TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
&

ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATION

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii
1
About this Book-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv
Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1

Module 1. Historical Background Of Land Transportation----------------------------------7

Lesson 1.1 – Manpower, Animal Power, and Wind Power ------------------------------9
Lesson 1.2 –Roads and Vehicles History ---------------------------------------------------16
Module 2. Traffic Management---------------------------------------------------------------------22
Lesson 2.1 –Fundamentals of Traffic Management---------------------------------------24
Lesson 2.2 – The Pillars of Traffic-----------------------------------------------------------30
Lesson 2.3- Traffic Safety Education--------------------------------------------------------40
Module 3. Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations and other Related Statutes-------------50
Lesson 3.1-Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations-------------------------------------------53
Lesson 3.2-Important Provisions of R.A. 4136---------------------------------------------60
Lesson 3.3 –Registration of Motor Vehicles -----------------------------------------------68
Lesson 3.4-Driver’s Licenses -----------------------------------------------------------------72
Lesson 3.5-Genearal Rules of Road Use and Conduct ------------------------------------81
Module 4.Traffic Control ----------------------------------------------------------------------------98
Lesson 4.1-Fundamentals of Traffic Control -----------------------------------------------99
Lesson 4.2-Traffic Signs----------------------------------------------------------------------103
Lesson 4.3-Traffic Signals Lights-----------------------------------------------------------117
Lesson 4.4-Pavement Markings and Markers---------------------------------------------128
Lesson 4.5-Traffic Islands-------------------------------------------------------------------139
Module 5.Traffic Supervision ---------------------------------------------------------------------114
Lesson 5.1-Traffic Law Enforcement -----------------------------------------------------145
Lesson 5.2-Traffic Direction and Control ------------------------------------------------166
Lesson 5.3-Traffic Patrol--------------------------------------------------------------------175
Lesson 5.4-Traffic Accident Investigation -----------------------------------------------186
Lesson 5.5-Hit- and –Run Accident Investigation --------------------------------------212
Lesson 5.6-Skid Marks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation -----------------220

LESSON 1.1

MANPOWER, ANIMAL POWER, AND WIND POWER

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Concept
Transportation is the movement or conveying of persons and goods from one location
to another.
Man’s needs to travel dates back as early as the creation of human beings. Biblical
passages alleged that when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of the forbidden tree, they were sent out
by God from Paradise of Eden.
“Therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the Garden of Eden, to till the ground from
whence he was taken.”
Since then, the human race expanded and our ancestors constantly move from one
another to enable them to survive and others for various reasons. Other biblical passages
mentioned that Moses was chosen by God to speak to the Pharaoh, King of Egypt to let his
children out of Egypt. So, the children of Israel were gloriously brought out from Egypt to serve
God.
Soon, others became nomadic. They constantly migrate from one place to another
according to their own detailed knowledge of exploitable resources.
The term nomad, from the Greek, “to pasture,” was originally used to refer to
pastoralists- groups that migrate in an established pattern to find pasture lands for their domestic
livestock. However, the term has since been generalized to include all non-settled populations, of
which there are three types.
The first type comprises foraging populations who wander in search of their food. It is
estimated that 99 percent of all humanity once lived in this way.
The second type, the most significant numerically and historically, comprises the pastoral
nomads who move with their families, belongings and herds of cattle, camel, sheep, or goats
through an annual cycle of pastures whose availability is determined by the alteration of hot and
cold or wet and dry seasons.
The third type comprises gypsies, tinkers, And similar itinerants in urban and complex
societies.
What worth noting is how man traveled during the ancient period. It is believed that early
human beings traveled to places by foot, carrying their loads on their backs or on their heads,
while others pulled crude sleds. They used every means to make their transportation with the
least time and effort.

Various Ancient Modes of Transportation:

A. MANPOWER. Early man, who had no domesticated animals, carried his own burdens.
More so today, manpower is important in transportation in many parts of the world.
1. Carrying Pole - In China and other parts of the Far East, the carrying pole, balanced on
one shoulder is a popular carrying device. On islands of the Pacific, the ends of the pole
are supported by two men, with goods suspended from the pole in between.
2. Back Load and Tumpline - In many parts of the world, goods are carried on the back. In
Subtemala, pots are carried on a wooden framework supported by tumpline across the
forehead. In the Andes, the load is held on the back by a strap passing over the chest.
3. Sledge on rollers - The moving of heavy burdens was to place them on sledge which
rested on a series of rollers.
4. Sledge on runners - A simple sledge, probably man-drawn, was in use at the end of the
Old Stone Age in Northern Europe, as evidenced by fragments of wooden runners which
survived.
5. Travois - This travois, as the pole arrangement called, serves as a platform on which the
burdens are placed.

B. ANIMAL POWER. The domestication of animals greatly increased the potential power
available for transportation. Pack animals were introduced as conveyances mainly to save
labor. A man can tend several pack animals moving together, each of which (except dogs)
can carry more than he usually can. Little advantage in speed is gained unless part of the
animals’ carrying capacity is sacrificed
1. Ox- Cattle, which were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, were used as draft animals to
draw war chariots. Oxen are still used as draft animals in many regions of the world. In
some parts of Africa. They are used as pack animals and for riding.

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 2. Reindeer- These were first domesticated in Siberia in the beginning of the Christian era.
In Altai Mountains, they were ridden with saddles. Elsewhere, they draw sledges
somewhat like the dog sledges of the Far North.
3. Dog- The dog, the first animal domesticated, is too light to carry heavy loads. The plain
Indians sometimes packed light loads on dogs’ backs, and piled goods on the travois
which the dogs are dragged. In the Far North, the dogs team drawing sledges are the chief
means of transportation; and in parts of Europe, the dogs are used to draw small carts.
4. Donkey- The donkey or ass, first domesticated in the Middle East. Early dogs come to
use as a back animal before the domestication of the camel. Donkey caravans carry goods
between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt and the donkey is still the chief beast of
burden among the farmers of the near East, the Mediterranean Area and Mexico, where it
was introduced from Spain.
5. Llama- In pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the only new world animal other than
the dog capable of domestication for use in transport. In the high Andes, the Llama was
used as a pack animal by the Incas and their Spanish conquerors, as its by modern
Andean people.
6. Elephant- The Carthaginians used African elephant in their war against Rome but in
recent centuries, these animals have not been employed to some extent for ceremonial
processions and big game hunting. In Burma and Thailand, these huge animals are widely
used in the limber industry.
7. Horse- Around 2,00 B.C., horse drawn chariots appeared in southwest Asia and 1,00
years later, the Persians arrived with the cavalry which gave mobility and power to the
German tribes who invaded Europe and to the Central Asian conqueror Genghis Khan. In
Europe, horses were used to draw wheeled vehicles and for riding for sometime until the
introduction of mechanized vehicles.
8. Camel- There are two kinds of camel, the two-humped bactrian came of Central Asia and
the one-humped dromedary of Arabia have an long been used for transport. The Bactrian
camel has plodded along the caravan routes between China and Iran for at least 2,00
years. It is also used to draw carts. The dromedary, which has less endurance but it is
fleeter and special fast-paced riding camel, is bred by the Arab nomads.
9. Yak- A long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitudes on the Tibetan plateau and in
the neighboring Mountains Regions is ridden and used as a pack animal at heights were
horses and ordinary animal could not survive.

C. WIND POWER- Man realized the energy from the mass of moving air and learned to utilize
such powers to lift rather that to drag. This paved way to invention of air lifted transportation
vessels.
1. Ancient Chinese Kite- Kites have been flown as a popular past time in the Far East since
the beginning of the History. Based on a Korean tradition, the kite was first used for
transport when a Korean general employed one bridge building. By means of a kite, a
cord was conveyed across the river where heavier ropes were fastened and finally the
bridge cable. In the late 10th century, several European armies experimented with kites in
transporting men.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter- The great renaissance artist, scientist and engineer, Leonardo
da Vinci, made study of the flight of the birds and his notebooks sketched a number of
ornithopter (a.ka. orthopter) which derives its principal support and propelling from
flapping wings like those of a bird. It was not until the 19 th century that rigid wings were
envisaged.
3. Montgolfier Ballon- The Montgolfier brothers of France Joseph Michel and Jacques
Entienne have successfully released several ballons when they proposed to use two
condemned prisomners for the historian protested this and claimed the honor for himself.
In 1783, he and the Marquis d’ Arlanoes became the first men to make a free balloon
ascent. The ballon constructed of linen and inflated with the hot air traveled 9,000 yards
and remained in the air for 20 minutes.
4. Siemens’ Rocket Plane- Ernst Werner Von Siemens who later achieved fame as an
electric Industrialist, in 1847 designed which was to be propelled by the explosives force
of gunpowder. Similarly, Siemens’ rockets plane was never carried beyond the design
stage.
5. Lilienthal Glider- Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a study of the
flight of birds and experimented with ornithopters, going so far as to build a model
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 ornithopter. His chief work was with gliders. However, in 1891, he made the first of a
number of a glider flights which were to exert a profound influence on the development
of aviation.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship- One of the pioneers of lighter-than- air craft was Alberto
Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who experimented with the steam-powered balloons in Paris.
He made his first balloon ascent in 1897 and in 1898 completed the construction of his
first airship. He, then built several other airships and in 1901, made a 30- minute round
trip flight between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower.
7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine- Inspired by Lilienthal’s glider experiments, Orville
and Wilbur Wright began studying the problems of heavier-than-air flight. They built
biplane kite then over 200 different wing types which they tested in a wind tunnel of their
own invention, before they conducted their first man-carrying powered machine. This
flew successfully at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on Dec. 17, 1903. By 1909, airplanes
became sufficiently accepted to justify beginning commercial manufacture of the
machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis- Following the initial flight of the Wright brothers
airplane, the development of aviation was rapid. The first airmail was delivered in 1911
and World War I gave an impetus top plane design and the training of pilots. During the
1920’s many records were set the first solo flight from New York to Paris, made by Capt.
Charles a. Lindbergh in May 1927 in a plane especially built for the flight, the Spirit of
St. Louis.

LESSON 1.2
ROADS AND VEHICLES HISTORY

Concept
As man, from ancient times to the 20th century, sought to make their transport facilities
more efficient, they have always endeavored to move people and property with the least
expenditure of time, effort, and money.
It was stated in the preceding lesson that man first traveled by foot. Then, primitive man
supplemented their own carrying of goods and possessions by starting to domesticate animals-
training them to bear small loads and pull crude sleds.
The following are some of the inventions and innovations and important events that lead
to modern land transportation:
A.WHEEL was invented probably in Western Asia- Such was a milestone and a great step
forward in transportation. As a wheel was perfected, crude carts and wagons began to appear in
TIGRIS-EUPHATES VALLEY about 3500 B.C., and later in CRETE, EGYPT and CHINA.
The wheel was one man’s great inventions. It enabled him to transport burdens beyond the power
of man or animals to carry and drag, on rollers which had to be continually picked up and moved
by hands as the sledge is advanced. The following were some of the earliest types of wheeled
carts:
1. Solid wheels on fixed axle- This ancient cart represent an early step in the evolution of
wheeled vehicles. Its solids wheels, which were made of a single piece of wood, rotated on
single axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank Wheels- This chariot, about 2400 B.C, had solid wheels built
up of three pieces, and so was more durable than one-piece wheel.
3. Greek quadrica with spoked wheels- Drawn by four horses, was a light and elegant vehicle
for gentleman about 250 B.C., .It had spoked wheels and axles of irons or bronze, handles for aid
in mounting, and seat formed by a board placed across the handles.
4. Roman carpentum- A closed, two-wheeled cart, was the favored vehicle when roman women
journeyed outside the city.
5. Italian cocchio,1288- a travelling wagon in which the passengers were protected by a
covering of leather or cloth fixed over a wooden frame work.

B. WHEELED VEHICLES could not use the narrow paths and trails used pack animals and
early roads were soon built.
C.THE ROMANS were the major road builders in the ancient world. The romans road network
reached a total about 50,00o miles (80,000 Kms), with FEEDER roads branching out from the

5
main layer after heavy stones, was necessary to make roads that would carry traffic for many
years.
D. JOHN L. MACADAM did not abandon the theory of feeder road building and perfected the
macadamized road in England about 1815.
E. AFTER THE FALL OF THE ROMANS in the 5th century, land haulage generally declined
because highways suffered from inadequate maintenance. Such improvements however, as the
horse collars(10th Century), the addition of springs to coaches, new methods of roads
construction, and the introduction of toll roads (18 th century) all continued to ease and speed land
travel.
F.SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT OF ROAD VEHICLE began with the adaptation of
COACH SPRING about 1650.
G.IN THE MID-18TH CENTURY, ENGLISH ROADS were so bad that the coaches could
average only about 4 mph ( 6.4 km/h) and the mail was usually carried by boys on horses.
H.JOHN PALMER introduced his first fast mail coach in March of 1785 and by 1800, the
English coach system was in full swing.
I. THE INVENTION OF BICYCLE in the early 19th century served as a nursery of automobile
builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle was the HOBBY HORSE, or dan
horse. The wheels were made of wood, with tires of iron, and the riders pushed themselves along
their feet on the ground.
1. The German Baron KARL VON DRAIS in 1817 introduced a steerable wheel,
creating the “draisienne,” or “danny horse”
2. In 1838,KIRKPATRICK MACMILLAN, a Scottish blacksmith, made the first
machine with pedals, which were attached to and drove the rear wheel by means of cranks.
J.PNEUMATIC TIRES (inflated by air) by a Scot, JOHN BOYD DUNLOP appeared in the
late 19th century (about 1888)
K.MOTOR VEHICLE- the first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads.
1. Frenchman ETIENNE LENOIR made possible the introduction of motorized carriages
by his invention in the 1860’s and 70’s, of the INTERNAL COMBSTION ENGINE
2. NICOLAUS OTTO AND GOTTLIEB DAIMLER pioneered the manufacture of gas
engines, and later Daimler became a successful automobile manufacturer.
3. RUDOLF DIESEL, a German engineer, developed an internal combustion engine
which is similar with the gasoline engine but requires no electrical ignition system carburetor and
uses other form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel.
4. THE AUTOMOBILE found its greatest popularity in the U.S., where the first
HORSELESS CARRIAGE appeared in the 1890’s.
5. In 1908, HENRY FORD introduced the MODEL T, which was proved so popular that
by 1914, Ford had adopted MASS PRODUCTION methods to meet the demand.
6. In 1956,FELIX WANKEL, a German mathematician, developed an advanced- type of
engine, named after him, that operates very differently from gas and diesel engines. It is started
by a moving crankshaft.
From Ford Era, the demand of vehicles became great for the transportation of goods,
products, communications and people. Hence, man started manufacturing large cargo trucks and
buses for mass transportation.
Presently, the introduction of the Light Trail Transit (KRT), the Metro Rail Transit
(MRT), flyovers, pedestrian and vehicle culverts, rocks sheds and other modern traffic ways
contributed to the expeditious movement of traffic users.

LESSON 2.1
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

Concept
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MANAGEMENT. It refers to the skillful use of means to accomplish a purpose.
OPERATION. Pertains to a course or series of acts to effect a certain purpose; manner of
action; or a vital or natural process of activity.
ROADWAY. Refers to that part of the traffic way over which motor vehicles pass.
SHOULDER. It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.
TRAFFIC. It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by
combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel. [Early
16th century. Via obsolete French trafique from Old Italian traffico, from trafficare ‘to carry
trade’, of uncertain origin]
TRAFFIC WAY. Refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place of
which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a matter or
right or custom.

Why Traffic Management is necessary?

