual as
observed inside the bilge well.
The sounding pipe should be checked for any blockage.
The striker plate underneath the sounding pipe also should
be checked for wear down.

Deep Tanks
Deep tanks are tanks on general cargo ships, which are
accessible from the hold. The lines leading to such tanks
are to be blanked off since a slight leakage in such lines
can damage cargo in the holds. The man holes to these
tanks also has to be ensured that they are water tight. If
any liquid is loaded then the thermometer conduits should
be checked for any leakage as well the heating coils have to
be tested prior loading. The pumping out arrangement has
to be tried out before hand.
Covering of Bilge Wells
These suction filters are very easily taken care of. Hessian
is used to form a pad comprising of a double layer and this
is wrapped around the loose filter covers of the drain wells.
The pad should not be so thick that it would absorb water
and prevent the water from draining into the wells.
For limber boards the same pads are nailed down between
the adjacent boards. And they then serve the same
purpose, that is prevent any debris from clogging up the
suctions.

Care of Ballast Lines

This is very important, since the inadvertent ballasting of
the deep tanks would damage cargo loaded in the deep
tanks.
There are many instances of the above happening, bulk
carriers of yesteryears often had a hold dedicated as a
water ballast tank, in 1978 a new ship off the building yard
in Gothenburg had not blanked off the ballast lines since
the line had a double segregation. The vessel proceeded to
load grain in a US port and on arriving at a UK port for
discharging her cargo, it was found that a substantial
amount of cargo in the mentioned hold had become
damaged due to leakage of water from the ballast lines.
Separation Of Cargo
Separation of cargo for the above cases is required to
prevent claims arising due to short landing and later
complications with port authorities and customs for cargo
left behind on a ship for which duty is payable
There may be numerous ways of separating cargoes bound
for different ports or for same port and different
consignees. In general though not all are any hard and fast
rule the principle is to ensure that cargoes destined for a
particular port or consignee is delivered accordingly.
Failure to do this at the time of loading would create chaos
at the discharging port, with short landings – residual
cargo, since the excess cargo that would remain would not
be permitted to be discharged in a subsequent port without
creating more paperwork and expenditure. In fact cases
have arisen where ships have been arrested for landing
cargo not destined for that port – customs take a very strict
view of this in many parts of the world.
Thus it is of paramount importance to ensure that cargoes
are efficiently separated and marked so that to an un-
initiated the cargo discharge may proceed smoothly.
Port markings may be made by different means for different
cargoes, the following are some of the few:
Hessian separation strips, in various colours – used to
encircle the parcel
Shoring, blocking and securing the later port cargo, since
this would have to be done in any case at the discharging
port.
Paper sheets
Lashing ropes with coloured strips of cloth wrapped around
the joints-turnbuckles/ shackles/ bulldog clips.
Different cargo used as a separation between two similar
cargoes.
Water based colours used as port marking or consignee
marking – this method though is used more often for
consignee marking.
Where bare steel cargo is loaded oil based paint is also
sometimes used, since the others may not be suitable due
to partial rusting of the plates as well that hessian strips
are in-efficient for these cargoes.

Valuable Cargo
Valuable cargo such as Banknotes or mail earlier used to
be carried on general cargo ships in special lockers. If such
lockers were not available then some dedicated space,
which could be effectively secured, was made available.
Newer ships do not have such allotted spaces and today
most cargoes of such nature is shipped in containers.
Personal effects are also shipped and unless stated as very
valuable is loaded in ordinary holds and are quickly over
stowed with other cargo. As long as the over stowage is
incomplete the hold is strictly watched and the watchman
is done away with once the cargo is over stowed and the
entrance to the hold is locked.
All mail and personal effects are tallied on board – by shore
staff as well by a ships staff, the results are then verified.
In case of any dispute the authorities are informed before a
general protest is made.

