TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION crude sleds. They used every means to make
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LAND
TRANSPORTATION
- During the course of the 19 th and 20th centuries,
people’s everyday lives have been changed to
extraordinary degrees and in previously
unimagined ways by technological advances.
- The use of tens of thousands of materials in all
forms of industry has made for better standards
of living and much more leisure time.
- In the field of land transportation, great men in
science and technology provided wide range of
knowledge in the development of transportation
facilities.
Etienne Lenoir – initiated the development of the
internal combustion engine which paved way for the
development of the automobile.
Henry Ford – transformed society by putting the public
on wheels and was adopted for the mass production of
many other goods.
Early 3000 BC – the civilizations of Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley developed roads,
first for pack animals and then for wheeled vehicles.
The Romans – made innovations on road building from
a city-state by conquering other small states; they built
roads into the conquered regions to help consolidate
their gains.
18th century – it is the advancement in engineering to
pave the way for the construction of modern roads and
streets.
20th century – motorways and highways were
introduced for fast moving motor vehicles.
MANPOWER, ANIMAL POWER, AND WIND
POWER
Transportation – is the movement or conveying of
persons and goods from one location to another.
Nomadic – constantly migrate from one place to another
according to their own detailed knowledge of exploitable
resources.
- Nomad – from the Greek, “to pasture” was
originally used to refer to pastoralists – groups
that migrate in an established pattern to find
pasture lands for their domestic livestock.
- Types of Nomad:
1. Foraging populations who wander in
search of their food.
2. Pastoral nomads – who move with
their families, belongings, and herds
of cattle, camel, sheep, or goats
through an annual cycle of pastures
whose availability is determined by
the alteration of hot and cold or wet
and dry seasons.
3. Gypsies, tinkers, and similar
itinerants in urban and complex
societies.
- It is believed that early human beings traveled to
places by foot, carrying their loads on their
backs or on their heads, while others pulled
their transportation with the least time and
effort.
Ancient Modes of Transportation
A. Manpower:
1. Carrying Pole – in China and other parts of the
Far East, the carrying pole, balanced one
shoulder is a popular carrying device.
2. Back Load and Tumpline – in Subtemala, pots
are carried on a wooden framework supported
by a tumpline across the forehead.
3. Sledge on rollers – the moving of heavy burdens
was to place them on sledge which rested on a
series of rollers.
4. Sledge on runners – A simple sledge, probably
man-drawn, was in use at the end of the Old
Stone Age in northern Europe, as evidenced by
fragments of wooden runners which survived.
5. Travois – as the pole arrangement called, serves
as a platform on which the burdens are placed.
B. Animal Power:
1. Ox – Cattle, was first domesticated
in Mesopotamia, were used as draft
animals to draw war Chariots.
2. Reindeer –was first domesticated in
Siberia in the beginning of the
Christian era.
3. Dog – In the Far North, the dogs
team drawing sledges are the chief
means of transportation; and in parts
of Europe, the dogs are used to draw
small carts.
4. Donkey – first domesticated in the
Middle East.
5. Llama – In pre-Columbian America,
the Llama was the only new world
animal other than the dog capable of
domestication for use in transport.
6. Elephant – In India, elephants were
formerly used in war and are still
employed to some extent for
ceremonial processions and big
game hunting. In Burma and
Thailand, these huge animals are
widely used in the lumber industry.
7. Horse – around 2,000 B.C. horse
drawn chariots appeared in
southwest Asia and 1,000 years
later, the Persians arrived with
cavalry which gave mobility and
power to the German tribes who
invaded Europe and to the Central
Asian conqueror Genghis Khan.
8. Camel – there two kinds of camel,
the Two-Humped Bactrian camel of
Central Asia and the one-humped
dromedary of Arabia have long been
used for transport.
9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle
that lives at high altitudes on the
Tibetan plateau and in the
neighboring Mountain Regions is
ridden and used as a pack animal
heights were horses and ordinary
animal could not survive.

C. Wind Power – man realized the energy from the
mass of moving air and learned to utilize such powers to
lift rather than to drag. This paved to invention of air
lifted transportation vessels:
1. Ancient Chinese Kite – based on a Korean
tradition, the kite was first used for transport
when a Korean general employed one in
bridge building. By means of a kite, a cord
was conveyed across the river where heavier
ropes were fastened and finally the bridge
cable.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – the great
renaissance artist, scientist and engineer,
Leonardo da Vinci, made study of the flight
of the birds and his notebooks sketched a
number of ornithopter (a.k.a. orthopter)
which derives its principal support and
propelling from flapping wings like those of
a bird.
3. Montgolfier Balloon – the Montgolfier
brothers of France Joseph Michel and
Jacques Entienne have successfully released
several balloons when they proposed to use
two condemned prisoners for the first ascent
with passengers.
- Pilate de Rozier – a natural historian
protested this and claimed the honor
for himself.
- In 1783, he and the Marquis d’
Arlanoes became the first men to
make a free balloon ascent. The
balloon constructed of linen and
inflated with hot air traveled 9,000
yards and remained in the air for 20
minutes.
4. Siemens’ Rocket Plane – Ernst Werner Von
Siemens who later achieved fame as an
electric industrialist, in 1847 designed rocket
plane which was to be propelled by the
explosive force of gunpowder.