With the advent of science and technology, new and modernized traffic facilities are
introduced. However, despite of these modernizations, traffic congestions persist to exist. The
only way to at least cope up with the prevailing traffic related problems is a coordinated traffic
management. Traffic management is therefore designed to make the traffic way safer for
travellers, expedite the movement of traffic, and to provide convenience to the traffic facilities’
users.
A. Major Causes of Traffic Congestion- Based on studies conducted by
authorities.
1. Physical Inadequacy. This is characterized by lack of roads, narrow bridges, railroads,
lack of traffic facilities, etc.
2. Poor Control Measures. This is characterized by ineffective mechanical control devices,
inefficient traffic officers, and poor implementation of traffic laws, rules and regulations.
3. Human Error. Many traffic congestion are caused by slow drivers or poor driving
habits, pedestrian mistakes, officer’s errors, poor planning, poor legislation; and traffic
accident whish are mostly attributed to human errors.
4. Poor Maintenance. Oftentimes motor vehicles are stalled in traffic ways because of
unrepaired diggings, cracks on roads pavement or unfinished road pavement concreting.
This can be attributed to inappropriate budget for the maintenance of the traffic facilities.
On the other hand, police should also report lights out, damage portion of the traffic way
expedite the action from the concerned government offices.

B. Scope of Traffic Management. In connection with the above stated cause of

congestion, authorities conceived that a systematic and effective management is needed
which includes but not limited to the following.

1. All public surface facilities traversing and parking and all types of conveyances for
the movement of persons and things.
2. All agencies having responsibilities for ascertaining traffic flow requirements,
planning, approving, funding, construction and/or maintaining these public facilities
for such movements.
3. All agencies responsible for licensing, approving, restricting, stooping, prohibiting or
controlling the use of these facilities.

C. Agencies Involved in Traffic Management. For a successful and effective traffic

management, specific roles and responsibilities are vested on the following.
1. Department of Transportation and Communication (DOTC). The DOTC through the
Land Transportation Office (LTO) is responsible for the implementation of the Land
Transportation Office Code of the Philippines (R.R. 4136) particularly on the issuance of
driver’s licenses, registration of motor vehicles, approval of Land Transportation
Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB) , and conducting traffic safety seminars.
2. City or Municipal Engineer’s Office. In the local level, these offices are responsible for
the planning, construction and maintenance of traffic facilities within their respective
locality.

7
3. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH). This is the main executive
department which is responsible for the planning, construction and maintenance of traffic
facilities particularly those categorized as national highways and other major road
arteries.
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal Boards). The legislative bodies are not only
responsible for the passing or amendment of laws concerning traffic but also they are
involved in the planning and approval of government projects.
5. Philippine National Police (PNP). The PNP through its Traffic Management Group
(PNP-TMG) is responsible primarily for the direct enforcement of traffic laws, rules and
regulations. They also perform other functions such as conducting of information
dissemination campaign, submitting traffic scheme proposals, and other functions as the
need arises.
6. Academic Institution. Schools, both public and private, are responsible for the basic
traffic education by integrating in their respective programs and curriculum subjects or
topics on traffic safety.
7. Courts. The courts are responsible for the adjudication of traffic-related cases filed before
them.
8. Public Information Offices. The government through the Philippine Information Agency
(PIA) provides the necessary updated information to the public by creating traffic safety
campaigns and other activities relating traffic.
9. Citizen Support Groups. The private institutions or organizations also help in the
prevention of traffic congestion by assisting government offices in various activities
particularly during special occasions and holidays where traffic problem is likely to
happen.
10. Media. Government and privately-owned publications and radio and television
broadcasting companies provide necessary and updated traffic-related information to the
public through their respective programs.
11. Other Agencies. Which are in one way or another help in the easing of traffic-related
problems.
12. With the preceding accounts, a successful traffic management is not the sole
responsibility of the government but rather a concerted effort between the government
and private organizations.

LESSON 2.2
THE PILLARS OF TRAFFIC

8
Concept

A. Pillars of Traffic. For a clearer understanding of the various areas of traffic

management, the following pillars are conceived.
1. Traffic Engineering. It is the science of measuring traffic and travel the study of the
basic laws relative to the traffic law and generation; the application of this knowledge to
the professional practice of planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve
safe and efficient transportation of persons and goods.
a. Functions of Traffic Engineering:
(1) Fact finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations;
(2) Supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices; and
(3) Planning of traffic regulations.
b. Agencies and/or offices under Traffic Engineering:
(1) DPWH. Its scope is national which includes the responsibility for determining traffic law,
pattern, draw origin, and destinations, studies of persons and things, planning, approving,
funding and construction of:
(a) National Roads which interconnect cities and municipalities; and
(b) Yearly maintenance and repair programs which include widening and re-
designing of current road system.
(2) Provincial Governments. These local government units have similar responsibilities with the
DPWH but limited to traffic facilities in the municipalities within the province.
(3) Municipal Governments. Their responsibilities are similar to the provincial government but
limited to the network of streets and roads within the barangays.
(4) Chartered Cities. Their responsibilities are similar to that of the municipal government but
limited to the network of streets and roads within the cities.

c. Objectives of Traffic Engineering

(1) To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.

(2) To prevent traffic accident.
(3) To simplify police enforcement actions and performance.
(4) To show that good police actions and performance makes engineering plans effective.
(5) To present that close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement problems.

d. When and where the objectives of Traffic Engineering are applied?

(1) Habitually congested commercial areas.

(2) Heavily traveled thoroughfares.
(3) Congested local areas and intersections.
(4) During special occasions and events,
(5) During disasters or emergencies.
(6) At school crossings.

e. Methods in Achieving the objectives of Traffic Engineering

(1) Planning and Geometric Design- Factor Employed in Planning.
(a) Composition of traffic streams.
(b) Traffic volumes for capacity.
(c) Origin and destination.
(2) Factors Influencing Design
(a) Composition of Traffic.
(b) Volume of traffic.
(c) Speed of Vehicles.
(d) The starting, turning and stopping abilities of traffic units.
(e) Performance values of road users.
(3) Regulation and Control-Traffic Regulation
(a) Based and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and convenience.
(b) Limitations imposed on road use conduct
(c) Prohibition and restrictions.

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 2. Traffic Education. It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual
application of traffic safety knowledge. The following are the agencies and offices
responsible for traffic education:
a. Schools (Public and Private). Traffic education can be carried out my imparting
knowledge concerning traffic safety, training and practice in the actual application
of traffic safety, and developing traffic safety morality.
(1) Elementary. In this level, traffic education is focused on safety and guides stressing
traffic safety, classroom discussions of accidents, incidents and safety rules, organizing
SAFETY PATROLS.
(2) Secondary. Traffic education for his geared towards school safety organizations.
(3) Higher Education. Some colleges and universities offer and conduct regarding traffic
safety subjects.
b. Public Information Programs. The public should be informed on all activities
affecting the citizens and the community relating to traffic (dissemination of
information). This can be done through the public information agency,
newspapers, radio and television broadcasting networks, and other forms of
media.
c. Citizen Support Groups. These are mostly by voluntary non-government
(NGO’s), radio communication groups, rotary organizations, and other clubs.
These organizations usually develop citizens responsibilities, conduct organized
educational campaign, instill awareness of the traffic problem’; and provide
information regarding major traffic requirements and needs.
3. Traffic Enforcement. This field deals mostly on the implementation and enforcement
opf traffic laws and rules and regulations. The following are the various agencies/offices
that are involved in enforcement of traffic laws:
a. Land Transportation Office (LTO) This office is responsible for the following:
(1) Vehicle registration
(2) Vehicle inspections
(3) Driver’s licensing (examinations, suspensions, and revocations)
(4) Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles.
b. Legislative bodies. Included are the Senate, Congress, Provincial Boards, and
City and Municipal Councils. They are responsible for the passing and/or
amending of laws and/or ordinances.
c. Police Traffic Enforcement. This pillar is not limited to the PNP-TMG but it
includes all government personnel who are duly authorized for the direct
enforcement of traffic laws such as:
(1) The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) for the National Capital
Region (NCR)
(2) Police Auxiliaries
(3) LTO Flying Squad
4. Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment. This pillar is very recent which includes the
study of potentially disastrous population explosion, changes in urban environment due to
the scale and density of new urban concentration and new activities carried out, air
population, water population and crowding, especially transport congestion which result
therein
a. What are the environmental effects of the urbanization of transportation? Any decision in
modernizing the transportation system shall consider the following environmental effects:
(1) Noise. The ill effect of noise is one of the major considerations in the evaluation of the
consequences of traffic urbanization to the environment. The level noise inside and outside a
dwelling is an important indicator of the quality of not well understood. It is known that
continued exposure to noise level beyond 80 (Dba –decibel annualy) causes loss of hearing.
Average background noise:
(a) Typical home- 40 to 50 Db;
(b) Heavy trucks- 90 Db at 15m/ft;
(c) Freights trains- 75 Db at 15m/ft;
(d) Air conditioning -60 Db AT 6M/FT.
(2) Vibration. Effect can be severe, particularly when there are heavy trucks and when the
building is old. While there are subjective costs from experiencing vibration, a minimum cost
of damaged or prevention can be established from experience and experiment.

10
(3) Air pollution. It is one of the more difficult problems because of the complexity of the issues
involved. The effects of pollution are also strongly affected by meteorological and even by
micro-climate.
(4) Dirt. These are foul and filthy substances related to motor vehicle use as empty can of oils,
grease materials, etc.
(5) Visual Intrusion. This can have positive as well as negative effects. If a motor way blots out
an unsightly prison or railway yard, it may have positive benefits. On the other hand, the
appearance of an elevated expressways or railway above a neighborhood is one of the aspects
most frequently complained of. In general, visual intrusion can be avoided by putting a
highway or railway at grade or in cutting. In many case, there may be cheaper solution
(6) Loss of Privacy. Loss of privacy from drivers and others being able to look at one’s another
house and garden frequently disliked environment effect. Walls and earthworks would
prevent this, while at same time reducing noise.
(7) Changes in Amount of Light. It is easier up to a point because part of the disadvantages can
be valued in term of the additional lighting costs of those affected. But, there is probably a
psychological element also which it would not be easy or perhaps necessary, to disentangle
where relevant from the last two items.
(8) Neighborhood Severance, both physical and sociological. This can partly be quantified in
terms of changed travel time and costs, and accident experience to pedestrians and traffic.
(9) Relocation. There must be programs that are designed to cover compensation for those who
relocate as a consequence of transport investments, whether property owner or tenants. The
people relocated will tend to be decentralized as will as those sufficiently affected by the
environment consequences to refer to move.
(10) Distraction during planning and construction. In some cases, benefits offset the
distraction cost, which are experienced by people during construction of new facilities, loss
of business, excess noise, dirt, vibration during constructing and excess journey costs through
diversions because of building.
(11) Accident Experiences. These are evaluated by well established procedures of which
perhaps the only major controversial aspects is the evaluation given to human life. A certain
amount is known about differences in accident experience roads and in different roads and in
different circumstances.
(12) Pedestrians Journey. The opportunity to make the roads safe and enjoyable for
pedestrians and efficient for vehicles; and set of roads provided access to dwelling and is
designed primarily for the safety of pedestrians.
(13) Congestions and Other Benefits to Vehicles. It is for livable and safe residential as
environment by reducing “through” vehicle travel. Travel must be made convenient Highway
diversions curves indicate that 80 percent of the traffic will take a route that is 20 percent
faster. Vehicle travel time is made up to three components; free flowing travel, stop time and
acceleration or deceleration.
b. External Factors that influence the existing and future behavior of population:
(1) Rapidly increasing population growth.
(2) Rapidly increasing urbanization.
(3) Rapidly increasing motorization.
(4) Industrialization and technical modernization.
(5) Improvement of the transportation network and the public facilities.
c. Alternatives. A more pleasant environment can be achieved without negative implication for
economy and trade, so that any reasonable step in this direction by decision-makers deserves
support. The following are some of the proposed activities that may reduce the adverse
effects of traffic development to our ecology:
(1) Towns are better with less traffic, so long as adequate provision is made for the mobility
of workers and residents and the distribution of goods. It is so urgent necessity that
National AND Local Government develops efforts to reduce the adverse effects of motor
traffic in urban areas.
(2) Where and when traffic congestions and its cost are serve and frequent, assures to reduce
the use of private cars and goods, vehicles and to improve alternative forms of transport
should be introduce.
(3) To limit the traffic and to improve the efficiency and quality of service of buses and
transport
(4) Pedestrian scheme should be introduced whenever possible to improve the environment
and safety for pedestrians.
11
 (5) The use of non-carbon emitting vehicles should be encouraged like bicycle whenever
practical.
(6) Motor vehicle reduction scheme should also be introduced.
d. Laws and Statutes Concerning Traffic Ecology
(1) P.D. 1181. Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air Pollution from
motor vehicles and for other purposes.
“ Sec.1 – The purposes is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of air pollutants from
motor vehicles in order to protect the health and welfare of the people and to prevent or
minimize damage to property and hazards to land transportation”.
(2) Letter of Instruction No. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the
pollution control program.
(3) R.A. 8749 otherwise known as the Clean Air Act. An act providing for the regulation of
motor vehicles emitting toxic gases like the use of the diesel and leaded gasoline.
5. Traffic Economy. This is the most recent of the pillars of traffic which deals with the
benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy. Primarily, traffic operation is
designed to expedite the movement of traffic. However, with the prevailing traffic
congestion during rush hours in any given locality, traffic adversely affects the economic
status of the commuting public.
One of the aspects affecting our economy is the unending increase of oil prices in the world
market. Somehow, programs must be instituted in order to minimize the ill effect of rising prices
of basic commodities.
Delay resulting from traffic congestion affects not only the time of travel but the productivity
of an individual as well.

12
 LESSON 2.3
TRAFFIC SAFETY EDUCATION
Concept
Traffic Safety Education. It is the process of training roads users in the avoidance and
prevention of traffic related accidents.
Road Safety. It refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, achieved through
multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic management, education and
training of road users, and vehicle design.
A. Factors Contributing to Accidents. Research studies in the United Kingdom have shown
that human factors contribute to 95 percent of accidents, road factors about one quarter or a
percent, and vehicle factors to fewer than five percent.
1. Human Errors Include :
a. Going too fast or excessive speed;
b. Failing to five at junctions;
c. Following too closely;
d. Overtaking improperly;
e. Misperceiving or misjudging the road situation ahead;
f. Intoxication of alcohol or drug; and
g. Lack of skill.
2. Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are:
a. Poor design of layout and control at junctions;
b. Inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting;
c. Slippery roads; and
d. Obstruction on the road such as parked vehicle, ongoing road construction, etc.
3. Main vehicle factors are:
a. Defects in tires, brakes, and lights;
b. Absence or non-using of seat belts; and
c. Poorly maintained motor vehicles.
B. The three (3) principles that have been emphasized as effective in the prevention of traffic
accidents are known as the three (3) “E” s or pillars of traffic. Recently, however, traffic
environment and traffic economy were added to complete the five (5) pillars of traffic.
1. Engineering (traffic engineering). Effective construction and maintenance of traffic
facilities which does not only expedite the movement of traffic but also prevents the
occurrence of traffic accidents. Successful treatments have included:
a. Changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly ( use of roundabouts, or
traffic circles);
b. More wide use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting areas for turning
vehicles;
c. Improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads;
d. More highly visible and legible direction, information, and warning signs.
2. Education (in traffic safety). When road users are informed of traffic laws, rules and
regulations, accident are likely prevented. Further, there are strong suggestions of
benefits from pre-school schemes involving parents, and from road safety education in
schools where it is an integral part of the school curriculum. Included are:
a. New approach to training and educating young driver’s;
b. Training in hazard perception; and
c. Changing of attitudes
3. Enforcement (of traffic rules). One of the causes of accidents is the blatant non-
compliance of motorists and pedestrians to traffic, rules and regulations. To minimize the
occurrence of accidents due to non-compliance of roads users, enforcement must be
conducted. The following are highly recommended in areas of traffic enforcement:
a. Strengthening and simplifying the application of the law;
b. New technology to aid enforcement;
c. Enhanced publicity
d. Education of teenagers in schools; and the development of rehabilitation course like
seminars for apprehended traffic violators.
4. Ecology/ Environment. People should be educated regarding the adverse effect of traffic
to our environment that directly or indirectly affects the population’s health.
5. Economy. People should learn also to develop schemes that do not only lessen expenses
but also accident-free.
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C. Levels of Traffic Safety Education:
1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety;
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge; and
3. Developing traffic safety morality.