Ventilation
On general cargo ships one of the largest number of cargo
claims is made for goods, which, have been damaged in
transit. Barring breakages and handling damage the most
common damage is caused by sweat.
SWEAT is formed when the water vapour in the air
condenses out into water droplets when the air is cooled
below its dew point.
The water droplets may be deposited onto the ship’s
structure known as “ship’s sweat” or on to the cargo known
as “cargo sweat”.
Ship’s sweat may run down, and may also drip onto the
cargo.
Cargo sweat occurs when the cargo is cold and the
incoming air is warm. Cargo sweat that is formed may be
absorbed by the cargo or if steel may run down after
rusting the cargo.
To avoid sweat and its effects it is imperative that wet and
dry bulb temperatures of the air entering and the air
contained in the cargo compartment are taken at frequent
intervals (once a watch).
If the temperature of the outside air is less than the dew
point of the air already in the compartment, sweating will
occur.
This gives rise to ship sweat and is most usually found on
voyages from warm places to colder places. Especially in
winter, on voyages from Singapore to Northern China.
Similarly if the temperature of the air in the compartment
(or the cargo) is lower than the dew point of the incoming
air sweating will again occur.
This gives rise to cargo sweat and usually occurs on voyage
from cold to warmer places. Especially in winter, on
voyages from Northern China to Singapore.
If the latter of the foregoing conditions is encountered
ventilation from the outside air should be stopped until
more favourable conditions obtain.
It should be noted that indiscriminate ventilation often
does more harm than no ventilation whatsoever.
It should also be noted that variation in the angles of the
ventilators from the wind cause very different rates of
airflow within the compartment.
The angle, which the ship’s course makes with the wind,
also affects the flow of air.
In general the greatest airflow occurs when the lee
ventilators are trimmed on the wind and the weather
ventilators are trimmed away from the wind.