5. Lilienthal Glider – Otto Lilienthal, a
German inventor who also made a study of
the flight of birds and experimented with
ornithopters, was going so far as to build a
model ornithopter. - In 1891, he made the
first of a number of a glider flights which
were to exert a profound influence on the
development of aviation.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – one of the
pioneers of lighter-than-air craft was Alberto
Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who
experimented with the steam-powered
balloons in Paris.
7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine – inspired
by Lilienthal’s glider experiments, Orville
and Wilbur Wright began studying the
problems of heavier-than-air flight.
- They built biplane kite then over
200 different wing types which they
tested in a wind tunnel of their own
invention, before they conducted
their first man-carrying powered
machine.
- This flew successfully at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina on Dec. 17,
1903. By 1909, airplanes became
sufficiently accepted to justify
beginning commercial manufacture
of the machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – A feat
which particularly captured popular
imagination was the first solo flight from
New York to Paris, made by Capt. Charles
A. Lindbergh in May 1927 in a plane
especially built for the flight, the Spirit of
St. Louis.
ROADS AND VEHICLES HISTORY
- As man, from ancient times to the 20th century,
sought to make their transport facilities more
efficient, they have always endeavored to move
people and property with the least expenditure of
time, effort, and money.
- The following are some of the inventions and
innovations and important events that lead to
modern land transportation:
A. Wheel – was invented probably in Western Asia
– such invention was a milestone and a great
step forward in transportation. The following
were some of the earliest types of wheeled carts:
1. Solid wheels on fixed axle – which were
made of a single piece of wood, rotated
on single axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank wheels –
this chariot, of about 2400 B.C., had
solid wheels built of three pieces, and so
was more durable than the one-piece
wheel.
3. Greek quadrica with spoked wheels –
drawn by four horses, was a light and
elegant vehicle for gentlemen about 250
B.C. It had spoked wheels and axles of
irons or bronze, handles for aid in
mounting, and seat formed by a board
placed across the handles.
4. Roman carpentum – a closed, two-
wheeled cart, was the favored vehicle
when Roman women journeyed outside
the city.
5. Italian cocchio – 1288, a traveling
wagon in which the passengers were
protected by a covering of leather or
cloth fixed over a wooden framework.
The Romans – were the major road builders in the
ancient world. The Romans road network reached a total
of about 50,000 miles (80,000 kms.), with Feeder roads
branching out from the main highways.
John L. Macadam – who did not abandon the theory of
feeder road building and perfected the macadamized
road in England about 1815.
John Palmer- introduced his first fast mail coach in
March 0f 1785 and by 1800, the English coach system
was in full swing.
Karl Von Drais, in 8117, a German Baron, introduced a
steerable wheel, creating the “draisienne,” or dandy
horse.”
Kirkpatrick Macmillan – in 1838, a Scottish blacksmith,
made the first machine with pedals, which were attached
to and drove the rear wheel by means of cranks.
 6. Academic Institution
John Boyd Dunlop – in 1888, a Scottish, introduced 7. Courts
Pneumatic Tires (inflated by air). 8. Public Information Offices
9. Citizen Support Groups
Etienne Lenoir – in 1860’s – 70’s, introduced motorized 10. Media
carriages by Internal Combustion Engine. 11. Other agencies.

Nicolaus Otto and Gottleb Daimler – pioneered the

manufacture of gas engines, and later Daimler became a
successful automobile manufacturer. THE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC
- The Five (5) principles or pillars in the
Rudolf Diesel – a German engineer, developed an prevention of traffic accidents:
internal combustion engine which is similar with the
gasoline engine which is similar with the gasoline engine 1. Traffic Engineering – it is the science of
but requires no electrical ignition system or carburetor measuring traffic and travel the study of the
and uses other form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel. basic laws relative to the traffic law and
generation;
Henry Ford – in 1908, introduced the Model T, which - The application of this knowledge to the
was proved so popular that by 1914, Ford had adopted professional practice of planning, deciding, and
Mass Production methods to meet the demand. operating traffic system to achieve safe and
Felix Wankel – in 1956, a German mathematician, efficient transportation of persons and goods.
developed an advanced-type of engine, named after him, - Agencies and/or offices under Traffic
that operates very differently from gas and diesel Engineering:
engines. It is started by a moving crankshaft. a. DPWH
b. Provincial Government
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT c. Municipal Government
- Traffic Management is therefore designed to d. Chartered Cities
make the traffic way safer for travelers, expedite
the movement of traffic, and to provide 2. Traffic Education – it is the process of giving
convenience to the traffic facilities’ users. training and practice in the actual application of
traffic safety knowledge.
Management – It refers to the skillful use of means to - Agencies responsible for Traffic Education:
accomplish a purpose. a. Schools
b. Public Information Programs
Operation – pertains to a course or series of acts to effect c. Citizen Support Groups
a certain purpose; manner of action; or a vital or natural
process of activity. 3. Traffic Enforcement – this field deals mostly on
the implementation and enforcement of traffic
Roadway – refers to that part of the traffic way over laws and rules and regulations.
which motor vehicles pass. - Agencies responsible for Traffic Enforcement:
a. Land Transportation Office (LTO)
Shoulder – it refers to either side of the roadway, b. Legislative Bodies
especially along highways. c. Police Traffic Enforcement:
(1) PNP-TMG
Traffic – it refers to the movement of persons, goods, or (2) MMDA
vehicles, either powered by combustion system or (3) Police Auxiliaries
animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose (4) LTO Flying Squad
of travel.