D. Traffic Safety for Children. This is highly unsystematic and is usually carried out in the
home through parental education and in kindergarten and nurseries. This is now necessary to
make it systematic to lessen the number of children fatalities and injuries.
1. Elementary. Pupils are usually educated by stressing on traffic safety and guides, and
classroom discussions of accidents, incidents and other traffic safety rules.
2. Secondary. This level initiates driver education program because students have the age
to drive, hence, proper driving habits should be stressed. It also includes the
establishment of school safety regulations.
3. Higher Education. Some universities and colleges offer and conduct courses to private
and public agencies regarding traffic safety subjects.
E. Traffic Safety Education for Adults. Safety education for elder pedestrians and driver’s is
relatively easier compared to the education designed for younger children since the former
group is in a better position to understand what is being taught to them.
1. It is the general belief that by being a better driver, it follows that one becomes a better
pedestrian. By knowing the limitations of the driver and the vehicle as driving student,
one learns to watch out for dangerous cues such as pedestrians. This is the basic reason
why traffic safety education for adults usually deals only with the foundations or basic
driving.
2. Driver education is carried out in secondary schools and in private and government
sponsored driving school in a number of countries where people are expected to know
how1 to drive when they reached legal ages. The basic purpose of this education are:
a. To develop good traffic citizens who are equipped to live in a motorized society and
achieving traffic safety.
b. To develop citizens who are legally eligible to get a driver’s license.
F. Driver’s Education. In general driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of
driving. Secondary aims are as follows:
1. To instill awareness of one’s legal and moral responsibilities in traffic, and
2. To teach the abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver’s license.
G. Four (4) Basic Types of Instruction Methods. Used in Driver Education Programs:
1. Comprehensive. This method places the student into a real life of driving situations from
the beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction. This type of instruction depends on instructor- student
communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method. The student-driver accompanied by an instructor. As the
student-driver drive’s, the instructor has to give a commentary on his driving – what he
sees, what he does, why he does, what he proposes to do, what others are likely do, etc.
4. Stimulated Conditions. On and Off the Road Training. The premise of simulated
conditions training is that the behavior of the driver- subject placed in condition will be
relatively analogous to normal behavior. Simulator is a static machine with all the
important features of a car used in driving method or driving training. There are two
methods of simulation presently adopted:

A. Partial Simulation Method. This method has the specific aim of training for the
“subtasks” of the driving task.
B. Global Simulation. It may be classified into two (2) specific groups are: training,
simulated in traffic situations and conditions, with the use of simulations.
Simulators are most commonly used for the following types of training:
(1) Training in basic car-control skills.
(2) Perceptual training.
(3) Emergency training.
C. Classification of Films as shown by the simulators:
(1) The analytical film which provides an “objective” analysis of the driving
situation presented to the student.
(2) The didactic film which aims to show good driving behavior.
14
 (3) The simulation film which offers “visual realism” to driving situations and
therefore a good aid in actual practice.
H. Essential Component of Driving Tasks. Driver’s education includes:
1. Collection of information which include:
a. Perceptual scanning and
b. Identification
2. Processing of information which includes:
a. Predicting and
b. Decision making
3. Action which is focused on:
a. Motor skills and control of vehicles and
b. Knowledge and s.
I. Biorhythm. It is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life energy
and mood states. Man’s theorized cycles and interpretations rhythm is peculiar characteristics
of most natural phenomena like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and darkness.
2. The four seasons.
3. Our wet and dry season.
4. The waxing and waning of the moon.
The observation of the rhythm mentioned and their possible correlation with the habits of
man has led to a host of different theories that tried to explain this correlation in term of physical,
psychological, etc.
The following are the most controversial theory of biorhythm:

1. 23 Day cycle a.k.a. our cycle strength, endurance, and courage ( the male component of a
person).
2. 28 Day cycle emotional cycle equivalent to a female’s 28 day menstrual cycle ) is a.k.a.
our cycle of sensitivity, love and intuition 9 the female component of a person).
3. 33 Day intellectual cycle.
All these cycles are present at the tome we are born. When the curve is above the center line,
the biorhythm value is said to be “HIGH” or a person has more energy to spare, i.e.:
1. Physical high- we tend to be energetic, strong, full of vitality.
2. Emotional high- we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful and happy.
3. Intellectual high – we are able to think quickly and logically.
When the curve is below the center line, the biorhythm is said to be “LOW” or in a recharged
period, i.e.:
1. Physical low- we tend to tire quickly and to succumb to illness easily.
2. Emotionally low- we feel moody, irritable, or depressed.
3. Intellectual low- concentrating or remembering is difficult or we likely to use poor
judgment when any of the curves crossed the center line. This is called a critical day
wherein our systems seem to be in a state of transition. During critical day, people tend to
get sick easily, seem to lack coordination and tend to be accident prone.
J. Importance of biorhythm in the field of study. It should be borne in mind that biorhythm
does not predict what actually will happen. All it does is to give us a hint on how we feel in a
certain day.
1. The theory asserts that people are accident prone if their biorhythm crosses the centerline
on a certain day or is totally below the line.
2. Theoretically, if we know our biorhythm for certain day, we can psychologically cope up
with the situation. If we usually overcome any ill effect by awareness and will power.
This idea has been put into use in different countries in the world, and the resulthelps reduce
accident rates until it is totally refuted.

K. Safety Campaign. This is mass publicity aimed to make good road users behave more
safely. These basically focus on public information attitudes, and particular or specific
behaviors, or combinations of these.

Safety Campaign is also known as road propaganda which may be intended

simply to inform or it may be felt that the public is already aware of the
recommended behavior by need to be persuaded into adopting it.
1. Safety Campaign Classification:
15
 a. According to purpose- may be categorized as informational, attitudinal
and behavioral; and
b. According to kind of appeal- used to reason by simply feeding the public
with authenticated factual data.
2. Safety Campaign Design:
a. Initial Campaign planning
b. Final campaign design
c. Campaign evaluation
3. Private and Government entities responsibilities for safety Campaign:
a. Newspapers
b. Radio Broadcasting Networks
c. Television Broadcasting Networks
d. Public Information Agencies

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 LESSON 3.1
TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS
Concept
The standards of regulating movements on road, streets and highways are found in traffic
laws, rules and regulation.
In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, rules and regulations have their source in
laws, Presidential Decrees (P. D.s), Executive Orders (E.O. s), Letters of Instructions ( L.O.Is),
Administrative Orders and Implementing Memoranda and other Special Laws relative to traffic
operation and traffic law enforcement. As a traffic law enforcer, it is essential that you should be
familiar with these rules and regulations.
In addition, traffic signs, pavement markings, and other control devices are traffic law
themselves. Violations of such constitutes misdemeanor or infraction of law.

A. Sources. The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and prohibitions in the
country:
1. Republic Acts (R.A.s)
a. R.A. 4136. This is the basic law regulating land transportation in the Philippines.
It is replaced Act No 3992 ( The Revised Motor Vehicle Law). Further, as
amended by R.A. Nos. 5715,6374, PD Nos. 382,843,896,1057,1934,1950,1958,
BP Blg. 43,74 and 398.
b. R.A. 6539. The act which is known as the “Anti- Carnapping Act of 1972”, the
act preventing and penalizing carnapping.
c. R.A. 5448. Act imposing a tax on private owned passenger automobiles,
motorcycles And scooters, and a science stamp tax, to constitute a special
science fund defining the programs, projects and activities of science agencies to
be financed therefrom and for other purposes.
d. R.A.8749. Also known as the “Clean air Act” which regulates emission of toxic
gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and bans the use of leaded gas for
gasoline engines.
e. R.A 8750. It provides for the attachment of seat belts for all types of motor
vehicles and imposes penalty for the non- compliance thereof.
f. R.A. 7924. The act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority,
defining its powers and functions providing funds therefor and for other
purposes.
2. Presidential Decrees (P.D.s)
a. Pd. No.96. Regulating the use or siren, horn, bell, etc. On motor vehicles which
produce unusual or startling sounds as well as blinkers and other similar devices
unless the vehicle belongs to the AFP, NBI,LTO,PNP,BJMPP, Hospitals and Fire
Departments and are specifically intended for use in emergencies.
b. P.D. No. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing redefining or modifying
the lines and modes of operations of public utility motor vehicles in the
Philippines.
c. P.D. No. 207. Declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the Vienna
Convention on road Traffic, Signs and Signals.
d. P.D. No. 612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor vehicles
against third party liability as an additional pre-requisite for registration by the
LTO.
e. P.D. No. 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air
conditioner.
f. P.D. No. 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor vehicles
and other purposes.
g. P.D. No. 1605. Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission to traffic
management and control in Metropolitan Manila providing penalties, and for
other purposes.
h. P.D. No.98. Regulating the issuance of license plates of all motor vehicles.
i. P.D. No.109. Modifying P.D. 98.
J. P.D. 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a certain period of time.

17
 k. P.D No. 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture, distribution,
possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land Transportation forms,
documents, plates and sticker’s as offenses involving economic sabotage.
3. Letters of Instruction ( L.O.Is)
a. L.O.I. No. 43. Providing for the removal of all impediments on roads, streets and
highways such as construction, stalled or parked vehicles and other movable property that
obstruct free passage. This LOI abrogated city or municipal ordinances governing
disposition of traffic on city and municipal streets throughout the country.
b. L.O.I No. 112. Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using roads, highways and
bridges whose loads capacities are in excess of specific allowable limits.
c. L.O.I No. 229. Requiring all motor vehicle owner’s, user’s, or driver’s to have their
possession at all times while driving at least one(1) pair of early warning device (EWD)
for the use when the vehicle is disabled on roads, streets and highways or other
emergencies compelling the vehicle to be on stop position.
d. L.OI. No. 716. Every motor vehicle to equip at least pair of early warning device.
e. L.O.I. No. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the Pollution
Control Program.
f. L.O.I. No.853. Calling for the National Tripartite Conference to consider the
establishment of viable labor-management relations based upon the “boundary” system in
land transportation.
g. L.O.I. 1009. All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to stop operating using
their number plates and registration certificates to surrender to BLT.
h. L.O.I 1071. Owners and/ or operator’s of motor vehicle are authorized to pay annual
premiums for the insurance of their motor annual premiums for the insurance of their
motor vehicles on quarterly basis.
4. Department Orders (D.O.s)
a. DOTC D.O. 88-305. Rules of pleadings, practice and procedure for
appeals on franchising, fare rates charges and related matters pertinent to
Land Transportation Public Utilities.
b. D.O. 93-693. Revised Schedule of Administrative Fees and charges of the
Land Transportation Office.
5. Administrative and Special Orders
a. Administrative Order No. VIII, S-1968, LTC. Requiring the towing and
impounding of stalled motor vehicles on public highways and the
imposition of corresponding fees thereof.
b. Administrative Order No. 1, S-1973, LTC. Prescribing guidelines and
procedures in the implementation of PD No. 96.
c. Administrative Order No. 1, S-1975, LTC. Laying down specific rules of
action in the imposition of uniform fines and penalties for violation of
provisions of R.A. 4136.
d. Special order no. 101-IRM, LTC. Enumerating and identifying various
city streets where parking is prohibited.
6. Memorandum Circulars
“Sec. 1, Par. 2. In the case of the parking place of any of the above institutions,
buildings, or establishments, or public utilities, the owner or operator shall reserve
sufficient and suitable space for the use of disabled persons.”
“Sec. 2. In case of public conveyance, devices such as the prominent display of
posters, sticker’s shall be used to generate public awareness of the rights of the
disabled posters understanding of their special needs.
Discriminating against disabled persons in the carriage or transportation of
passengers is hereby declared unlawful.”
Memorandum Unnumbered Dated July 13, 1992. Early Warning device
(EWD) not requirement for registration,
SC Bars Lawmen from removing Car Plates (187 SCRA 432).

18
 LESSON 3.2
IMPORTANT PROVISIONS OF R.A. 4136
Concept
A. Words and Phrases Used in R.A. 4136. As used in this Act, the following
words and phrases are defined for better and common understanding:
1. Motor Vehicle. Shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular
power using the public highways, but excepting roads rollers, trolley cars, street –
sweepers, sprinkles, lawn movers, bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibian trucks and
cranes if not used in public highways, vehicles which run only on rails or tracks and
tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively for agricultural
purposes.
Trailers having any number of wheels, when propelled or intended to be propelled by
attachment to a motor vehicle shall be classified and separate motor vehicle with no
power rating.
2. Passenger Automobiles. Shall mean all pneumatic tire vehicles of types similar to those
usually known under the following terms: touring car, command car, speedster, sports
car, roadster, jeep, cycle car ( except motor wheel and similar outfits which are classified
with motorcycles), coupe, landaulet, closed car, limousine, cabriolet and sedan.
The distinction between “ passenger truck’ and “ passenger automobile “ shall be that
of common usage: Provided that a motor vehicle registered for more than nine passengers
shall be classified as “trucks”. Provide further, that a truck with seating compartment at
the back not used for hire shall be registered under special “S” classification. In case of
dispute, the commissioner of LTO shall determine the classification to which any special
type of motor vehicle belongs.