Showing air circulation with lee vents on the wind and

weather vents off.
This is THROUGH VENTILATION.
If the dew point temperature of the air in the hold can be
kept below the temperature of the ship’s structure (decks,
sides and bulkheads) and the cargo, there will be no
danger of sweat forming.
This condition cannot always be achieved without some
means of mechanically circulating and drying the air in the
hold.
With mechanical ventilation baffle plates are fitted in the
hold and tween deck ventilators, so that air can be
prevented from the outside when conditions are
unfavourable. At these times the air in the hold is re-
circulated and, if necessary, it can be dried by passing it
through a de- humidifying unit.
It must be emphasized that the best results can only be
obtained from these systems when air temperatures and
dew points are carefully observed and the maker’s
instructions followed implicitly.
The adequate ventilation of container cargoes poses many
problems and experiments have been made with portable
ventilation units fitted into the individual
containers. However, it would appear the most common
practice is to give through ventilation for the container
compartments and hope that the ventilator grilles on the
side of the containers give the correct flow air over the
contents. It may be pointed out that vastly different types
of cargo may be loaded in adjacent containers in the ‘cell’
stowage and in most cases the ship’s personnel are
unaware of the contents of individual containers.
Refrigerated cargo
The cleanliness of cargo compartments for the transport of
refrigerated foodstuffs is more important than for any other
cargoes. Failure to clean properly can result in mould
growth and rotting of fruit and vegetables. Spaces are
swept down and all loose dirt removed. Any remaining
residues of previous cargoes will have to be scraped or
washed off. After cleaning, the spaces are sprayed with a
mild disinfectant such as weak sodium hypochlorite
solution, which also helps to remove odours. Alternatively,
an ozoniser may be used for the same purpose, especially
after the carriage of a strong-smelling cargo like oranges.
Holds and lockers are then cooled to carriage temperature.
It is essential that any dunnage to be used is placed in the
space before pre-cooling, since the use of warm dunnage
could cause considerable damage. It is common practice to
have holds and refrigerating machinery inspected by an
independent surveyor to certify that the ship is in a fit
condition for the carriage of the intended cargo.
The cargo should be inspected ashore by the ship’s officers
before loading to see that it is in good condition and has
been properly pre-cooled where that is required. A sample
of the cargo should be thoroughly inspected for signs of
mould or other damage and its temperature checked by
inserting a steel-tipped thermometer into the product. A
record of the inspection and temperatures recorded should
be kept. Similar random inspections of the cargo should be
made during the loading. Any damaged products or
carcasses which have thawed should be rejected or loaded
separately. They could cause spoiling of the remainder of
the cargo which was in good condition.
The carriage temperatures are stipulated by the shipper of
the goods and should be adhered to as closely as possible.
Temperatures are taken and recorded at frequent regular
intervals and entered in a log-book. Many ships are also
equipped with thermographs, which provide a continuous
record of compartment temperatures. In the event of claims
for cargo damage, the records and thermograph charts will
be required as evidence that the correct temperatures were
maintained.
In general cargo ships with a limited amount of refrigerated
space it is usual to arrange, as far as possible, for the
refrigerated cargo to be loaded last and at its destination to
be discharged first.
When refrigerated cargo is to be, carried, specially
insulated compartments must be provided. The insulation
on the sides, top and bottom of the compartment may be of
cork, fiberglass wool or polyurethane rigid foam. It will be
retained in position by galvanised sheeting.
The cooling may be effected by either circulating cold brine
(relative density 1.047) through pipes on the sides and
deck head, or by blowing cold air through the
compartment.
The compartment must be scrupulously clean when
loading meat and dairy products. It is recommended that
after sweeping out, the compartment is wiped down with
cloths wrung out in a cleansing fluid; this will prevent the
formation of mould on woodwork. If a fruit or other strong
smelling cargo has been carried in the compartment
previously, it will also be necessary to deodorize it. Spaces
are swept down and all loose dirt removed. Any remaining
residues of previous cargoes will have to be scraped or
washed off. After cleaning, the spaces are sprayed with a
mild disinfectant such as weak sodium hypochlorite
solution, which also helps to remove odours. Alternatively,
an ozoniser may be used for the same purpose, especially
after the carriage of a strong-smelling cargo like oranges.
The bilges should be cleaned and sweetened and their
suctions tested. The brine traps should be cleaned out,
refilled and tested. This also applies to those in the ‘tween
deck.
The brine traps serve a dual purpose they prevent the cold
air from reaching the bilges and thus freezing out the water
in the pipes and also they prevent the bad odour from the
bilges reaching the cold chambers.
If the vessel is fitted with brine-pipes the side baffle boards
(which keep the cargo clear of the pipes) should be removed
and the pipes wiped clean. If fitted with the cold air
circulation system, air ducts should be cleaned, this is
particularly important if a dusty cargo has been carried
previously.
Any fat or grease spots on the deck should be scraped up.
The insulation should be inspected and any repairs
necessary to it or to the sparring, which is attached to it,
must be effected.
Thermometers should, be made ready and, where fitted,
thermometer pipes should be erected.
Any ventilators leading to the compartment must be
plugged. Air change plugs should also be in position.
Dunnage must be pre-cooled before use. In most-trades
the dunnage will be laid before the loading commences.
If the compartment is fitted with gratings, these will have
been scrubbed before being laid down.
When chilled meat is to be carried, the requisite number of
meat bars, hooks and chain will have to be placed in the
compartment for pre-cooling.
The hook and chains should be sterilized (this is usually
done ashore).
When the compartment has been prepared it will be cooled
to the loading temperature. It will then be ready for the
surveyor to carry out a loading port survey. In most cases
this is in essential before any cargo is loaded.
When the cargo has been loaded the portable brine-pipes
will be fitted in the. square of the hatch. Afterwards the
insulated plug hatches must be shipped and fitted as
tightly as possible.
It is frequently necessary to paste paper over the joints to
keep the hatch as airtight as possible. In extreme cases
the joints may have to be caulked and pitched. In the
latter case, the greatest. care must be taken when opening
up as pitch and oakum falling onto carcass meat can stain
it.
When general cargo or frozen cargo at a different
temperature is being carried in the deck above, a layer of
sawdust is often put over the hatches and deck to absorb
any condensation.
Occasionally it may be necessary to load cargo through a
‘tween deck which contains refrigerated cargo. The
refrigeration should be stopped whilst the hatches are
open, otherwise an undue amount of frost may form. If
this forms on brine pipes it will act as insulation and
prevent further cooling.
Refrigerated containers with their own built in cooling units
are to be inspected as thoroughly as for chambers above –
that is if they are being stuffed on board, this is extremely
rare. In general the containers are pre-cooled ashore and
then are stuffed at the providers place or in the dock from
refrigerated trucks. The inspections are done by shore
surveyors.
Prior loading all the ships power points for these containers
are to be tested and logged down.
While receiving the containers the containers are to be
inspected for any dents or gashes on the body and the
temperature card (circular) is to be noted.
The temperature is to be noted, however the temperature
may a bit high on loading and it comes down after the
ships power is switched on. The temperature graph is to be
monitored and any sign of heating up is to be prevented.
Some units have drawings to do some sort of emergency
arrangements if the unit fails during the voyage.
The graph card needs to be renewed once the time scale
gets over and these are kept as spare on board and are to
be replaced by fresh cards, the filled in cards are to be kept
with the cargo/ chief officer for handing them ashore prior
discharging.
Temperature records are vital in both the methods of
carriage. Temperatures are to be recorded at least three
times a day and all the points provided and the same is to
be recorded, if automatic recorders are provided then the
visual sightings also should be used for checking.
For containers too the same procedure is to be followed,
visual sightings are recorded together with the automatic
recording.
All records are to be kept safely are to be handed over
(copies) to the shore authorities after discharging. These
records are vital in case there are claims about the cargo
and the temperature records are the only proof the ship
has to refute the claims.
Prior loading the cargo in pallets are to be inspected (non
containerized) by ships officer together with the surveyor.
Often the cargo is brought to the jetty and the packages
may show signs of softening (thaw) these are to be rejected.
Also depending on the shippers agreeing the temperature
probes (which may puncture the cases) may be inserted to
note the temperature, this however may not be allowed
since they apparently damage the cases (paper hardboard).
Any staining of the cases again is to be investigated and
rejected if necessary. Reefer cargo is loaded last and
discharged first. All cargo is tallied on board and ashore
since some are liable for pilferage – shrimps as such.