4. Traffic Ecology or Environment – it is very
Traffic Way – refers to the entire width between recent which includes the study of potentially
boundary lines of every way or place of which any part disastrous population explosion, changes in
is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular urban environment and new activities carried
traffic as a matter of right or custom. out, air pollution, water pollution and crowding,
especially transport congestion which result
Major Causes of Traffic Congestion: therein.
1. Physical Inadequacy - Any decision in modernizing the transportation
2. Poor Control Measures system shall consider the following:
3. Human Errors a. Noise
4. Poor Maintenance b. Vibration
c. Air Pollution
Agencies Involved in Traffic Management: d. Dirt
1. DOTC is responsible for the implementation of e. Visual Intrusion
LTO (R.A. 4136) f. Loss of Privacy
2. City or Municipal Engineers’ Office g. Changes in Amount of Light
3. Department of Public Works and Highways h. Neighborhood Severance, both physical
(DPWH) and sociological
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal Boards) i. Relocation
5. Philippine National Police (PNP)
 j. Distraction during planning and
construction
k. Accident Experience
l. Pedestrian Journey
m. Congestion and other Benefits to
Vehicles.
- Laws and Statutes Concerning Traffic Ecology:
a. P.D. 1181 – Providing for the prevention,
control and abatement of Air Pollution from
motor vehicles and for other purposes.
b. Letter of Instruction No. 551 – Directing the
law enforcement agencies to implement the
pollution control program.
c. R.A. 8749 – otherwise known as the “Clean
Air Act.” An act providing for the regulation
of motor vehicles emitting toxic gases like
the use of the diesel and leaded gasoline.
5. Traffic Economy – it is the most recent of the
pillars of traffic which deals with the benefits
and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.
- Primarily, traffic operation is designed to
expedite the movement of traffic. However, with
the prevailing traffic congestion during rush
hours in any given locality, traffic adversely
affects the economic status of the commuting
public.
Traffic Safety Education – it is the process of training
roads users in the avoidance and prevention of traffic-
related accidents.
Road Safety – it refers to reduced risk of accident or
injury on the roads, achieved through multidisciplinary
approaches involving road engineering and traffic
management, education and training of road users, and
vehicle design.
Factors Contributing to Accidents:
1. Human errors;
2. Road deficiencies; and
3. Vehicle defects.
Driver’s Education – in general, driver instruction aims
primarily to teach the rudiments of driving.
- Secondary aims:
a. to instill awareness of one’s legal and
moral responsibilities in traffic, and
b. to teach the abilities required for one to
be eligible for a driver’s license.
TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS
- The standards of regulating movements on
roads, streets and highways are found in traffic
laws, rules and regulations.
- The following are the basis for the traffic
regulations and prohibitions in the country:
1. Republic Acts (R.A.s)
a. R.A. 4136 – This is the basic law
regulating Land Transportation in the
Philippines. It has repealed Act No.
3992 (The Revised Motor Vehicle Law).
Further, as amended by R.A. Nos. 5715,
6374, P.D. Nos. 382, 843, 896, 1057,
1934, 1950, 1958, BP Blg. 43, 74 and
398.
b. R.A. 6539 – “Anti-Carnapping Act of
1972”, the act preventing and penalizing
carnapping.
c. R.A. 5448 – Act imposing a tax on
privately owned passenger automobiles,
motorcycles and scooters and etc.
d. R.A. 8749 – “Clean air Act” which
regulates emission of toxic gases of both
gasoline and diesel engines and bans the
use of leaded gas for gasoline engines.
e. R.A. 8750 – Attachment of Seat belts
for all types of motor vehicles and
imposes penalty for the non-compliance
thereof.
f. R.A. 7924 – Creating MMDA, defining
its powers and functions, providing
funds therefor and for other purposes.
g. R.A. 10586 - Anti Drunk and Drugged
Driving Act of 2013.
h. R. A. 10054- Motorcycle Helmet Act
of 2009
2. Presidential Decrees (P.D.s)
a. P.D. No. 96 – Regulating the use of
sirens, bells, horns, etc.,, by prohibiting
the attachment of any siren uses by the
vehicles belongs to AFP, PNP, NBI,
LTO, BJMP, Hospitals and BFP and are
specifically intended for use in
emergencies.
b. P.D. No. 101 – Expediting the methods
of prescribing, redefining or modifying
the lines and modes of operations of
public utility motor vehicles in the
Philippines.
c. P.D. No. 207 – Declaring as part of the
laws of the Philippines the Vienna
Convention on Road Traffic, Signs and
Signals.
d. P.D. No. 612 – Requiring compulsory
insurance for all types of motor vehicles
against third party liability as an
additional pre-requisite for registration
by the LTO.
e. P.D. No. 1686 – Imposing a tax on
every motor vehicle equipped with air
conditioner.
f. P.D. 1181 – Providing for the abatement
of air pollution from motor vehicles and
for other purposes.
g. P.D. 1605 – Granting the Metropolitan
Manila Commission certain powers
related to traffic management and
control in Metropolitan Manila
providing penalties, and for other
purposes.
h. P.D. 109 – Regulating the issuance of
license plates of all motor vehicles and
modifying P.D. 98.
i. P.D. 1729 – Authorizing the Bureau of
LTO to dispose of impounded motor
vehicles unclaimed by owners for a
certain period of time.
j. P.D. 1730 – Declaring the syndicated
printing, manufacture, distribution,
possession or use of fake official Bureau
of Land Transportation forms,
 documents, plates and stickers as
offenses involving economic sabotage.