3. Articulated Vehicle. Shall mean any motor vehicle with the trailer having no front axle
and so attached that part of the trailer rests upon the motor vehicle and substantial part of
the weight of the trailer and of its load is borne by the motor vehicle. Such trailer shall be
called as “semi-trailer”
4. Driver. Shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.
5. Professional Driver. Every and any driver hired for driving or operating a motor vehicle,
whether for private use or for hire to the public. Any driver driving his own motor vehicle
for hire is a professional driver.
6. Owner. The actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such vehicle is duly
registered with the LTO.
The owner of a government-owned motor vehicle is the head of the office or the chief of
the Bureau to which the said motor vehicle belongs
7. Dealer. Every person, association, partnership, or corporation making, manufacturing,
constructing, assembling, remodeling, or setting up motor vehicles; every such entity
acting as agent for the sale of one or more makes, styles, or kinds of motor vehicles,
dealing in motor vehicles, keeping the same in stock or selling same or handling with a
view to trading same.
8. Garage. Any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or without
driver’s, are kept ready for hire to the public, but shall not include street stands, public
service stations, or other public places designated by proper authority as parking spaces
for motor vehicles for hire while awaiting or soliciting business.
9. Gross weight. The measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the maximum allowable
carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or passenger, as determined by the
Commissioner of the LTO.
10. Highways. Every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway, avenue, park, alley
and callejon, but shall not include roadway upon grounds owned by private persons,
colleges, universities, or other similar institutions.
11. Parking or Parked. Shall mean that a motor vehicle is parked or parking if it has been
brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a highway, and remains inactive in
that place or close thereto for an approachable period of time.
A motor vehicle which properly stops merely to discharge a passenger or to
take in a waiting passenger, or to load or unload a small quantity of freight with
reasonable dispatch shall not be considered as parked, if the motor vehicle again
moves away without delay.
12. Tourist. A foreigner who travels from place to place for pleasure or culture.
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B. Selected Provisions of R.A. 4136
1. Exceeding Registered Capacity (Overloading). Passengers, freight or cargo load of a
motor vehicle should not be more than its registered carrying capacity. Conductors of
public utility trucks or buses are held liable for the overloading of vehicles under their
charge.
All passenger automobiles for hire are required to have the registered passenger capacity
marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and numerals not less
than 5 cms. In height. Motor trucks for passenger or freight, private or for hire, shall have
the registered passenger or freight gross and net weight capacities marked plainly and
conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and numerals not less than 5 cms. in height
(Sec.33.)
2. Cargo Carrying Devices. The construction of devices for carrying cargo at the rear or
sides of trucks may be allowed, subject to the approval of the Commissioner, but the total
net weight of the device including cargo, must not exceed 100 kilos (Sec.32,a)
3. Riding on Running Board. It is strictly prohibited, except for conductors collecting
passenger fare (Sec 32, c)
4. Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle. Passengers shall not be allowed to ride on top of
motor vehicles, but baggage or freight may be carried on top of the truck, provided that
the weight thereof is not more than 20 kilos per square meter distributed in such a way as
not to endanger passengers or the vehicles stability (Sec.32,b)
5. Required Motor Vehicle Accessories. Every motor vehicles when operated on a traffic
way should have the following specified accessories:
a. Tires. Motor vehicles having metallic tires are prohibited from operating on any public
highway. If the tires are solid, it should be thick enough to presently the metal rims from
touching the road (Sec.34.)
b. Brake. Every motor vehicle with four or more wheels shall be provided with dual
hydraulic brake system so that in case of hydraulic line failure affecting the braking
efficiency of any of the four wheels at least either the front or rear wheels shall retain
normal braking capabilities.
c. Horns. Every motor vehicles shall be provided with the horn or signaling device in a
good order. Provide, however, that no horn or signaling device emitting exceptionally
loud, startling, or disagreeable sound shall be installed or used on any motor vehicle.
d. Headlight. The vehicle should have 2 headlights, one on each side, which must dimmed
when meeting another vehicle.
e. Tail light. Installed at the rear portion of the vehicle, this should be visible at least 100
meters away.
f. Stop light. Installed also at the vehicle’s rear.
Red lights are prohibited at the forward portion of the vehicle.
Motorcycles must have one head lamp and one tail light. Lights should be put on when a
vehicle is parked or disabled. Appropriate parking lights or flares are required for
vehicles when parked or disabled in such way as not to endanger passing traffic. (Sec.34).
g. Windshield Wiper. Every motor vehicle shall be equipped with a mechanically or
electrically operated device for wiping off raindrops or other moisture from its
windshield(Sec.34,h)
h. Use of Red Flag. Whenever the load of any vehicle extends more than 1 meter beyond
the bed or body thereof, there shall be displayed at every projecting end of such load, a
red flag not less than 30 cms. both in length and width, except that during the hours fixed
under subsection ©, there shall be displayed, in lieu of the red flags, red lights visible at
least 50 meters away.
i. Mufflers. Every motor vehicle propelled by an internal combustion engine shall be
equipped with a muffler, and whenever said motor vehicle passes through a street of any
city, should not be cut or disconnected. No motor vehicle shall be operated in such a
manner as to cause it to emit or make any unnecessary or disagreeable odor, smoke or
noise.
6. Hitching on to a vehicle. The following practices are prohibited:
a. Hanging on to riding on the outside or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any moving vehicle whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on to or ride outside of or at the rear end
of the vehicle (Sec.51.).

20
 7. Driving While under the influence of liquor. Or other Prohibited Drugs. It is
absolutely prohibited to operate any motor vehicle under the influences of liquor or other
prohibited drugs (Sec.53.)
8. Obstruction of Traffic. Obstruction of traffic by operating a motor vehicle in such a
manner to obstruct, block, or impede the passage of another vehicle is prohibited. This
prohibition applies even when discharging or loading passengers (Sec.54.)
9. Duties of Driver in Case of Accident. In the event that any accident should occur as a
result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver shall observe the
following;
a. Stop immediately.
b. Show his driver’s license to inspecting traffic law enforcer.
c. Give his true name and address, including that of the owner of the vehicle.
d. Assist injured person.
e. Take measures to protect belongings of passengers.
f. Report the accident (Sec.55.)
10. When could a driver leave the area of accident without being held liable for HIT-
AND -RUN ?
A. His life is in imminent danger of being harmed by other person/s by
reason of the accident;
B. He surrenders to proper authority; and
C. He summons the assistance of a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

LESSON 3.3
REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE
Concept
R.A. 4136, mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its own before
designated District Offices of the Land transportation Office. Law enforcement officers
should keep themselves abreast with the proper procedures of registering motor vehicles
for them to easily identify unregistered motor vehicles or motor vehicles having expired
registrations.
On the other hand, motor vehicle owners as well as drivers should be aware of the
provisions on motor vehicle registration to avoid unnecessary delays and penalties
whenever registration-related apprehensions occur.

A. Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles

1. Private (not for hire) – These are motor vehicles used for the personal use of their
owners.
2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV a.k.a. for hire) –These are registered primarily for the
conveyance of passengers and other commercial goods, I.e., passenger jeepneys, taxi
cabs, etc.
3. Government- These are motor vehicles owned by government offices and are used
for official purposes only.
4. Diplomat- These are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned in the
Philippines.
B. Plate Numbers- Upon registration, motor vehicle are assigned with. The letter and
numeral prefixes as well as the assigned colors are based on the date and place of
registrations and purpose of the registered motor vehicle.

1. Green with white background- Issued to private or not for hire motor vehicles
(MVs)
2. Black with yellow background-Issued to PUV’s.
3. Red (maroon) with white background- Issued to government-owned MVs.
4. Blue with white background- Assigned for foreign diplomats, consuls and other
foreign dignitaries.
C. Schedule of Registration- Registration of motor vehicles should be done annually
which follows the numerical suffixes of their plate numbers.

Last Digit of Plate Middle Digit Weekly Deadline

21
Number Of Plate Number (working days of the month
only)
1-Jan 6-Jun 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2-Feb 7-Jul 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3-Mar 8-Aug 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20
4-Apr 9-Sep 9 0 21 22 23 24 25 26
5-May 0-Oct 27 28 29 30 31

Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly deadline. For
motorcycles, use the 3rd digit.
Example: Plate Number- TNG 984
The above motor vehicle shall be registered in April every year because the last digit is “4”
and the day of registration falls in April 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.
D. Letter Prefixes on Plate Numbers. The letter prefixes indicates:
1. Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;
2. Year of initial registration and the possible year model of the registered motor
vehicle could be determined from the order of the letter prefixes, i.e., the higher
the letters the later the year of registration and year model of the motor vehicle.
Example: Vehicle 1- PLT 255 Vehicle 2- TNU 636
Between the above motor vehicles , Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than Vehicle 2 and
possibly, Vehicle 2’s model is later than Vehicle 1.

E. Special Plate Numbers for Government Officials

a. President of the Philippines

b. Vice President of the Philippines

c. Senate President , etc.

22
LESSON 3.4
DRIVER’S LICENSE
Concept
Driving motor vehicle in the Philippines in other countries is NOT a right but a privilege
granted by the Philippine Government through the LTO based on Republic Act4136 and Batas
Pambansa BLG. 398. Further, it is privilege which may be suspended or revoked
Driver’s License. A document issued to qualified driver who possesses the statutory qualification
as provide therefore. It is also a public document which has the legal presumption of
genuineness. (CCC Insurance Corp. vs. Court of Appeals, 31 SCRA 264)

a. Duty to Procure License. Sec. 19 of R.A. 4136 states that no person shall operate any
motor vehicle without first procuring a license to driver for the current year. To be
effective in the hands of its holder, it must not be delinquent, invalid, suspended or
revoked and should be carried all times and shall be shown or surrendered for cause when
demanded by a person authorized by R.A. 4136 to inspect the same.
b. Confiscation of Driver’s License. Sec.29 of R.A.4136 mandates that driver’s license
may be confiscated for violations of R.A. 4136, the rules and regulations issued by the
Commissioner and the local traffic rules and regulations.
When a driver’s license is confiscated for any reason, the traffic enforcer must, however,
issue a receipt (Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP)) which good for 72 hours within each
the driver may continue to operate his vehicle. Failure to settle the case within 15 days will
cause suspension or revocation of the license.

C . Types of Licenses, Procedures and Requirements. A driver is licensed by the LTO as

proof of his proficiency in driving his knowledge road rules and regulations while
operating a motor vehicle. Upon proving his proficiency and knowledge, he will be
issued a document in the form of the following licenses:
1. International Driver’s License. Bonafide tourist and transients who are duly licensed to
operate motor vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor
vehicles during their stay but not beyond 90 days of their sojourn in the Philippines
(Sec.21, R.A. 4136). The applicant must submit the following requirements:
a. The original foreign license plus photo copy of the same license.
b. In the event that the foreign license is written in the language of the license
holder other than ENGLISH, a translation of the contents of the license into
ENGLISH from the embassy from which the license was issued.
c. In the event that the applicant applies for a license or if his foreign license is
expired at the time that the application is filed, the applicant will have to
undergo both a WRITTEN EXAMINATION AND AN ACTUAL ROAD TEST.
d. An applicant form filed by the applicant.
Foreign license can only be issued a NON-PROFESSIONAL LICENSE.
2. Military Driver’s License. Enlisted personnel of the AFP operating motor vehicles
owned by the Government shall be licensed in accordance with R.A.4136 but no license
or delinquency fees shall be collected thereof.
All licenses so issued shall bear the words “FOR GOVERNMENT VEHICLES ONLY”
Plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face thereof. Military Driver’s License
does not authorize the holder to operate a privately-owned motor vehicle (Sec.20,R.A.
4136)
3. Professional Driver’s License. This license is issued to a driver hired or paid for driving
or operating a motor vehicle whether private use or for hire to the public. Any person
driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver (Sec.3, e, R.A. 4136)
Applicants for professional driver’s license should fulfill the following requirements:
a. Must be at least 18 years of age.
b. Presentation of either the following documents:
(1) A STUDENT PERMIT which possession of the applicant for at least 5
months.
(2) NON-PROFESSIONAL Driver’s License that has been in the possession of
the applicant for not less than 4 months.

23
 c. A certificate from an LTO accredited doctor attesting to the following that the
applicant:
(1) Is physically and mentally sound;
(2) Has normal, non-impaired vision and hearing
(3) Does not have any contagious ailment; and
(4) Does not have a history of heavy drinking and drug abuse.
d. A Police, NBI, or Prosecutor’s clearance certifying that the applicant does not
have a criminal record or any case involving the taking of human life.
e. He must pass WRITTEN EXAMINATION.
f. To pass an actual ROAD TEST.
g. An application form (ADL) filled out by the applicant.
h. Payment of the following amount:
(1) Application fee: P 25.00
(2) Licensing fee: 240.00
Total P 265.00
The professional driver’s license is renewable every 3 years. The identifying color is red.
4. Non-Professional Driver’s License. This kind of license is issued to owners of
privately owned motor vehicles or those not for hire or paid for driving (Effect of
Sec.3,e, R.A. 4136). The applicant must fulfill the following requirements:
a. Must be at least 17 years of age.
b. A student Driver’s Permit that has been issued not less than 1 month from the
date application.
c. A certificate from an LTO accredited doctor attesting that the applicant:
(1) Is physically and mentally sound.
(2) Has normal vision and hearing.
d. Must pass WRITTEN EXAMINATION.
e. Must pass actual ROAD TEST.
f. An application form (ADL) filled out by the applicant.
g. Payment of the following
(1) Application fee: P25.00
(2) Licensing fee 180.00
Total P 205.00
The holder of non-professional driver’s license shall be restricted to operate motor vehicles
up to 4500 kgs. gross vehicle weight (GVW) and also is renewable every 3 years. The color
of its logo is green.
5. Student’s Driver’s Permit. This kind of document is issued to persons who desire to
learn how to drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless accompanied by
an instructor who may either be licensed professional or non- professional driver
(Sec.30, R.A. 4136). The applicant must fulfill the following:
a. Must be at least 16 years of age.
b. Must be physically sound and in good health with no contagious ailments.
c. Must be mentally capable.
d. Must know how to read and write in his native dialect, in Tagalog, or in English.
e. Must apply personally at any LTO and have with him the following documents:
(1) Document of Birth proof that he is 16 years old , either of the following:
(a) Joint affidavit by 2 not related individuals attesting to the age of the
applicant.
(b) SSS identification card.
(c) Passport
(d) Voter’s I.D.
(2) Applicants whose age is between 16-18 years old, an affidavit of consent
signed by the parents or by the applicant’s leagal guardian allowing the
applicant to learn how to drive.
f. 2 pcs. 1 x 1 black and white or color photographs of the applicant.
g. Payment of the following:
(1) Application Fee P 25.00
(2) Student Permit Fee P 50.00
Total P 75.00
A student permit is valid to change upon for up to 12 months from the date of issue.
Note: All fees are subject to change upon approval of the government.
24
 D. Driver’s Examination. All driver’s license applicants must obtain the
passing score as follows:
1. The Written Examination. Written documents will contain questions
concerning proper driving procedures, road rules and regulations,
emergency procedures, etc.. Number of questions will be as follows:
a. Non-Professional License- 40 questions
b. Professional License- 60 questions
Examines will have to pass the written examination with the following remarks:

a. Non-Professional License- 30 out of 40 questions

b. Professional License- 50 out of 60 questions.
Before each examination, a DRIVING SKILL RATER will provide a 30 minute lecture
about traffic rules and other driver information as a “review” for the applicants.
2. The Road Test. The actual road test will be undertaken under the
auspices of “DRIVING SKILL RATER”. This actual road test will have
to provide the vehicle in which the road test will be conducted. The
applicant should make sure that the vehicle to be used is in proper
working condition and is currently registered.
During the road test, the applicant will be rated according to his proficiency
on the following aspects:
a. That the applicant is aware of and capable performing a check on the
primary components of the vehicle such as the engine, the tires , the
battery, lights, windshield wipers, brakes, transmission and clutch, etc.
b. Proper use and correct positioning of the hands on the steering wheel.
c. Proper engine control and use of the gear shift lever and foot pedals.
d. Proper speed control and observance and practice of road discipline.
e. Proper knowledge and interpretation of road signs and markings.
f. Proper turning procedures.
g. Proper backing procedures
h. Proper parking procedures.
The applicant will be credited with the score of 100 points at the start of the road test. Each
infraction or unsatisfactory performance will be listed down on a ROAD TEST SCORE
SHEET and the corresponding deductions made at the end of the test. Passing grade will
be 70 points or a total possible deduction of 30 points.
E. Mandatory Drug Test. It is mandatory to all driver’s license applicants
except for student driver’s permit to pass a drug test conducted by duly
LTO accredited drug testing centers.
F. Driver’s Restriction Code license, the driver’s restriction code as follows:

1. Motorcycle/Motorized Tricycles
2. Vehicles up to 4500 kgs Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)
3. Vehicle above 4500 kgs GCW
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs Gvw
5. Automatic clutch above 4500 kgs GVW
6. Articulated vehicle 1600 kgs GVW & below
7. Articulated vehicle 1601 up to 4500 kgs GVW
8. Articulated vehicle 4501 kgs & above GVW
9. Disabled
G. Driver’s Condition. The conditions for driver’s license hoilder while
operating a motor vehicle are indicated as follows:
1. A- wear eye glasses
2. B- drive only with special equipment for upper limbs
3. C- drive only with special equipment for lower limbs
4. D- daylight driving only
5. E- accompanied by a person with normal hearing.

25
LESSON 3.5
GENERAL RULES OF ROAD USE AND CONDUCT

Concept
The traffic rules in the Philippines are based entirely on the general rules of road use
and conduct which also include the general prohibitions and restrictions. Chapter IV,
Articles I to V of the R.A. 4136 comprehensively discuss the traffic rules observed in the
Philippines.

A. Speed Limit and Other Rules on Speed. Any person driving a motor vehicle on a
highway shall drive the sane at a careful and prudent speed, not greater nor less
than is reasonable and proper, having due regard for the traffic, the width of the
highway, and of any other vehicle upon a highway at such speed as to endanger the
life, limb and property of any person, nor at a speed greater than will permit him to
bring the vehicle to a stop within the assured clear distance ahead.
1. Maximum Allowable Speeds. Subject to the provisions of the preceding paragraph,
the rate speed of any motor vehicle shall not exceed the following per hour:
a. On open country roads, with no blind corners not closely bordered by habitations.
b. On “through streets” or boulevards clear of traffic, with no blind corners, when so
designated .
c. On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not designated “through
streets”.
d. Through crowded streets, approaching intersections “ at blind corners”, passing
school zones, passing other vehicles which are stationary, or for similar dangerous
circumstances.