Enclosed Space Entry

An enclosed space is one with restricted access that is not
subject to continuous ventilation and in which the
atmosphere may be hazardous due to the presence of
hydrocarbon gas, toxic gases, inert gas or oxygen
deficiency. This definition includes cargo tanks, ballast
tanks, fuel tanks, water tanks, lubricating oil tanks, slop
and waste oil tanks, sewage tanks, cofferdams, duct keels,
void spaces and trunkings, pipelines or fittings connected
to any of these. It also includes inert gas scrubbers and
water seals and any other item of machinery or equipment
that is not routinely ventilated and entered, such as boilers
and main engine crankcases.
Many of the fatalities in enclosed spaces on oil tankers
have resulted from entering the space without proper
supervision or adherence to agreed procedures. In almost
every case the fatality would have been avoided if the
simple guidance in this chapter had been followed. The
rapid rescue of personnel who have collapsed in an
enclosed space presents particular risk. It is a human
reaction to go to the aid of a colleague in difficulties, but far
too many additional and unnecessary deaths have occurred
from impulsive and ill-prepared rescue attempts.
Respiratory hazards from a number of sources could be
present in an enclosed space. These could include one or
more of the following:
Respiratory contaminants associated with organic vapours
including those from aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene,
toluene, etc.; gases such as hydrogen sulphide; residues
from inert gas and particulates such as those from
asbestos, welding operations and paint mists.
Oxygen deficiency caused by, for example, oxidation
(rusting) of bare steel surfaces, the presence of inert gas or
microbial activity.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
During the carriage and after the discharge of
hydrocarbons, the presence of hydrocarbon vapour should
always be suspected in enclosed spaces for the following
reasons:
Cargo may have leaked into compartments, including
pumprooms, cofferdams, permanent ballast tanks and
tanks adjacent to those that have carried cargo.
Cargo residues may remain on the internal surfaces of
tanks, even after cleaning and ventilation.
Sludge and scale in a tank which has been declared gas
free may give off further hydrocarbon vapour if disturbed or
subjected to a rise in temperature.
Residues may remain in cargo or ballast pipelines and
pumps.
The presence of gas should also be suspected in empty
tanks or compartments if non-volatile cargoes have been
loaded into non-gas free tanks or if there is a common
ventilation system which could allow the free passage of
vapours from one tank to another.
Oxygen Deficiency
Lack of oxygen should always be suspected in all enclosed
spaces, particularly if they have contained water, have
been subjected to damp or humid conditions, have
contained inert gas or are adjacent to, or connected with,
other inerted tanks.