3. Letters of Instruction (L.O.I.s)
a. L.O.I. No. 43 – Providing for the
removal of a impediments or roads,
streets and highways such as
constructions, stalled or parked vehicles
and other movable property that obstruct
free passage.
b. L.O.I. No. 112 – Prohibiting freight and
cargo trucks from using roads, highways
and bridges whose load are in excess of
specific allowable limits.
c. L.O.I. No. 716 – every motor vehicle to
equip at least a pair of Early Warning
Device (EWD).
4. Department Orders (D.O.s)
a. D.O. 93-693 – Revised Schedule of
Administrative Fees and charges of the
LTO.
5. Administrative and Special Orders
a. A.O. No. VIII, S-1968, LTC –
Requiring the towing and impounding of
stalled motor vehicles on public
highways and the imposition of
corresponding fees thereof.
b. A.O. No. 1, S-1973, LTC – Prescribing
guidelines and procedures in the
implementation of PD No. 96.
6. Memorandum Circulars
a. M.C. 94-188 – Issuance of driver’s
license to disabled persons.
b. M.C. 90-020 – Directing all public and
land transportation service operators and
drivers to display in any conspicuous
place of their vehicles the authorized
fare matrix for the specific roué granted
them to avoid conflict.
7. Executive Orders (E.O.s)
a. E.O. 202 – Creating the Land
Transportation Franchising and
Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
b. E.O. 248 – Empowering the Land
Transportation Commission to control
and supervise the operations of motor
vehicle driving schools.
8. Other Special Laws, Statute, etc.
a. B.P. Blg. 344 – Act to enhance the
mobility of disabled persons by
requiring certain buildings, institutions,
establishments and utilities to install
facilities and other devices.
b. Memo. Unnumbered dated July 13,
1992 – EWD not a requirement for
registration.
c. SC Bars Lawmen from Removing Car
Plates (87 SCRA 432)
Words and Phrases Used in R.A. 4136.
Motor Vehicle – shall mean any vehicle propelled by
any power other than muscular power using the public
highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley cars, street-
sweepers, sprinkles, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders,
forklifts, amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used in
public highways, vehicles which run only on rails or
tracks, and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all
kinds used exclusively for agricultural purposes.
Passenger Automobiles – shall mean all tire pneumatic
tire vehicles of types similar to those usually known
under the following terms:
1. touring car,
2. command car,
3. speedster,
4. sports car,
5. roadster, jeep,
6. cycle car (except motor wheel and similar small
outfits which are classified with motorcycles),
7. coupe,
8. landaulet,
9. closed car,
10. limousine,
11. cabriolet, and
12. sedan.
Passenger Trucks – more than nine passengers shall be
classified as “trucks”.
Articulated Vehicle – shall mean any motor vehicle with
a trailer rests upon the motor vehicle and a substantial
part of the weight of the trailer and of its load is borne
by the vehicle.
- Such trailer shall be called as “semi-trailer.”
Driver – Shall mean every and any licensed operator of
motor vehicle.
Professional Driver – Every and any driver hired for
driving or operating a motor vehicle, whether for private
or for hire to the public.
Highways – every public thoroughfare, public
boulevard, driveway, avenue, park, and alley, but shall
not include roadway upon grounds owned by private
persons, colleges, universities, or other similar
institutions.
Parking or Parked – shall mean that a motor vehicle is
parked or parking if it has been brought to a stop on the
shoulder or proper edge of a highway, and remains
inactive in that place or close thereto for an appreciable
period of time.
Tourist – a foreigner who travels from place to place for
pleasure or culture.
Prohibitions under R.A. 4136:
1. Exceeding Registered Capacity (Overloading)
2. Cargo carrying Devices (must not exceed 100
kls. Sec. 32, a)
3. Riding on Running Board (Sec. 32, c)
4. Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle (Sec. 32, b)
5. Required Motor Vehicle Accessories:
a. Tires
b. Brake
c. Horns
d. Headlight
e. Tail Light
f. Stop Light
 g. Windshield
h. Use of Red Flag
i. Mufflers
6. Hitching on to a Vehicle:
a. Hanging on to or riding on the outside
or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any moving vehicle
whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on
to or ride outside of or at the rear end of
the vehicle (Sec. 51).
7. Driving while under the Influence of Liquor or
other Prohibited Drugs
8. Obstruction of Traffic (loading and unloading of
passengers, Sec. 54)
9. Duties of Driver in Case of Accident:
a. Stop immediately.
b. Show his driver’s license to inspecting
traffic enforce.
c. Give his true name and address,
including that of the owner of the
vehicle.
d. Assist injured person/s.
e. Take measures to protect belongings of
passengers.
f. Report the accident ( Sec. 55)
When could a driver leave the area of accident without
being held liable for Hit-and-Run?