Passenger cars and motorcycles Motor trucks & buses

80 Km. 50 Km.
40 Km. 30 Km.
30 Km. 30 Km.
20 Km. 20 Km.

2. Exception to the Speed limit. The rates of speed herein above prescribed shall not
apply to the following:
a. Physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.
b. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident
or other emergency.
c. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a
hospital, clinic or any other similar place.
d. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for
official purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
e. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit criminal.
f. A law enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws.
g. The driver officially operating motor vehicle of any fire department, provide
that exemption shall not be construed to allow unless or unnecessary fast driving
of driver aforementioned.
3. Uniformed Speed Limits throughout the Philippines. No provincial, city or
municipal authority shall enact or enforce any ordinances or resolution specifying
maximum allowable speeds other than htose provide by R.A. 4136.
B. Lateral Placement. Lateral placement means the proper positioning of the motor
vehicle while traversing on traffic way or while on parked.
In the Philippines, unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the safety
and the security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of
operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-
drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to right when meeting persons or vehicles going the
26
same direction when turning to the left in going from one highway to another every motor
vehicle shall be conducted to the right of the center of the intersection of the highway.
On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only on designated areas and so
properly parked without encroaching the parking stall or space of another vehicle. For
clearer understanding of the above provisions, refer to figures 3, 4.1 and 4.2

Figure 3
Proper Positioning while Traversing
Vehicles 1 and 2 are properly positioned while vehicle 3 is traversing dangerously at the
separate lines.

Figure 4.1
Proper Placement while on Parallel Parking
Vehicles 4 and 5 are properly parked, while vehicle 6 encroaches the other parking stall or
space.

Figure 4.2
Proper Placement while with Parked Diagonally
Cars 7 and 8 are properly parked while car 9 is wrongly parked.

C. Overtaking and Passing. In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should pass at safe
distance to the left of the vehicle being overtaken and shall resume driving on the
right side of the road only after passing clear of the overtaken vehicle. For a clearer
understanding see figure below.
Figure 5
General Rule on Overtaking Passing
Vehicle 1 can overtake vehicle 2 using the left lane.

1. Exception. On the highways with two or more lanes where traffic goes in one
direction, another vehicle may be overtaken on the right (Sec. 39, R.A. 4136). See
figure 6.

Figure 6
Overtaking on a Four-Lane Two-Way Street

Vehicle 1 can use the right lane (outer) in overtaking and passing vehicle 2.Vehicle 2 here
should not increase its speed. Vehicle 1 should not use the other inner lane (2) in
overtaking. Above portion of the illustration shows vehicle 5 attempting to overtake vehicle
4 using the shoulder of the road which is not only a violation of the rules but also
dangerous because it might hit something on the shoulder.
27
 2. Driver to Give Way to Overtaking Vehicle. The driver of a motor vehicle about to
be overtaken must give to the overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed has
fully passed by (Sec. 40, R.A. 4136).
a. T o the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking another
vehicle proceeding in the same direction, unless such left distance ahead
to permit safety overtaking. Refer also to figure 6.
b. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon a curve in the highway,
where the driver’s view along the highway is obstructed within the
distance of five hundred feet ahead, except on a highway having two or
more lanes for movement of vehicles in one direction.
c. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any intersection of highways, unless
such intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or a traffic
officer.
d. Between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary or
caution signs indicating that men are working on the highways.
e. In any “ no passing or overtaking zone”
D. Right of Way. This principle refers to the legal or customary precedence (priority in
place or time) which allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front another.
1. Rules on Right of Way. Sections 42-44, R.A. 4136 provided for the rules on giving
the right of way.
a. In case of two vehicles approaching or entering an intersection at the same time, the
driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right way; however, the driver of any
vehicle travelling at an unlawful speed forfeits this rights (Sec. 42, a). See figure 7.1
b. In the case of vehicle approaching but has not yet entered the intersection, its driver
shall yield the right way to vehicle already within such intersection or turning
therein to the left across the line of travel of the first mentioned vehicle (Sec.42, b).
See figure 7.2

Figure 7.1
First General Rule on Giving the Right of Way
Vehicle 2 should yield the right of way to vehicle 1 because the latter is approaching the
intersection from the right

c. In case of a vehicle on a highway within a business or residential district, its driver

shall yield the right of way to pedestrians crossing the highway within a crosswalk,
except at intersections where traffic is regulated by a peace officer or a traffic
signal. If there is no crosswalk, pedestrians shall yield the right of way to vehicles on
the highways. Sec. 42, c). See figure 8.
d. In case of vehicle traversing a “thru-highway”, its driver should bring it full stop
before crossing. However, if it is clear and no hazard exist, the vehicle may slow
down to 5 miles per hour instead of a full stop (Sec. 42, d) See figure 9/

Figure 7.2
Second General Rule on Giving the Right of Way
Vehicle 2 should be given the right of way across the intersection because it has already
entered the intersection ahead of vehicle 1.

28
Figure 8
Right of Way Rule on a Crosswalk
Vehicle 1 should give the right of way to pedestrians crossing on the crosswalks across the
path.

Figure 9
Right of Way Rule “Thru-Highway” Intersections
Vehicle 1 should yield the right of way to vehicle 2 because the latter is
traversing on the main highway.

2. Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules do not apply in the case:
a. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or drive. The right of way is in favor of
all vehicles utilizing the highway (Sec.43) See Figure 10

Figure 10
Right of Way Rule on “Private Driveway” Intersections
Vehicle 1 should yield the right of way to vehicle 2 because the former is approaching from
private driveway.
b. The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles operated on official
business and the drivers thereof sound audible signal of their approach.
c. The driver of a vehicle entering a “through highway” or a “stop intersection”
shall yield the right of way to all vehicles approaching in either direction on such
“through highway”
E. Starting, Stopping or Tuning Rules. The driver of any motor vehicle on a highway,
before starting, stopping or tuning from a shall first see that such movement can be
made safely; if Any pedestrian is affected by such movement, he shall give a clearly
audible signal by sounding the vehicle’s horn.
1. When other Motorist are Affected. Whenever the operation of any other
approaching or following may be affected by movement, the driver making the
movement shall have give a signal other driver/s of his intention to make such
movement (Sec. 44,a)
2. Hand Signal. The required signal shall be given by means of extending the hand or
arm beyond the left side of the vehicle or by an approved mechanical or electrical
signal device (Sec.44, b). See figures 11 to 13.

Figures 11
Standard Hand Signal when Turning to the left.

29
Figure 12
Standard Hand Signal when Turning to the Right

Figure 13
Standard Hand Signal when about to Stop

3. Making a Right Turn (Normal Procedures). The following are the rules to be
observed in making correct turning to the right fro, a four-lane street to a four-lane
street. See figure 14 for further illustration.
a. Signal your intention to turn right with your signal light or a hand signal at least
100 ft. before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the right lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a right turn from left lane.
d. At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn ONLY after coming to
full stop to make sure that no vehicle is coming from the left.
e. If there is a sign prohibiting a right turn unless the light is GREEN, DO NOT turn
right while the RED LIGHT IS ON.
Figure 14
Making a Right Turn from a Four-lane Street to Four-lane Street
Vehicles 2 and 3 are doing the proper way of turning to the right, whereas vehicle 1 is
doing it the wrong way.

4. Making a Left Turn (Normal Procedures). Motor vehicles intending to turn left
from a four-lane street to four-lane street should observe the following procedures:
a. Signal your intention to turn left with your turning signal or a hand signal at
least 100 feet before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the left lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a left turn from the right lane.
d. At an intersection with traffic light, vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right
of way. Wait for them to pass first before you turn left.
e. At an intersection with a traffic light, make a left turn ONLY WHEN THE
GREEN LIGHT IS ON OR WHEN THERE IS A LEFT TURN LIGHT. See
figure 15 for clearer illustration.

Figure 15
Making a left Turn from a four-Lane Street to Four-Lane Street
Vehicle 1 is making a left turn the correct way, while vehicles 2 and 3 are doing it the
wrong.uiyiouyou.

Making a U-Turn on a Two-Lane Road (Normal Procedure).

Following is the recommended procedure in making a U-Turn on two-lane road (See figure
16):
a. Make a right turn signal at least 100 ft. before you start moving to the right side of
the road.
b. Stay as close to the right side as possible. Come to a complete stop if necessary.
Check behind you for your traffic. Also check for oncoming traffic on the other
lane.

30
 c. Once all traffic has passed you, initiate your U-Turn. See to it that you can make it
one “sweep”. If you have a long vehicle, look for an intersection or wide section of
the road to make a U-Turn in.
d. At this point, you should be making the U-turn IF you know the turning radius of
your vehicle.
e. Do not move immediately to the middle of the road. Keep to the right side until you
have increased your speed sufficiently to move the middle of the lane.

Figure 16
Making U-Turn on a Two-Lane Road

5. Making a U-Turn on a Four-Lane Highway (Normal Procedure). Following is the

correct procedure (refer to figure 17).

Figure 17
Making a U-Turn on a Four-Lane Highway

a. Check for traffic behind you and indicate your intentions with a left turn signal. If
no fast vehicles, stay on the left lane.
b. Clear the “other side” for coming traffic and initiate your turn as soon as it is clear.
Do not come to complete stop. Straighten out on the right lane and begin gaining
speed.
c. As soon as you have reached a relatively safe speed, signal your intention to move to
the fast lane with a left turn signal.
d. Move to the fast lane as soon as are fast enough to hold up traffic moving in the
same direction.
F. Pedestrian’s Rights and Duties. Pedestrians have the right to occupy or pass on
spaces or portions of traffic way allocated for them like crossing on pedestrian lanes
and passing on sidewalks or catwalks. In addition, pedestrians, as part of the traffic
system, their fundamental duty is to observe and obey all traffic rules and
regulations. Motorist should also know the rights of the pedestrians so that they will
not be using the portions of the traffic way allocated for the pedestrians for parking
purposes.
G. General Parking Rules and Similar Regulations. Motor vehicle should park only on
areas specifically designated for parking. All accidents are not caused while vehicles
are being driven. A parked vehicle may create accident, kill someone or destroy
property. Before leaving your vehicle, set the brakes, put the gear in low or reverse
or park position and remove the key. This will prevent your car from rolling down
an incline and will also prevent cars from pushing your car.
1. Parking on Cities. In cities and towns, unless otherwise directed by a city or
municipal ordinance, motor vehicles will be caution while parking, observe the
following:
a. Downhill with or without curb-turn wheels to right.
b. Uphill curb with curb-turn wheels from curb.
c. Uphill without curb-turn wheels to curb.
2. Parking on Highway. On rural roads, pull entirely off pavement to park. Whenever
practicable, turn on your parking lights.
3. Parking Prohibited In Specified Places. No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it
to stand, whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in any of the following
places (see figure 18):
31
 A. Within an intersection.
B. On a crosswalk.
C. Within six meters of the intersection of the curb lines.
D. Within four meters of the driveway entrance to any fire station.
E. Within four meters of fire hydrant.
F. In front of private drive way.
G. On the road way side of any vehicle stooped or packed at the curb or edge of the
highway.
H. At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.

Figure 18
Prohibited Places
Note: Parking is prohibited on all checkered portions/or places along the traffic.

LESSON 4.1
FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
Concept

Traffic Control. Generally, it refers to procedures, devices and communication systems

that helps vehicles and vessels safely share same roads, rail, waterways, or air space.
Traffic control establishes a set of rules and instructions that drivers, pilots, train
engineers, and ship captains rely on to avoid collisions and other hazards. Safe travel for
pedestrians is an additional goal in highway traffic control.

A. Traffic Control as Applied top Land Transportation. A system of traffic engineering,

employing prescribed traffic rules and regulations and devices such as signals, and
markings, to relieve vehicular congestion and air pollution, and to promote safety and
pedestrian mobility, usually in heavily populated urban areas. In smaller towns, with
lighter traffic, similar but simpler control devices and engineering techniques are used.
B. Control Techniques. The primary emphasis of traffic control is on the safe and efficient
flow of cars, buses, vans, and lorries over urban streets and highways. The means of
promoting this can vary from simple improvement of local streets by installing traffic
signs and road markings to constructing comprehensive motorway control system.
These systems are:
1. Access-road meters to monitor and control motorway;
2. Closed-circuit television surveillance to detect quickly any deterioration in
traffic flow; and
3. Emergency services in case of accident and injury.

C. Other traffic-control techniques include:

1. The use of one-way streets,
2. Enforcement of traffic flow regulations,
3. Channelization (building traffic islands, turning lanes and so on), and
4. The use of traffic signals.
D. Highway Traffic Control. Motorist depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions
and travel safely to their destinations. Traffic control devices for highway travel guide
signs, signals lights, pavement markings, and a variety of devices placed on, over, near,
or even under, the roadway.
1. Traffic Signs. Traffic signs are the most extensively used form of traffic control in
the United States. More than 55 million traffic signs line in the nation’s roadside.
They provide information about speed limits and road conditions. They direct
traffic along certain routes and to specific destinations. By using signs, traffic
control planners tell drivers what to do, what to watch for, and where to drive.
2. Pavement Markings. Pavement markings separate opposing stream of traffic and
direct vehicles into proper positions on the roadway. For example, pavement
32
 markings delineate turn lanes at intersections and establish no-passing zones. White
and yellow paint is customarily used for pavement markings. Reflective devices are
more visible at night and are used in some locations to mark lanes and other
significant places on the road.
Traffic signs and road markings follow a uniform practice throughout the world
and are designed to convey information with a minimum of word to avoid confusing
drivers unfamiliar with the area and the language. Uniform pictorial signs and
markings have been adopted throughout Europe and United States. They include
uniform signs formats and sizes, and uniform codes regulating traffic flow.
3. Traffic –Signal. Traffic signals are installed to permit safe movement of vehicles and
pedestrians at busy intersections. The signal light is probably the most easily
recognized traffic control device. At a busy intersection in a large city, traffic signal
may control the movements of more than 100,000 vehicles per day. More than 60
percent of all miles driven each year are on roadways controlled by traffic signals.
Traffic signals direct streams of vehicles and pedestrians when to go, stop or proceed
with caution. The signals increase the traffic handling capacity of the most
intersections. They can work independently on timers, or connect to computer-
controlled system that operates over several intersections.
4. Priority Control. In one of the oldest method of traffic control, one form of
transportation is given priority by restricting or banning other forms of
transportation. In the 1st century BC, Roman Emperor Julius Cesar Banned wheel
traffic from Rome during day time, which allowed pedestrians and horse riders to
move freely around the city. Some modern cities ban or restrict truck travel through
certain neighborhoods.
Bus-Lanes and high-occupancy vehicles (HOV) lanes exist in many urban areas. Only
specified types of vehicles, primarily those carrying several occupants, can use these
lanes. By giving priority to high-occupancy vehicles, transportation planners encourage
carpooling and reduce congestion.
5. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices
to discourage heavy use of route. Island built in the centers of intersections force
drivers to proceed slowly. Speed bumps discourage high-speed commuting through
residential neighborhoods. Concrete median strips prevent vehicles from making
turns except at intersections.

33
 LESSON 4.2
TRAFFIC SIGNS

Concept
Traffic Signs, like traffic signal lights and road makings are used to convey quickly and
accurately the wide range of information needed by road users, particularly vehicle
drivers, and to promote a safe and efficient use of the road system.

 Traffic Signs refers to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message
is conveyed by means of words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning, or guiding traffic. Traffic signs are installed to serve the
following functions: 1) to control traffic, 2) to safeguard the flow of traffic, 3) to
expedite traffic, and 4) to guide traffic and motorists.
Standardization of the traffic signs shall conform to the standards set forth in the erection
and display of standard road signs and markers as prescribed by the DPWH as to shape,
color, dimension, shape, size, height, letterings or symbols. Refer to figures 19-21 for
clearer understanding.