Other Atmospheric Hazards

These include toxic contaminants such as benzene or
hydrogen sulphide, which could remain in the space as
residues from previous cargoes.
ATMOSPHERE TESTS PRIOR TO ENTRY
General
Any decision to enter an enclosed space should only be
taken after the atmosphere within the space has been
comprehensively tested from outside the space with test
equipment that has recently been calibrated and checked
for correct operation.
It is essential that all atmosphere testing equipment used
is:
Suitable for the test required;
Of an approved type;
Correctly maintained;
Frequently checked against standard samples.
A record should be kept of all maintenance work and
calibration tests carried out and of the period of their
validity. Testing should only be carried out by personnel
who have been trained in the use of the equipment and
who are competent to interpret the results correctly.
Care should be taken to obtain a representative cross-
section of the compartment by sampling at several depths
and through as many deck openings as practicable. When
tests are being carried out from deck level, ventilation
should be stopped and a minimum period of about 10
minutes should be allowed to elapse before readings are
taken.
Even when tests have shown a tank or compartment to be
safe for entry, pockets of gas should always be suspected.
Hence, when descending to the lower part of a tank or
compartment, further atmosphere tests should be made.
Regeneration of hydrocarbon gas should always be
considered possible, even after loose scale has been
removed. The use of personal detectors capable of
continuously monitoring the oxygen content of the
atmosphere, the presence of hydrocarbon vapour and, if
appropriate, toxic vapour is strongly recommended. These
instruments will detect any deterioration in the quality of
the atmosphere and can provide an audible alarm to warn
of the change in conditions.
While personnel remain in a tank or compartment,
ventilation should be continuous and frequent atmosphere
tests should be undertaken. In particular, tests should
always be made before each daily commencement of work
or after any interruption or break in the work.
Sufficient samples should be drawn to ensure that the
resulting readings are representative of the condition of the
entire space.
Hydrocarbon Vapours
To be considered safe for entry, whether for inspection, cold
work or hot work, a reading of not more than 1% LFL must
be obtained on suitable monitoring equipment.
Benzene
Checks for benzene vapour should be made prior to
entering any compartment in which a cargo that may have
contained benzene has recently been carried. Entry should
not be permitted without appropriate personal protective
equipment if statutory or recommended Permissible
Exposure Limits (PEL’s) are likely to be exceeded. Tests for
benzene vapours can only be undertaken using appropriate
detector equipment, such as that utilizing detector tubes.
Detector equipment should be provided on board all vessels
likely to carry cargoes in which benzene may be present.
Hydrogen Sulphide
Although a tank which has contained sour crude or sour
products will contain hydrogen sulphide, general practice
and experience indicates that, if the tank is thoroughly
washed, the hydrogen sulphide should be eliminated.
However, the atmosphere should be checked for hydrogen
sulphide content prior to entry and entry should be
prohibited in the event of any hydrogen sulphide being
detected. Hydrogen sulphide may also be encountered in
pumprooms and appropriate precautions should therefore
be taken.
Oxygen Deficiency
Before initial entry is allowed into any enclosed space,
which is not in daily use, the atmosphere should be tested
with an oxygen analyzer to check that the normal oxygen
level in air of 21% by volume is present. This is of
particular importance when considering entry into any
space, tank or compartment that has previously been
inerted.
Generally nearly all substances have been assigned
Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL) and /or Threshold Limit
Values (TLVs). The term Threshold Limit Value (TLV) is
often expressed as a time weighted Average (TWA). The use
of the term Permissible Exposure Limit refers to the
maximum exposure to a toxic substance that is allowed by
an appropriate regulatory body.
The PEL is usually expressed as a Time Weighted Average,
normally averaged over an eight-hour period.
Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL), is normally expressed
as a maximum airborne concentration averaged over a 15-
minute period.
The values are expressed as parts per million (PPM) by
volume of gas in air. Toxicity can be greatly influenced by
the presence of some minor components such as aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene) and hydrogen sulphide. A TLV
of 300PPM, corresponding to about 2%LEL, is established
for gasoline vapours.
Entry Procedures
General
An entry permit should be issued by a responsible officer
prior to personnel entering an
enclosed space. An example of an Enclosed Space Entry
Permit is provided in ISGOTT.
Suitable notices should be prominently displayed to inform
personnel of the precautions to be taken when entering
tanks or other enclosed spaces and of any restrictions
placed upon the work permitted therein.
The entry permit should be rendered invalid if ventilation of
the space stops or if any of the conditions noted in the
checklist change.
No one should enter any cargo tank, cofferdam, double
bottom or other enclosed space unless an entry permit has
been issued by a responsible officer who has ascertained
immediately before entry that the atmosphere within the
space is in all respects safe for entry. Before issuing an
entry permit, the responsible officer should ensure that:
The appropriate atmosphere checks have been carried out,
namely oxygen content is 21% by volume, hydrocarbon
vapour concentration is not more than 1% LFL and no
toxic or other contaminants are present.
Effective ventilation will be maintained continuously while
the enclosed space is occupied.
Lifelines and harnesses are ready for immediate use at the
entrance to the space.
Approved positive pressure breathing apparatus and
resuscitation equipment are ready for use at the entrance
to the space.
Where possible, a separate means of access is available for
use as an alternative means of escape in an emergency.
A responsible member of the crew is in constant
attendance outside the enclosed space in the immediate
vicinity of the entrance and in direct contact with a
responsible officer. The lines of communications for dealing
with emergencies should be clearly established and
understood by all concerned.
In the event of an emergency, under no circumstances
should the attending crew member enter the tank before
help has arrived and the situation has been evaluated to
ensure the safety of those entering the tank to undertake
rescue operations.
Regular atmosphere checks should be carried out all the
time personnel are within the space and a full range of
tests should be undertaken prior to re-entry into the tank
after any break.
The use of personal detectors and carriage of emergency
escape breathing apparatus are recommended.
Reference should be made to ISGOTT for additional
guidance on entry into pumprooms.