1. His life is in imminent danger of being harmed
by other person/s by reason of the accident;
2. He surrenders to proper authority; and
3. He summons the assistance of a physician or
nurse to aid the victim.
REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES
- R.A. 4136, mandates that all motor vehicles
shall be registered by its owner before the
designated District Offices of the LTO.
Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles:
1. Private (not for hire) – these are motor vehicles
used for the personal use of their owners.
2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV a.k.a. for hire) –
these are registered primarily for the conveyance
of passengers and other commercial goods, i.e.,
passenger jeepneys, taxi cabs, etc.
3. Government – these are motor vehicles owned
by government offices and are used for official
purposes only.
4. Diplomat – these are issued to foreign diplomats
and consuls assigned in the Philippines.
Classification of Plate Numbers:
1. Green with white background – Issued to private
or not for hire motor vehicles (MVs).
2. Black with yellow background – Issued to
PUVs.
3. Red (maroon) with white background – Issued
to government-owned MVs.
4. Blue with white background – Assigned for
foreign diplomats, consuls and other foreign
dignitaries.
5. Commemorative plate – these special plate
numbers are issued for specific purposes such as
fund-raising for government projects and
programs.
Schedule of Registration – Registration of motor
vehicles should be done annually which follows the
numerical suffixes of their plate numbers.
Last Digit of Middle Digit of Weekly Deadline
Plate Number Plate Number (working days of
the month only)
1. Jan. 1 2 1 2 3 4 5
6. Jun 3 6 7
2. Feb. 4 5 8 9 10 11 12
7. Jul 6 13 14
3. Mar. 7 15 16 17 18 19
8. Aug 8 20 21
4. Apr 9 22 23 24 25 26
9. Sep 0 27 28
5. May 29 30 31
0. Oct
Letter Prefixes on Plate Numbers, indicates:
1. Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;
2. Year of initial registration and the possible year
model of the registered motor vehicle could be
determined from the order of the letter prefixes,
i.e., the higher the letters the later the year of
registration and year model of the motor vehicle.
Special Plate Numbers for Government Officials:
1. President of the Philippines
2. Vice-President of the Philippines
3. Senate President, etc.
Driver’s License – A document issued to a qualified
driver who possesses the statutory qualification as
provided therefore.
- It is also a public document which has the legal
presumption of genuineness. (CCC Insurance
Corp. vs. CA, 31 SCRA 264)
Types of Licenses:
1. International Driver’s License – Bonafide tourist
and transients who are duly licensed to operate
motor vehicles in their respective countries may
be allowed to operate motor vehicles during
their stay but not beyond 90 days of their
sojourn in the Philippines (Sec. 21, RA 4136).
2. Military Driver’s License – Enlisted personnel
of the AFP operating motor vehicles owned by
the government shall be licensed in accordance
with RA 4136 but no license or delinquency fees
shall be collected thereof.
- A military Driver’s License does not authorize
the holder to operate a privately-owned motor
vehicle (Sec. 20, RA 4136).
3. Professional Driver’s License – This license is
issued to a driver hired or paid for driving or
operating a motor vehicle whether private use or
for hire to the public.
4. Non-Professional Driver’s License – this kind of
license is issued to owners of privately-owned
motor vehicles or those not for hire or paid for
driving (Effect of Sec. 3,e, RA 4136).
5. Student Driver’s Permit – This kind of
document is issued to persons who desire to
learn how to drive.
- A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless
accompanied by an instructor who may either be
 a licensed professional or non-professional
driver (Sec. 30, RA 4136).
GENERAL RULES OF ROAD USE AND CONDUCT
Speed Limit and other Rules on Speed
1. Any person driving a motor vehicle on a
highway shall drive the same at a careful and
prudent speed, not greater nor less than is
reasonable and proper, having due regard for the
traffic, the width of the highway, and of any
other condition then and there existing; and
2. No person shall drive any motor vehicle upon a
highway at such speed as to endanger the life,
limb and property of any person, nor at a speed
greater than will permit him to bring the vehicle
to a stop within the assured clear distance ahead.
Exceptions to the speed limit:
1. A physician or his driver when the former
responds to emergency calls.
2. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to
and from the place of accident or other
emergency.
3. Any driver bringing wounded or sick person for
emergency treatment to a hospital, clinic, or any
other similar place.
4. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the
Armed Forces while in use for official purposes
in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
5. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his
passengers are in pursuit of a criminal.
6. A law-enforcement officer who is trying to
overtake a violator of traffic laws.
7. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle
of any fire department, provided that exemption
shall not be construed to allow useless or
unnecessary fast driving of drivers
aforementioned.
- No provincial, city or municipal authority shall
enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution
specifying maximum allowable speeds other
than those provided by (R.A. 4136).
Lateral Placement – means the proper positioning of the
motor vehicle traversing on a traffic way or while on
parked.
Overtaking and Passing – a vehicle driver should pass at
a safe distance to the left of the vehicle being overtaken
and shall resume driving on the right side of the road
only after passing clear of the overtaken vehicle.
Exception: On the highways with two or more lanes
where traffic goes in one direction, another vehicle may
be overtaken on the right.