Traffic signs shall be installed only under public authority or by the official having
jurisdiction for that purpose, and it shall not bear any commercial advertisement.

A thorough knowledge of the traffic signs, signals and road pavement markings is
necessary to all drivers. Every motorist must be able to recognize and obey them without
hesitation even with the absence of traffic police officer.

A. Historical Background. In Britain, early signposts were erected by private

individuals at their own expense. In 1648, parishes were required by law to place
guideposts at crossroads. In 1773, these and mileposts were required to be erected
and maintained by Turnpike Trusts. The Motor Car Act of 1903 made local
authorities responsible for placing certain warning and prohibitory signs.

Figure 19
Triangular and Inverted Triangle Traffic Signs

Figure 21
Rectangular Traffic Sign

34
With increased international travel after World War II, discussions took place in the
United Nations (UN) on the introduction of international traffic signs. However, it was not
until 1965that United Kingdom (UK) signs were changed to conform to the European
system. In 1995, it was estimated that there were 2,500,00 signs and signals, 850,00 road
markings, and 7,000,000 road studs on the roads in England alone. On the other hand, the
United States (US) adopted the signs in the 1970s and developed a set of national standards
for sign color, shape, and usage.

On June 6, 1973, the Philippines through P.D. 207 declared as part of the laws of the
Philippines the UN Vienna Convention on road traffic, signs, markings and signals. The
participating countries to this Convention have agreed to accept the system of traffic, road
signs, signals and symbols and road markings described in said convention and to adopt
the same facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety.

B. International Traffic Signs. As explained in the Vienna convention, the system of

signs and signals which it has prescribed is based on the use of shapes and colors,
characteristics of each class of sign, and whenever possible on the use of graphic
symbols rather than inscriptions with few one of which is the STOP sign of the
United States. It has been adopted very likely because it is understood practically by
every motorist regardless of nationalities. These basic sign shapes are:
1. Round and red sign: regulates the movement of turning and passing traffic
regulations;
2. Round black yellow signs: a warning that are you are approaching a railroad
crossing;
3. Equilateral triangle red signs: a sign at the intersection directing drivers to yield the
right-of-way to vehicles in the road being crossed;
4. Eight-sided (octagonal) red and white stop sign: the most popular and understood
sign by all tongues and colors; and
5. Triangle red and black sign: approaching a danger zone, hill slope, winding road,
and others.

C. Classification of International Traffic Signs. International traffic signs are classified

into three. These are: 1) danger warning signs, 2) regulatory signs, and 3)
informative signs. Figures 19-21 at the preceding pages show the common
International Signs Used in the Philippines. Figures 22-25 on the other hand are the
common groups of danger warning signs or caution signs.

Figures 22
Dangerous Curves or Bends

Figures 23
Narrow Road or Bridge

Figures 24
Crossings and Intersections

35
 Figure 25
Caution Signs

1. Danger Warning Signs. These signs are also known as “caution signs.” These signs
have an equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal and having red
borders. Numbers 1 to 31 under Figures 26 are danger warning signs. These are
intended to :
a. Warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions,
b. Seek caution for the approaching road hazards, and
c. Call the reduction of speed.
2. Regulatory Signs. These are signs which impose legal restrictions applicable at
particular location usually enforceable in the absence of such signs. These are
intended to:
a. Inform road users of certain laws and regulations, and
b. Special obligations, instructions, or prohibitions which they must comply with
and violations of which constitute misdemeanor.
Regulatory signs are usually round in shape with the exception of “Stop Signs” and “Yield
Signs”. Numbers 32-62 on Figure 26 are regulatory signs. These signs are further classified
into two:
a. Prohibitive and restrictive signs, and
b. Mandatory signs.
3.Informative Signs. These signs also known as “guide signs”, or “ direction signs.” The
rectangular shape with-colored on blue background is used for informative sign. Green
background is usually used for route markers and destination signs. Number 65 to 67
under figures 26 are informative signs. Informative signs are intended to:

a. Guide motorist along established routes,

b. Inform the motorist of the proper roads, and
c. Help motorist along the way in the most simple and direct method.

D. Legend to International Traffic Signs.

I. Danger Warning Signs

1. Dangerous Bends
2. Dangerous Left Bend
3. Dangerous Right Bend
4. Dangerous Left Double Bend
5. Dangerous Right Double Bend
6-13. Dangerous Warning Signs to Indicate Road Intersection.
14. Approach to Intersection
15. Approach to Intersection, Side Road
16. Approach to Intersection, Merging Traffic
17.Swinging Bridge
18. Traffic Light Signals Ahead
19. Road Works
20. Pedestrian Crossing
21. Animal Crossing
22. Road Narrow
23. Uneven road, Bad condition
24. Steep Descent
25. Steep Ascent
26.Slippery Road
27. Quay or River
28. Runabout Traffic
29. Two-way Traffic
30. Danger: Falling Rocks
36
 31. Railroad Crossing

II. Regulatory Signs

A. Prohibitive and Restrictive Signs

32. No Entry for All Types of Vehicles
33. No Entry for Cars
34. No Entry for Jeeps
35. No Entry for Bicycles
36. No Entry for Tricycles
37. No Entry for Buses
38. No Entry Trucks
39. No Entry for Power Vehicles Drawing Trailers
40. No Entry for Motorcycles
41. No Entry for Pedestrians
42. No Entry for Animal Drawn Vehicles
43. No Entry for Push Carts
44. No Left Turn
45. No Right Turn
46. No U-Turn
47. No Parking
48. No Entry for Vehicles having an overall width exceeding specified figures in meters
49. No Overtaking
50. No Blowing of Horns
51. No Entry for Vehicles having an overall length exceed specified figures in meters.
52. No Entry for Vehicles exceeding in tons laden weight
53. No Entry for Vehicles having a weight exceeding a specified figure in tons on one axle
54. No Entry for Vehicles whose overall length exceeds specified figures in meters
55. Speed Limit

B. Mandatory Signs
56-61. Directions which vehicles are obliged to follow
62. Compulsory Minimum Speed
C. Priority Signs
63. Stop Sign
64. Yield Sign

III. Informative Signs

65. Directional Sign
66. Place Identification Sign
67. Stop sign for loading and Unloading

Figure 26
International Traffic Sign
(Nos. 1-67)

37
 LESSON 4.3
TRAFFIC SIGNAL LIGHTS
Concept
Traffic Lights. These refers to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is
warned or directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light signals are used to control
traffic at junctions and also to stop traffic to provide safe crossing points for pedestrians
and cyclists.

The color of traffic lights are chronologically arranged to give motorist better view of
signals lights. From the top, the series of color is Red, Yellow, and Green. If there is a left
or right arrow, the color alternates from green, yellow to red and is usually installed at the
left side of the green, yellow and red lights (see figure 27 below).

A. Historical Background. Traffic lights were first introduced on railways – the

American railroads. Their application on the road came only later. The choice of
their colors, internationally adopted, was not arbitrary. It was the result of
traditions, careful considerations and experience.
1. The Colors. Today, traffic lights are taken for granted. Few realize the amount of
deliberation and the various factors that lead to their selection. To begin with,
fundamental conditions had to be met:

a. The colors had to be recognized easily, quickly and unmistakably.

b. This had to be possible from the considerable distance and while in motion.
c. The quality, intensity and contrast of the colors had to be such that they served
their purpose in all weather, day and night.
As the choice of the individual colors best suited to convey the essential
information, some seemed to be “ pre-selected.” Certain colors were
traditionally linked with the very purpose they were now meant to serve. Almost
from antiquity, their association had prepared them to express to the modern
age speed the command to stop, to pay heed, or to go “full stream” ahead.
2. Red for “Stop”. Red was an obvious choice for ”stop”. I t had always represented
danger. Fire was red; man had learned early on to keep a safe distance from it lest
he be burned. Blood was red; to shed it, brought death. It is no wonder that,
therefore, red became associated with emergency and with danger.

Native tribes in many parts of the world made use of red to give warning and strike
terror. The Incas in ancient Peru, for instance, made their messengers carry red
beads when they wished to give warnings of war. Hence “red” was best qualified
through man’s constant battle for life. In addition, in the prism of hues it was vivid
and distinct.
3. White for ”Go”. Though “to give the green light” has become the proverbial
permissive signal in many a situation, green was not the original choice for “go”.
White first indicated that the railroad was safe and that train could proceed without
danger. After all, white had always been regarded, though unscientifically so, as a
pure and clear color. Consequently, in the language of symbolism it came to express
purity. Therefore, it was not surprising either that initially it was decided upon to
make it the signal that the line was “clear”

Furthermore, a white light was the most easily produced. It was “natural,” without
the need of paint or other coloring aids. Like red for danger, it seemed the obvious
selection.
4. Caution. Two “lights” were to control the running of trains white for ”go” and red
for “stop”. I t was then realized that safety would be served better still by
introducing a cautionary light to warn the driver of an imminent change. Its color

38
 once again was to be determined by considerations of contrast, distinctiveness and
visibility. The eventual choice was green.

At meeting of railway officials in Birmingham, England, in 1841, it was finally

agreed to make red, green and white the standard signals for “danger,” caution,”
and “go ahead”.
5. Green for “Go”. It did not take long for “white” to prove the wrong color for “go”.
Bitter experience taught that was far from ideal. In fact, it could prove fatal and for
a very pertinent reason. At that early stage, kerosene lamps served as the source of
light. Any color other than white was produced by fixing a color glass plate in front
of the lamp.

It sometimes happened that the glass plate was smashed or just fell off. In either
case, the red warning light instantaneously changed into the white “go ahead”. An
approaching train then had no apparent reason to stop. Full steam ahead it would
rush on, with possibly disastrous consequences.

White had proved unsuitable also for another reason which could cause confusion, if
not a collision. After all, the white lamps were not the exclusive property of railways
or used as traffic signals alone.

They served generally and in an very greater number, as a source of illumination

during night. Therefore how easily could it happen that those in change of a train
could mistake a kerosene lamp put up to shed light as their signal telling them that
the “road” was clear.

Green, after all, was a “natural” color. It was the hue of all foliage and growing
things. Man knew it so well environmentally that it spelled out to him life, safety and
normality. Like the green sap in a plant, it was symbolic of motion, drive, and
vitality. Therefore, from the very beginning, it should have been the obvious color
for signaling permission to proceed. Thus, green found its rightful place in the
scheme of traffic lights. All that was needed now was to find replacement for color
to “caution” drivers. The (second and final) choice fell on yellow-amber.

That is how green, yellow, and red became the standard combination of colors for
railroad signals. The New York, New Havens, and Hartford Railroad, USA, was the
first to introduce them in 1899.

B. From Rail to Road Traffic. The increase of road traffic in cities necessitated its
regulation. Policemen on point duty did a good job, but soon were unnumbered by
intersections demanding attention. It became clear that only mechanical aids could
solve the problem. The traffic authorities did not have to go far in their search. They
simply adopted and adopted – though very gradually and even before their final
standardization – the ready-made and well-tried system of railroad signals.

In England, primary consideration was given to Members of Parliament to help

them safely across the street to reach the Houses of Parliament; the Metropolitan
Commissioner of Police in London had the first lights installed at a “danger spot”
near Parliament. It was a revolving gas-lit lantern mounted on a pole almost seven
meters high, which indicated the red and the green (the latter then still being used
for “caution”). A policeman stationed at its base controlled it by turning a lever.
These “lights” were inaugurated on December 10, 1868. No one then guessed the
hazard they presented. On January 2, 1869, the gas container supplying the lights
with fuel exploded, badly injuring the policeman.

One of the worlds first electric traffic lights was developed in 1912 in Salt Lake City,
Utah, USA. By Lester Wire, a detective on the city police force. A wooden box with
slanted roof, the lights were colored with red and green dye and shone through
circular openings. The box was mounted on a pole and the wires were attached to
the overhead trolley and light wires. It was manually operated.
39
 Cleveland, Ohio adopted a more elaborate electric signal in 1914, which became the
prototype of all modern systems. Its two colors (red and green) could be controlled
either by hand or by an automatic timer. They were supplemented by warning
buzzers. These could still easily be heard, as traffic then was not as deafening as it is
nowadays.

In 1918, New York City put up the first automatic (three colored) lights. Britain
followed suit as late as 1926 with still manually-operated set in the West end of
London. The first English automatic light were installed – as a experiment – in the
following year at a busy intersection in Wolverhampton, a town in Staffordshire,
north-west of Birmingham. The test proved so successful that within a month the
new lights were adopted in Leeds, and, subsequently, in Edinburgh, to become
eventually and inevitably a common and essential feature of traffic controls
everywhere.
C. Rationale. Regulating traffic flow at intersections and road crossings is just a matter
of alternating the GO and STOP signal so that every driver gets his “ fair share”. As
a result of this, traffic lights were invented to relieve the traffic policemen of the
mechanical duties of alternating traffic to make everybody happy.

During instances wherein traffic officers are directing at a crossing or intersection

equipped with traffic lights, the INSTRUCTIONS OF THE POLICE OFFICER
TAKE PRECEDENCE over the traffic lights.

D. Problems Concerning Traffic Lights. These are several problems arising from
intersections controlled by traffic lights. These are:

1. Failure to respect traffic laws and regulations particularly in the absence of

traffic law enforcers. In the Philippine setting, respect to laws(not necessary
traffic laws) needs improvement.
2. When a traffic light suddenly becomes inoperative, very seldom do order and a
sense of discipline prevail. It always ends up as a massive free for all.
3. Even pedestrians are guilty of disobeying traffic lights by crossing on DON’T
WALK signs. This is usually halts traffic.
4. Many times, presence of traffic laws enforcers does not deter pedestrians from
disobeying traffic laws, rules and regulations.

Oftentimes, inoperative traffic lights (either due to brownout or out of order)

cause traffic jams. In cases like these, Lichauco advised that IT IS SAFER TO
SLOW DOWN OR COME TO A COMPLETE STOP and make a certain what
the flow of traffic is. Further, he noted the common observation that too many
accidents have happened with drivers on both sides ASSUMING that the light
on their side is SUPPOSED TO BE GREEN.

E. Classifications of Traffic Signal Lights. Traffic signal Lights are further classified
into three:
1. Traffic Control Signals. These are signal lights designed primarily to control and
regulate traffic flows.
2. Special Pedestrians Signals. These signal lights provides regulation for pedestrians
like the “WALK” and “DO NOT WALK” signal lights.
3. Train Approach and Gates Signals. These are usually installed on road-rail
intersections designed to inform motorist of any approaching train on the
intersection.
4. Over Special Traffic Signals. These are installed on traffic ways where special
regulations are emphasized like “YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE
LEFT”, and other similar regulations.

F. Traffic Signal Systems. Traffic Signal lights use different signaling systems which
vary according to the needs of the traffic way.
40
1. The Fixed-time System. A traffic control signal by which the traffic is alternately
commanded to stop and permitted to proceed in accordance with predetermined
time schedule. This is the most widely used system of traffic signaling. The duration
of the green light remains constant and is set to favor traffic on the main roadway.
Main-road traffic is halted periodically to permit the side-road traffic to cross the
intersection for a short fixed time before the signal again favors traffic on the main
road. The cycle lengths of the signal changes are determined by systematic studies of
traffic flow and pedestrians needs. Such cycle lengths can be set to vary during the
day to accommodate changing traffic patters. Traffic-activated controllers can be
also be used. These vary the length of the green light on a streets according to
changes in traffic demand.
2. Progressive system. These are used on major arteries of a number of cities. Signals
at successive intersections along the artery are timed to change from red to green at
staggered intervals, permitting a vehicle that maintains a constant speed to proceed
without interruption under normal circumstances.
3. Computerized Control of Signal Networks. Signal changes are ordered by the
demands of traffic and are directed by computers that operate on the basis of traffic
information relayed from vehicle sensors on the streets. In this systems, traffic
detectors are placed at several locations-generally in the pavement. A computer
continuously scans the traffic information from each detector. The computer then
selects the best timing for each signal to reduce traffic congestion and minimize
delays.

G. Specific Meaning of Traffic Lights. To attain more effective and efficient controlling
of traffic, each color of the traffic light has specific meaning and traffic regulation.

1.Steady Red,
a. STOP at the designated line.
b. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”.
c. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians lane.
d. Unless specified, you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear traffic from
the left.

2.Steady Green.
a. GO
B. It is turn of the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
C. Pedestrians are not allowed to cross in front of you
d. Unless specified, you can move up to the middle section of the intersection and
make a left turn when clear.
e. Vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way.
f. DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN LIGHT.

3. Steady Green Arrow.

a. GO
b. Vehicles are turning left can do so.
c. On coming straight traffic is still RED to give way for the vehicles turning left.
d. DO NOT ANTICIPATE GREEN ARROW.
4. Steady Yellow
a. PREPARE TO STOP
b. It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO signal
shortly.
c. DO NOT BEAT A YELLOW LIGHT.
5. Flashing Red.
a. This is the same as a STOP SIGN.
b. STOP at the designated line.
c. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”.
d. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians lane
e. PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.
41
6. Flashing Yellow.
a. This is the time same as a YIELD SIGN.
b. Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION.
c. You have the right of way over a flashing RED LIGHT.
d. Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a FULL STOP.
7. Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow.
a. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
b. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right turn.
c. The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign disallowing
right turn while RED light is ON.

42
LESSON 4.4
PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS
Concept

Pavement Markings and Markers. The pavements of all main highways have certain
markings to help you drive safely. Those include the center lane lines, barriers lines, and
directional arrows, depending upon the type of highway and the needs for such markings
to make the road safe under varying conditions.

A. Pavements Markings Defined. These pertain to all lines, patterns, words, colors, or
other gadgets except signs set into the surface of applied upon or attached to the
pavement or curbing or to objects within or adjacent to the roadway, officially
placed for the purpose of regulating, warning or guiding traffic.

Similarly, pavement markings are standardize as to color and location to conform to

international standards. Basically, pavement markings are placed on the roadway to
convey warning or information to the road users without diverting his attention
from the roadway under favorable condition.

Knowledge of the purpose and use of each type of marking is important in order for
motorist to drive safely. Failure either intentionally or by ignorance to observe the
lines can prove disastrous.
B. Types of Pavement Markings and Markers. Pavement markings and marker are
further classified into the following depending on their purpose and location of
placement.

1. Pavement Markings. These are the lines usually white and yellow or a
combination yellow and white officially set on the roadway as separation for
motor vehicles traveling in the opposite direction or the same direction in case of
two-lane one-way street, two lane two-way street or four-lane two-way street(see
figures 28-30.)
2. Curb Markings for Restrictions. These are markings placed on the curbs or
edges of the traffic for restriction or for parking regulation purposes( see figure
31)
3. Object MARKINGS. These are markings placed on objects on the road or
beside the road like humps, rocks or similar hazardous objects on the side of the
road (see figure 32).
4. Reflectorized Markings. These are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and
become luminous when hit by vehicles headlights. These are placed or installed
in the middle of the roadway to supplement separation lines or on object at the
side of the roadway which are too near or within the road pavement itself.
C. Specific Meaning of Pavement Markings. Pavement markings vary depending on
the traffic regulations in its location or depending on the road or traffic condition.

1. Single White Dotted Line. This pavement marking indicates the following:

a. On two-lane road, it separates traffic moving in opposite directions (see

figure 29)
b. On a one-way street, separates traffic involving moving in one direction (see
figure 28 on the preceding page.)
c. Overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming possible.
2. Single White Continuous Line in A Two-Lane Traffic Way.
This line indicates the following:

a. Separates traffic moving in opposite direction (see figure 30)

b. Could be found in road sections that are dangerous.
43
 c. Passing and overtaking can be made but ONLY under circumstances when
there is no oncoming traffic.
3. Single Continuous Line On A Four-Lane Road. This sign when found on four-
lane streets, indicates:

a. When there are slow and fast lanes, NEVER overtake by passing over the
solid white line(see figure 30)
b. Lanes 1 &4 (outer lanes) for slow moving vehicles. Vehicles on this lane
should not be BELOW the minimum speed limit.
c. Lanes 2&3 (inner lanes0 are usually for faster moving vehicles.
4. Double Yellow Line or Double White Line. A double yellow or white line with a
dotted line between means (see figure 33):

a. ABSOLUTELY NO OVERTAKING.
b. Overtaking is extremely dangerous.
c. Stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid lines.
5. Single Yellow/White Line. A yellow or white with dotted white line means (se
figure 34)
a. That you cannot overtake if the solid line is on your side.
b. If you overtake, return to your lane BEFORE the solid line.
6. Yellow Continuous Line on Road Provided with a Passing Lane. This line
indicates the following (see figure 35):

a. These are common on mountain roads.

b. Slow moving vehicles such as buses and
c. Heavy trucks should use the outer lane (lane 3)
d. Inner lane (lane 2) is for vehicle to pass without having to use the other lane
(lane 1) for vehicles coming from the opposite direction.
e. Vehicles coming from the opposite direction (lane 1) should not use the inner
lane (lane 2) at the other side for overtaking.

7. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane. This pavement marking indicates the following

(figure36):

a. For pedestrian to cross.

b. Stop for pedestrians on an intersection with no traffic light.
c. DO NOT STOP on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload passengers.
d. Pedestrians should ALWAYS cross a street on a crosswalk.
8. Directional Arrows. These pavement markings indicate the following traffic
regulations (see figure 37):

a. Directions of permitted traffic movement.

b. When approaching intersections where pavement arrows are used, you should
enter the lane where the arrows points in the direction you want to go.
c. If you get in the wrong lane, you should keep going in the direction indicated by
the arrow until it is safe to turn off get back on the street or highway which will
carry you to your destination.
d. Some have double headed arrows which means the lane is for traffic going in the
two directions indicated.

9. Stop Lines. These are painted across the pavement lanes at traffic signs or
signals. Where these lines are present, you should stop behind the stop line9see
figure 38)

10. The Barrel Lines. A new concept in reducing the seriousness. The barrels are
engineered to act as impact cushion. Usually installed in front of a solid obstacle
or traffic island at an area of high accident frequency (see figure 39)

44
LESSON 4.5
TRAFFIC ISLANDS
Concept

A. Traffic Islands Defined. These are areas within the roadway constructed in a
manner to establish physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.
B. Functions of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands as part of traffic control devices are
designed to:

1. Segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and

2. Control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow or
increase safety.

C. Classifications of Traffic Islands. Traffic islands are classified according to design,

place of installation, and purpose of construction.

1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers). These are constructed between the

pedestrian sidewalk and the road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the
road way in passing and to prevent motor vehicles from using the sidewalk for
parking and passing purposes (see figure 40)
2. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way
constructed to separate the streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite
directions and at the same time preventing motorist from using the opposite lane for
overtaking (see figure 41.1-41.3) Traffic Islands are further sub-classified into three
(3):

a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of the
motor vehicles (see figure 41.1)
b. Channelizing Island. These are constructed to channelize or direct the flow of
traffic (see figure 41.2)
c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along intersections or “rotundas” for
purposes of turning-around (see figure 41.3). Their functions are:

(1) Prohibit pedestrians from crossing major thoroughfares at points where such
crossing are exceptionally hazardous,
(2) Minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular traffic, and
(3) Channelize and control pedestrians.

45
LESSON 5.1
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT

Concept

Traffic Law Enforcement Defined. Traffic Law enforcement action is part of enforcement
involving the arrest, issuance of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report
Summons, or warning of any person who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or
regulation pertaining to the use of traffic roads.

Rationale. Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation, property, or

inconveniencing other users of traffic users of roads, prevent continued violation, or
discourage future repetition.

As a traffic law enforcer, he must decide the kind of action he will take in case he has
knowledge of any violation. Drivers are guided more by the enforcement actions of traffic
law enforcers than by the way the law is written. It is therefore important that traffic
enforcers should know what to do and be consistent in their actions so that the drivers may
know exactly what to expect. Further, consistency of traffic enforcers in the enforcement of
traffic laws builds respect and compliance with the law.
A. Scope of traffic law enforcement. The range of action of traffic law enforcement
includes but not limited to the following:

1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws and
ordinances regulating the movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of
creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling road
users, let behavior by preventive persuasive and punitive methods in order to effect
a safe and efficient traffic movement; and
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations relating to
the use of street and highways and operation of motor vehicles.

B. Two Major Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement. For more effective traffic law
enforcement and more specific roles in enforcement, the function is divided not the
following :

1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement. This function includes the enforcement of traffic
laws deterrent to law violations, special assistance to prosecutors and courts and
incidental service to highway users. Usually these are the responsibilities of traffic
enforcers like members of the PNP-TMG and the LTO law Enforcement Service
(LES).
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement. One part of traffic law enforcement is performed
by the court through PROSECUTION, ADJUDICATION, and PENALIZATION of
cases. These actions are usually undertaken by any of the regular courts where the
traffic cases fall under their jurisdiction and the Traffic Adjudication Service (TAS)
of the LTO.
C. Three Important Goals of Enforcement Activities. For more specific actions,
enforcement activities aim:

1. To increase safety level- enforcement effort should be directed towards the

reduction of accidents or minimizing their effects.
2. To increase traffic efficiency- when traffic violators are reduced particularly those
related to traffic obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be free-
flow of traffic.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment- when there is an increase
safety level and increase traffic efficiency, traveling is more comfortable and
luxurious and it may reduce chaotic situations in the traffic way.
46
D. Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement System. In the pursuit of effective traffic
effective enforcement, three elements are involved. Removing one of the elements or
any of the elements, enforcement is not complete.

1. Enforcement System. This area consist of legislation, police and the courts.
Legislation defines and specifies correct or incorrect road user behavior. Police and
the courts are charged with the responsibility of insuring that these laws are
adhered to.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User). This element includes pedestrians, pedal
cyclist, drivers, passengers and others.
3. Road System (Traffic System). This area is composed of the entire road and vehicle
complex, as well as all traffic rules and regulations.
E. Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process.
Enforcement of traffic laws includes the following process:

1. Detection (of violation”). A whole police responsibility that entails looking for
detects in the behavior of motorist, pedestrians, vehicle and roadway condition.
Requires knowledge of law on the part of the police.
2. Apprehension. It is also a whole police function which involves the actual taking
of enforcement actions.
3. Prosecution. This area is handled by the prosecution and partly the court where
the police also provide corresponding influences through preparation and
introduction of evidence or close contract with the prosecuting officer.
4. Adjudication. While this is obviously a court and prosecutions’ functions, the
police provide influence on this step by acting as witness to the prosecution or
supplying additional evidence. This step determines the guilt or innocence of the
accused.
5. Penalization. The court after due process imposes the penalty upon the accused
if found guilty. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous records of
conviction as provided by police. Penalty involved is either fine or imprisonment
or both fine and imprisonment or may result to the suspension or revocation of
the drivers license of the accused.
F. Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws. Road users violate traffic laws and
ordinances due to varying reasons. The following are the common reasons why
roads users violate traffic laws, rules and regulations and other traffic statutes:

1. Physical disabilities or infirmities

2. Ignorance of traffic
3. Lack of training and experience
4. Wrong attitude towards driving
5. PUV’s driver for increased compensation
6. Driver’s apathy towards sign, signals and markings
7. Influential person violate because they feel are exempted from punishment.

G. Considerations that acts as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians. Some roads are
hesitant in violating any traffic law or ordinances because varying reasons which
are enumerated as follows:

1. Fear of fine or punishment

2. Loss of driving privilege
3. Possibility of being involved in accident
4. Positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting an example
H. Kinds of Enforcement Action. When traffic enforcers detected violation of traffic
laws, an enforcement action may be taken against the individual which is either
arrest, or citation, or warning alone.
a. When a traffic violator can be arrested?
(1) Offense committed is serious
(2) Detention is necessary to avoid violation
(3) There is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
47
 b. How is arrest made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:
(1) By an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or
(2) By his submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.
c. Use of force in arresting. No violation or unnecessary force shall be used in
making an arrest and the person arrested shall not be subjected to any greater
restraint than is necessary for his detention
d. Arrest in Traffic. In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic officer must consider
the following:
(1) An arrest can be effected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the
presence of an arresting officer.
(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the
purpose of bringing him before a court.
(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.
(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the
arrested must understand that he is being arrested.
(5) The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspended violator before a court to answer a
charge of violation.
D. Recording the Data of Arrest. Whichever action is used by the officer or agency, the
following information are necessary:
(1) Date/time of Arrest
(2) Place of arrest
(3) The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested
(4) The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business address and his
telephone number.
(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and
marital status
(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest
(7) Name and badge number of arresting officer.

e. When taking person into custody. The arresting officer when taking a person
into custody must consider the following:
(1) The possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or kill
you or escape in your custody.
(2) Inform him that you are placing him under arrest. Explain to him why are you
place where the arrestee is to be delivered.
(3) Have the necessary information and instructions written so that the transporting
officer will not err in the delivery.
(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle to your
headquarters and follow him with your police mobile.
(5) However, if the driver is not in good condition or the vehicle is in bad shape, let
someone drive the vehicle to thye headquarters.

h. Warrantless Arrest or Citizen’s/Civilian Arrest. Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is

made right after the commission of the traffic violation. Hence, traffic enforcers
should know the following rules to be observed in arresting a person without
warrant of arrest as stipulated by paragraphs a-c, Sec.6, rule 113, Rules of
Court:

(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested has
committed, is actually committing, or is about to commit an offense.
(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and the arresting officer has
personal reasons to believe that the person to be arrested has committed it.

2.Traffic Citation. This is means of having violators appear in court without physical
arrest. To ensure that an apprehended traffic officer should confiscate the violator’s
driver’s license and issue Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT), TOP, or Traffic Violator’s Receipt
(TVR).

48
 a. Apprehension. As an apprehending officer duly designated by the LTO, you should
observe the following when apprehending a traffic violator:

(1) You may confiscate the driver’s license or certificate of registration of the vehicle
for any violation of the R.A. 4136 and its rules and regulations, City and Municipal
Ordinances.
(2) Fill out the blank spaces of TOP/or TCT form in order to provide a detailed report
of apprehension for the information, guidance and reference of all concerned.
(3) Advise the violator to report within 72 hours, but not less than 24 hours to give
allowance for proper transmittal from receipt thereof to appropriate offices.
b. Where the violator should report? The violator should be advised to report to :

(1) Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City’s Traffic Ordinance.
(2) City/Provincial Prosecutors, if in other chartered cities or provincial capitals
without traffic courts, for violations of local traffic ordinances.
(3) Municipal Court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic ordinances.
(4) LTO Central Office (TAS) for Metro Manila or its counterparts [REGIONAL
TRAFFIC ADJUDICATION SERVICE(RTAS)] for violation of the Land
Transportation and Traffic Code (RA 4136), and its rules and in the provinces
regulations.

c. Uses the TOP, the TCT, and the TVR. These are official documents designed for
various purposes, namely:

(1) It serves as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver’s license or the
CR/OR of the vehicle.
(2) It serves as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for 72 hours without
extension from the time of confiscation or apprehension (in case of TVR in
Manila, 7 days).
(3) It is an official for of judicial or administrative citation to facilitate action on the
case for which it is issued.
(4) It is record for disposing a case cited therein either administratively or judiciary.
(5) It is also a receipt for releaser of the confiscated items after adjudication and
termination of the case.
d. Preparation of the Information/Complaint. Within your tour of duty, prepare
information or complaint by filling up the TOP for processing of all traffic
apprehensions at the appropriate office.
e. Filling of Information/Complaint. Within 24 hours from the time of apprehensions,
file the complaints, together with the confiscated items, with the Clerk of court or
Provincial Prosecutor or the court having appropriate jurisdiction as previously
stated.
Table 3 below shows the summary steps followed in traffic citation

Kinds of Place of Period of Where to Period of What What will

Violation Violation Filling-up Report Reporting should Happen?
TOP/TCT/ (Violator) (Violator) The
TVR Violato
r
Do?
R.A. 4136 NCR Within 24 LTO-Main 3-5 DAYS Pay the Paid the
hours TAS fine or fine, DL is
plea not returned.
guilty Guilty
plea,
Traffic
Officer is
summoned.
-do- Provinces Within 24 LTO- 3 days or -do- -do-
Outside hours RTAS 72 hours
49
 NCR
Local NCR Within 24 Traffic 3-5 days -do- -do-
Traffic hours Court
Ordinance (if any)/
s Prosecutor
s
Office
-do- Chartered Within 24 Traffic 3 days or -do- -do-
Cities hours Court 72 hours
Outside (if any)/
NCR Prosecutor
-do- Municipalitie Within 24 Prosecutor/ 3 days or -do- -do-
s hours Municipal 72 hours
Court

f. Preliminary findings and disposition of License. Within 72 hours or three(3) days

from the filling of the case with the respective traffic enforcement offices, the
hearing authority shall make immediate preliminary findings on the basis of police
or complaint’s witness reports as to whether or not there is an imperative necessity
of withholding the driver’s license confiscated.