Driver to Give Way to Overtaking Vehicles – The driver
of a motor vehicle about to be overtaken must give way
to the overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed
until the overtaking vehicle has fully passed. (Sec. 40,
R.A.4136)
Restrictions on Overtaking and Passing: (Sec. 41, R.A.
4136)
1. To the left side of the center line of a highway in
overtaking another vehicle proceeding in the
same direction, unless such left side is clearly
visible, and is free of oncoming traffic for a
sufficient distance ahead to permit safety
overtaking.
2. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon
a curve in the highway, where the driver’s view
along the highway is obstructed within a
distance of five hundred feet ahead, except on a
highway having two or more lanes for
movement of vehicles in one direction.
3. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any
intersection of highways, unless such
intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic
signal, or a traffic officer.
4. Between any points indicated by the placing of
official temporary or caution signs indicating
that men are working on the highways.
5. In any “no passing or overtaking zone.”
Right of Way – this principle refers to the legal or
customary precedence (priority in place or time) which
allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front of another.
Rules on Right of Way:
1. In case two vehicles approaching or entering an
intersection at the same time, the driver of the
vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way;
however, the driver of any vehicle traveling at
an unlawful speed forfeits this right (Sec. 42, a).
2. In the case of a vehicle approaching but has not
yet entered the intersection, its driver shall yield
the right of way to vehicles already within such
intersection or turning therein to the left across
the line of travel of the first mentioned vehicle
(Sec. 42, b).
3. In case of a vehicle on a highway within a
business or residential district, its driver shall
yield the right of way to pedestrians crossing the
highway within a crosswalk, except at
intersection where traffic is regulated by a peace
officer or a traffic signal. If there is no
crosswalk, pedestrians shall yield the right of
way to vehicles on the highways (Sec. 42, c).
4. In case of a vehicle traversing a “thru-highway”,
its driver should bring it to a full stop before
crossing. However, if it is clear and no hazards
exist, the vehicle may slow down to 5 miles per
hour instead of a full stop (Sec. 42, d).
Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules
do not apply in the case:
1. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or
drive. The right of way is in favor of all vehicles
utilizing the highway (Sec. 43).
2. The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall
yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such
vehicles are operated on official business and the
drivers thereof sound audible signal of their
approach.
3. The driver of a vehicle entering a (through
highway” or a “stop intersection” shall yield the
right of way to all vehicles approaching in either
direction on such “through highway”.
Starting, Stopping or Turning Rules:
1. The driver of any motor vehicle on a highway,
before starting, stopping or turning from a direct
 line, shall first see that such movement can be
made safely; and
2. If any pedestrian is affected by such movement,
he shall give a clearly audible signal by
sounding the vehicle’s horn.
Pedestrian’s Rights and Duties:
1. To occupy or pass on spaces or portions of
traffic way allocated for them like crossing on
pedestrian lanes and passing on sidewalks or
catwalks.
2. To observe and obey all traffic rules and
regulations.
Note: Motorist should also know the rights of the
pedestrians so that they will not be using the portions of
the traffic way allocated for the pedestrians for parking
purposes.
Parking Rules:
1. Motor Vehicles should park only on areas
specifically designated for parking.
2. All accidents are not caused while vehicles are
being driven.
3. A parked vehicle may create an accident, kill
someone or destroy property.
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
Traffic Control
– It refers to procedures, devices, and
communication systems that help vehicles and
vessels safely share the same roads, rails,
waterways, or air space.
– Establishes a set of rules and instructions that
drivers, pilots, train engineers, and ship captains
rely on to avoid collisions and other hazards.
Highway Traffic Control:
1. Traffic Signs
2. Pavement Markings
3. Traffic-Signal
4. Priority Control
5. Restraints
Traffic Signs – refer to any device mounted on portable
support whereby a message is conveyed by means of
words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
Functions of Traffic Signs:
1. to control traffic,
2. to safeguard the flow of traffic,
3. to expedite traffic, and
4. to guide traffic and motorists
Basic Sign Shapes:
1. Round and red sign: regulates the movement of
turning and passing traffic regulations;
2. Round black yellow signs: a warning that you
are approaching a railroad crossing;
3. Equilateral triangle red signs: a sign at the
intersection directing drivers to yield the right-
of-way to vehicles in the road being crossed;
4. Eight-sided (octagonal) red and white stop sign:
the most popular and understood sign by all
tongues and colors; and
5. Triangle red and black sign: approaching a
danger zone, hill, slope, winding road, and
others.
Classification of International Traffic Signs:
1. Danger Warning Signs “caution signs” – these
signs have an equilateral triangular shape with
one side horizontal and having red borders.
2. Regulatory Signs – these are signs which impose
legal restrictions applicable at particular location
usually enforceable in the absence of such signs.
3. Informative Signs – these signs are also known
as “guide signs” or “direction signs”.
- The rectangular shape white-colored on blue
background is used for informative signs.
- Green background is usually used for route
markers and destination signs.
Traffic Lights
– Refers to any power operated traffic control
device by which traffic is warned or directed to
take some specific actions.
– Are used to control traffic at junctions and also
to stop traffic to provide safe crossing points for
pedestrians and cyclists.
Pavement Markings – these pertain to all lines, patterns,
words, colors. or other gadgets except signs set into the
surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or
curbing or to objects within or adjacent to the roadway,
officially placed for the purpose of regulating, warning
or guiding traffic.
Types of Pavement Markings and Markers:
1. Pavement Markings
2. Curb Markings for Registrations
3. Object Markings
4. Reflectorized Markings
Traffic Islands – these are areas within the roadway
constructed in a manner to establish physical channels
through which vehicular traffic is guided.
Classifications of Traffic Islands:
1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers) – These
are constructed between the pedestrian sidewalk
and the road pavement to prevent pedestrian
from using the roadway in passing and to
prevent motor vehicles from using the sidewalk
for parking and passing purposes.
2. Traffic Islands – These are the raised portion in
the middle of the traffic way constructed to
separate the streams f motor vehicles traversing
on opposite directions and at the same time
preventing motorists from using the opposite
lane for overtaking.
- Classification of Traffic Islands:
2.1. Division Islands – these are constructed
primarily to divide the streams of the motor
vehicles.
2.2. Channelizing Islands – these are
constructed to channelize or direct the flow
of traffic.
2.3. Roatry Islands – these are constructed along
intersections or “rotundas” for purposes of
tuning-around. Their functions are:
a. prohibit pedestrians from crossing major
thoroughfares at points where such
crossing are exceptionally hazardous,
b. minimize imprudence and delays to
vehicular traffic, and
c. channelize and control pedestrians.
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
- Is part of enforcement involving the arrest,
issuance of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP)
or Inspection Report Summons, or Warning of
any person who is believed to have a law,
ordinance, or regulation pertaining to the use of
traffic roads.
- Rationale: Traffic enforcement action may
prevent such violation from endangering
persons, property, or inconveniencing other
users of traffic users of traffic roads, prevent
continued violation, or discourage future
repetition.
Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement:
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement
Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process:
1. Detection
2. Apprehension
3. Prosecution
4. Adjudication
5. Penalization
Kinds of Enforcement Action:
1. Traffic Arrest – It is an enforcement action
which consists of taking a person into custody
for the purpose of holding or detaining him to
answer a charge of law violation before a court.
- When a traffic violator ca be arrested?
(1) offense committed is serious
(2) detention is necessary to avoid
continued violation
(3) there is reasonable doubt that the
violator will not appear in court.
2. Traffic Citation – this means of having violators
appear in court without physical arrest.
- To ensure that an apprehended traffic violator
will appear to the court or to the proper
authority, the traffic officer should confiscate
the proper violator’s driver’s license and issue
Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT), TOP, or Traffic
Violator’s Receipt (TVR)
3. Traffic Warning – this is an enforcement action
which does not contemplate possible assessment
of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of
warning.
- Three types of Traffic Warning:
3.1 Visual Warning
3.2 Verbal Warning
3.3 Written Warning
Intersection – As applied to a street or highway means
the space occupied by two streets at the point where they
cross each other.
Police Traffic Direction – it is defined as telling drivers
and pedestrians when, how and where they may or may
not move or stand at a particular place, especially during
emergencies or period of congestion.
Traffic Patrol – it refers to the observation of road
conditions, the behavior of the drivers and other users of
vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law
enforcement and providing authorized traffic-connected
services to the public.
Types of Traffic Patrol:
1. Line Patrol – this involves observation in
moving or stationary observation at a certain
route or point of a major street in a city.
2. Area Patrol – is usually the job of mobile police
officers as well as those motorcycle cops.
Abandoned motor Vehicle – when it is left unattended in
an area not provided for parking or unattended for one or
two days in area provided for parking.
Traffic Jam – is caused by such factor as vehicular
accident, stalled vehicle due to engine trouble, absence
of traffic officer at an intersection, or road construction.
Vehicle Cannibalization – is characterized by stealing
the parts of the motor vehicle instead of carnapping the
whole car.
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
- To know what question to ask and what to look
for, you must have some fundamental bearing on
accidents and their causes.
Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic
Accident Investigation:
Accident – It is that occurrence in a sequence of events
which usually produces unintended injury, death, or
property damage.
Traffic Accident – An accident involving travel
transportation on a traffic way.
Motor Vehicle Accident – Events resulting in
unintended injury or property damage attributable
directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or
its loads.
Motor Vehicle – Every device which is self-propelled
and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated
upon rails.
Key Event – An event on the road which characterized
the manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic
accident.
Debris – The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish,
dust and other materials left at the scene of the accident
caused by a collision.
Skid Marks – these are marks left on the roadway by
tires which are not free to rotate, usually because brakes
are applied strong and the wheels locked.
Traffic Unit – Any person using a traffic way for travel,
parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or driver,
including any vehicle, or animal which he is using.
Hazards – It is a generated when a critical space-motion
relationships between a traffic unit and another object
develops due to the movement of either or both.
Safe Speed – the speed adjusted to the potential or
possible hazards or the road and traffic situation ahead.
Strategy – it is the adjusting of speed, position on the
road, and direction of motion, giving signals of intent to
turn or slow down, or any other action in situations
involving potential hazards.
Tactic – any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid
hazardous situations like steering, braking, or
accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.
Impact – the striking of one body against another or a
collision of a motor vehicle with another motor vehicle.
Contact Damage – damage to a vehicle resulting from
direct pressure of some foreign object in a collision or
roll over. It is usually indicated by striations, rub-off of
material or puncture.
Factor – any circumstance contributing to a result
without which the result could not have occurred or it is
an element necessary to produce the result, but not by
itself sufficient.
Primary Cause – a misnomer loosely applied to the most
obvious or easily explained factor in the cause of an
accident or the most easily modified condition factor.
Cause – the combination of simultaneous and sequential
factors without any one of which result could not have
occurred.
Attribute – any inherent characteristics of a road, a
vehicle, or a person that affects the probability of a
traffic accident.
Modifier – a circumstance that alters an attribute
permanently or temporarily.
Kinds of Traffic Accident:
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – refers to
any accident occurring on a traffic way
involving persons using the traffic way or travel
or transportation, but not involving a motor
vehicle in motion.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident – any
motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in
any place other than a traffic way.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident – any motor
vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident:
1. Running off road- this is usually characterized
by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside or on
a cliff along mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road – this does not involve
any collision an example of which is
overturning.
3. Collision on road – this type of accident includes
all forms of accident as long as there is a
collision.
Classification of Accidents According to Severity:
1. Property Damage Accident
2. Slight
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident
4. Less Serious
5. Serious
6. Fatal
Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents:
1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road Conditions
b. Driver’s attitude or behavior
c. Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws,
rules and regulations
4. Perception Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a
situation
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision
course
Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident:
1. Perception of Hazard – it is seeing, feeling, or
hearing and understanding the usual or
unexpected movement or condition that could be
taken as sign of the accident about to happen.
2. Start of Evasive Action – it is the first action
taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision
course or otherwise avoid hazard.
3. Initial Contact – the first accidental touching of
an object collision course or otherwise avoids a
hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement – it is greatest collapse
or overlap in a collision.
5. Disengagement – it is the separation of traffic
unit in motion from an object with which it has
collided.
6. Stopping – this is when the traffic unit/s
involved come to rest.
7. Injury – it is receiving bodily harm. This event
does not necessary occur after the accident but
within any of the chain of events.
8. Other vents that may occur during an accident:
a. Point of Possible Perception – the place
and time of which the hazard could have
been perceived by a normal person.
b. Point of no escape – It is that place and
time after or beyond which the accident
cannot be prevented by the traffic unit
under consideration.
c. Perception delay – the time from the
point of possible perception to actual
perception.
d. Final Position – it is the place and time
when objects involved in an accident
finally come to rest without application
of power.
Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation:
1. Reporting – involves basic data collection to
identify and classify a motor vehicle, traffic and
persons, property and planed movements
involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation – this level involves all
action taken by the investigator at the scene of
the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation – this involves delayed
traffic accident data collection and organization
for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction – this involves
efforts to determine from whatever information
is available, how the accident happened.
 5. Cause Analysis – it involves final analysis on
the causes of accident which are bases for the
prevention of similar accident.
Steps Taken by the Police during Traffic Accident
Investigation:
1. Upon Learning of the Accident
a. Ask first.
b. Decide whether to go to the scene.
c. Then find out, if necessary.
2. Start for the Scene
a. Choose best approach.
b. Drive Safely.
c. Be alert for Cars leaving the Scene.
d. Get equipment ready for use.
e. Look for conditions confronting a driver
approaching scene.
f. Note hazards to approaching traffic.
3. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene
a. Select parking place carefully.
b. Care for injured.
c. Look over bystanders and others.
d. Have emergencies under control.
e. Locate driver.
f. Measure location of short lived
evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid
injured.
4. When Emergency is Under Control
a. Preliminary questioning of drivers.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run
cars.
c. Examine driver’s conditions.
d. Question drivers carefully.
e. Position and condition of vehicles
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how
accident occurs.
5. After Getting Short-live Evidence
a. Get additional evidence.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary.
c. Approach the scene by path of each
traffic unit involved.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs
g. Establish exact location of accident and
record it.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is
hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it
done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or
telephone.
6. After Leaving the Scene
a. Get medical report on injured persons
from doctor or hospital.
b. Question drivers or witnesses.
c. Notify
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken
for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints
if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is
warned by the time available for making
it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other Agencies or departments of
any condition at the scene which needs
attention for safety.
7. If Case Goes to Court
a. Find out what the prosecutor wants
further to develop evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary
c. Locate also, if necessary.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo
needed in court.
e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court
use.
f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution
witnesses to review testimony.
g. Insure that subpoena are issued
h. Testify in court.
i. Organize papers and file permanently, if
necessary, for future reference.
j. Insure that the disposition of case is
recorded in driver’s record and other
reports.
The Traffic Accident Report:
1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
Hit-and-run Cases – evading responsibility is a term
commonly applied to a traffic accident in which a driver
fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec.
55 of R.A. 4136.
Skidmarks – the sudden application of brakes which
results in the locked wheel condition places great
pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that
the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the
frictional force between the tire and the road surface.
Things that Determine Skidding Distance:
1. Brake Pedal Pressure
2. Weight of the Car
3. Tire Thread
4. Air Pressure
5. Tire Material
6. Road Surface
7. Direction of Slides
8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface
9. Against Head Wind
Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor – It is the
measurement of the maximum frictional resistance of
pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the
wheels are skidding divided by the weight of the car.