(1) Should there be no such necessity; he shall promptly order the return of the
confiscated license to the owner without the prejudice to re-calling said license.
(2) Where the violator fails to appear before the court or the investigating official
concerned, his license or permit shall be forwarded to the LTO for its suspension or
revocation pursuant to Sec. 29., RA. 4136.

g. RECORDS OF COURT PROCEDDINGS.

(1) When the violator appears in Court 15 days and pleads guilty, the Clerk shows the
fine schedule and the violators pay the fine at the Treasurer’s Office, receipt of
which is shown to Clerk of Court who records the same on the TOP, and his license,
if cleared for release, is now returned to the driver.
(2) If the violator appears after 15 days, his license is forwarded to the LTO for
suspension or revocation; he shows his TOP copy to the proper disposition of his
license. Clerks of Courts, in every case, should inform the LTO and/or the
apprehending officer of the final disposition of the case.
(3) The violator appears in Court and desires not to plea guilty to the charge, the Clerk
of Court sets the date of hearing and notifies the accused accordingly and sends a
corresponding subpoena to the apprehending officer for his appearance.
(4) When the accused is found not guilty after trial, his license, if in the possession of
the Court or of the LTO, shall immediately be returned to him unless there is any
other legal ground for its suspension or revocation.
3.Traffic Warning. This is an enforcement action which does not contemplate possible
assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning alone. There are
three types of traffic warning : visual, verbal, and written.

a. Visual Warning. This is usually used when you have observed a minor violation but
are more importantly occupied at a moment. Indicate by gesture of the hand and/ or
the head.
b. Verbal Warning. This is a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator that he
violated a law and explain the hazards of such violations
c. Written Warning. This is a combination of verbal warning and citations. It gives the
spirit of verbal warning and the form of citation. This is seldom used nowadays.

I. Decision Enforcement. In determining what enforcement action to be taken,

whether you arrest, cite or warn the apprehended violator, consider the following:
1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
50
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations.

J. Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement. Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement activity

performed activity by police and is used when violating driver is detected.

Pursuit is a part of the apprehension of a violator. In general, A driver who is aware

of his violation at your presence will stop his vehicle when signaled to do so. In this
instance, apprehension is complete and pursuit is not necessary. There are times,
however, when a driver is not aware that he has been detected in violation and must
be pursued until apprehended. Pursuit and successful apprehension of a violator
may require the operation of your patrol vehicle at high speed for an extended
distance.

1. When to pursue? When an violator fails to stop on signal, your normal reaction is to
pursue the violator until you apprehend him. However, due to traffic congestion or
other complications, such action is sometimes neither practical nor safe. In
pursuing, observe the following:

a. Pursuit must always be tampered with common sense and foresight of like hazards.
b. Better judgment is used in deciding to lose a traffic violator who can be
apprehended at another time than giving great risk to yourself, your vehicle and
other drivers.
c. Pursuit requiring high speed operation of police vehicle may be justified in certain
circumstances such as in the apprehension of a driver endangering the lives of
motorist, pedestrians, and others through operation which can be classified as other
than reasonable and proper which is dangerous and negligent.
d. Type of serious violation is an important factor in deciding to pursue:

(1) Non-hazardous violations. Pursuit to apprehend this violator seldom warrants a

prolonged chase or operation of your police vehicle at high speed. These violations
do not justify the same degree of risk as may be justified as hazardous violations.
(2) Hazardous violations. These violations present continuing danger to other road
users that require immediate and sometime aggressive pursuit. Examples are:

(a) Driving while under the influence of liquor;

(b) Reckless driving; and
(c) Driving on excessive speed.

e. Consider the following when pursuing hazardous violators:

(1) A violator of this nature likely to have little concern for other drivers at their safety.
(2) Successful flight from identification and apprehension is usually his only concern
(3) Be prepared for acts of this type of violator which could give advantage while
interfering with your pursuit and successful apprehension. Like trying to force you
or other motorist off the road.

f. Consider your driving skill and experience. Driving skill is that collection of proper
habits which enable a person to detect and evaluate road and traffic conditions
about him, and to maneuver his vehicle properly without consciously thinking about
what he is doing. Check your skill in these areas:

(1) Manipulative skills – making your vehicle behave as you intend.

(2) Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
(3) Defensive driving – anticipating and allowing bad-driving by others.

51
g. Resisting distraction. You should know what evasive actions will permit you to
avoid or escape unfavorable traffic conditions. A driver can often danger if he
knows how to recognize the danger in time and take proper evasive action.
2. Pursuit Techniques. A successful pursuit operation can be attained if the pursuing
officer knows the following:

a. His limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle under normal conditions.
b. Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the dangers
involved in pursuit in high speed.
c. Normal driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police uniform, or
by having a police car to operate.
3. Identification of Pursued Vehicle.

a. When alone, use a clipboard with attached paper and pencil. Anchor the clipboard
by sitting on part of it so that notes can be written without looking down.
b. Post a list of wanted persons or vehicle on a “hot sheet” within easy viewing range
while driving position. This list should be arranged by cases of offense for rapid
identification of violators wanted for more serious offense.
c. Identify the violators vehicle for later identification, particularly when pursuit is
lengthy, interrupted or abandoned, or in case you are injured by the violators.
d. The registration plate is very important and accurate method of establishing
identity of a vehicle is also important. Train your self to observe complete license
plate number at a glance.
e. Record the registration number as soon as possible, and check it against your “hot
sheet”. Sometimes prescribed registration number on a clipboard is the only clue to
the identification of an escaping violator who has struck or injured an officer.
4. Itemized Identification Features of the Vehicle. For an effective identification of the
pursued vehicle, the officer must be familiar with the following features:

a. COLOR- For example, red, black, etc. When the vehicle has more than one color,
first give the color of the body and then the top, i.e., black body, gray top.
b. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE- Learn to identify the year model of vehicle, i.e.,
“1966”
c. MAKE- Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc..
d. BODY TYPE- p-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc..
e. LICENSE PLATE NUMBER- City or Province of issuance, letter and number
prefixes, i.e., AA 456
f. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES- “wide-bank racing stripe,”
vinyl top, particular damage which are noticeable as crumbled fender, damaged
door, or cracked door.
g. UNUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER OR PASSENGERS- Clothing, air
glasses, etc.

5. Keep Headquarters Advised- Through the dispatcher about the progress of the
pursuit operation.
a. It is your duty to apprehend violators as soon as possible. Radio contact with HQs
aids in accomplishing this objective by alerting other patrol units in the area.
b. While in pursuit, use your radio whenever necessary and advisable. If forced to
abandon pursuit and there is no radio available, use any nearest telephone.
6. Stopping and approaching a violator. It is completed when you have stopped the
violator’s vehicle and move to the place where you will begin to talk to the driver.
The following should be observed:
a. In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you stopped, to
other road users.
b. Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be alert for the
unexpected.

K. Officer-Violator Relationship. The first reminder for an officer is to establish

PLEASANT RELATIONSHIP with offending motorist or pedestrians. This may be
accomplished by:
52
1. The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create the
violator’s impression of you. A neat, clean uniform properly worn and well-
groomed person will create a good impression.
2. Observance of the following rules when talking with the violators:

a. Get your emotions under control. Don’t appear before him when you are both at the
peak of tension.
b. Advise the violator the nature of the alleged violation in a manner that he can fully
understand.
c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.
d. Be courteous and business-like. You may introduce yourself or use only ‘good
morning”, “Sir” or “Madam”. By using “Sir” or ”Madam”
e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as “ May I,” “Please” and
“KINDLY” when directing the violator.
f. Avoid telling the driver what not to do. If you want him to do something, whenever
possible, explain why you want him to do it.

3. Never open your conversation in a sarcastic or derogatory way. Avoid such opening
as:

a. Don’t you know -----?

b. Who do you think you are?
c. Where do you think you are going?
d. What’s your hurry?
4. Being alert at all times for the unexpected, approach the violator with these cases:

a. Take time to get ready to talk with the violator.

b. Know what are going to do and say.
c. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlights, clipboard, or citation pad.
d. Review the facts which led you to your stopping the violator before you begin to
talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take before you approach the
violator.
5. In requesting for the driver’s license or vehicle registration certificate (CR), observe
the following:

a. Do not put your head or arms in the car windows.

b. While waiting for the license, ask the driver, “What is your name, Sir”
c. Never accept anything other than the papers requested.
d. Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other container.
e. Have the driver hand the requested papers to you outside the window.
f. Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the license and the
registration papers for any possible fraud, or false identities or falsifications.
g. Do not return the driver’s license and vehicle registration certificate until you are
about to terminate the interview.

6. In terminating your contract with the violator-

a. Explain to the driver what action he must take.

b. Tell him when and where he must appear
c. Don’t discuss probable bail penalties with the violator.
d. Avoid any naughty suggestion that he should engage in the services of a counsel or
how he should plead.
e. When you are certain the driver understands what he should do, close the interview
by:
(1) Thanking the driver for his cooperation.
(2) Explaining how he may avoid further difficulty.

f. Help the driver get safely through the traffic.

53
 g. When the violator leaves, don’t follow him immediately. He may feel that you are
just waiting to nab him again.

L. Road Check. This another enforcement activity where it involves the conducting of
actual inspection of vehicles, and motorist on the road.

1. Objectives of road check. The objective of road check is to detect and inspect the
following:

a. Faulty vehicle equipment

b. Registration and licensing violations
c. Intoxicated drivers
d. The load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight

2. Considerations to be taken.

a. Minimum delay to motorist

b. Thorough checking procedure
c. Protection/safety of both motorist and officers
d. Timing, location and frequency

In case thorough checking of vehicles will be conducted, take note of the legalities of
searches or the instances that validates the search, i.e., search incidental to lawful arrest,
consented search, search of moving vessel, and search by ”tips”

54
LESSON 5.2
TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL

Concept:

As discussed earlier, the movement of people, goods, vehicles, trains, ships, and airplanes
from one place to another is called traffic. And controlling traffic involves attempts to
make these movements fast, safe, and efficient as possible. Aside from utilizing traffic signs,
pavement markings and markers, and traffic signal systems, one important aspects of
traffic control is the assigning of traffic officers along intersections where traffic
congestions are common problems.

Assigning of traffic officers on strategic places does not only ensure the obedience of traffic
laws, rules and regulations but also serves as emergency solution when traffic lights
suddenly fail or when the traffic signal light could not control the flow of traffic. Traffic
officers manning intersections can also provide emergency services to the public not only
during lights out but also during disasters or calamities like fire or ambulances responding
to fire or crime scenes. During these moments, traffic officers can immediately give way to
responding fire engines, police cars, or ambulances by directing and control traffic along
intersections.

Intersection defined. As applied to street or highway means the space occupied by two
streets at the point where they across each other. Usually, this is the place where the traffic
direction and traffic control is needed.

Police Traffic Direction. It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how and
where may or may not move stand at a particular place, especially during emergencies or
period of congestion.

A. Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic officers are
usually deputized by the Land Transportation Office who normally comes from the
PNP-TMG, police auxiliaries, MMDA Traffic Management Section. In some places,
volunteers coming from barangay security forces and other civic organizations
assist in the directing and controlling of traffic particularly during rush hours,
special occasions, and time of emergencies.
B. Directing and Guiding Traffic. The following are the basic concept for an effective
directing and guiding traffic:

1. When you are assigned to direct traffic, you are expected to indicate to the drivers
and pedestrians how, when, and where they may move.
2. In order to do this, use a type of sign language which shall be clearly
understandable to all persons you will be directing.
3. However, if your signals are different from those used by other officers, motorist
would probably fail to understand them and ignore altogether.
4. Hence, it is important for the efficient direction of traffic that the officers use
uniform gestures and signals.
5. Moreover, the signals should be able to seen over a fairly long distance. When
directing traffic, you first want drivers and pedestrians to recognize that you are the
officer who will tell them what to do. But you must also know how to tell them when
to stop, go, turn by using gestures alone.
6. Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand as tough you mean business.
Stand straight with your weigh equally distributed to each foot.
7. When you are not signaling, let your hands fall at your sides. When you authorize
vehicles to move, do not face them. Stand so that your side is toward the oncoming
vehicle.

C. Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic.

1. Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorist and pedestrians (see figure 42).
2. Supplement the arm/hand signals with whistle:
55
a. One long blow to STOP.
b. Two short snappy blast for GO
c. Three blast to be used for assistance.

3. If two or more officers are assigned in the intersection, only one makes the decision,
while the other take theirs from him.
4. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the driver the
opportunity to stop (see figures 42.1-42.2).
5. The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the
person or vehicle to be stopped.

D. Night Control of Traffic. There are instances when traffic officers are needed to
direct and guide during night time, not only during lights out where traffic lights
are not functioning but also during some instances where an accident occurs and
traffic officers are needed to guide motorist. Whichever case, the following are the
suggested methods to be used while directing and guiding traffic during night time.
1. When light is sufficient, work as in day time.
2. If light is not sufficient, use flashlight:

a. To STOP, direct the flashlight in the line of the vision and move back and forth.
b. To START, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight.
c. Supplement the actions with whistle.

E. Hand Signals. Figures 42 to 46 are some of the standards hand signals when
directing traffic.

56
LESSON 5.3
TRAFFIC PATROL
Concept

In maintaining order in the streets and highways, it is not sufficient to install traffic control
devices and ids. Traffic signs, pavement markings and markers and other traffic rules and
regulations are likely to be violated in the absence of traffic law enforcement officers.
Therefore, to ensure compliance to these traffic rules and regulations, traffic patrol officers
are needed.

Traffic Patrol . It refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers
and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law enforcement and
providing authorized traffic connected services to the public.

However, traffic patrol is not all moving from one place to another place, but it also
involves stationary observation particularly on strategic places where accidents and traffic
violations are very common occurrence.

A. Type of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrol may be conducted on area or line bases which
refer to the territory covered. It includes, for enforcement purposes, stationary
observation to detect driver’s behavior as well as moving about to detect violators.

1. Line Patrol. This involves observation either in moving or stationary observation at

certain route or point of a major street in a city. Usually, this is done by foot patrol
officers.
2. Area Patrol. This involves the conduct of observation either by moving patrol or
observation of a certain area which included a number of streets, roads or sections
of a highway. Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile police officers as well as
those motorcycle cops.

B. Types of Stationary Observation. As discussed earlier, observation of traffic

conditions of selected place, usually one with unfavorable accident experiences for
traffic law supervision. Stationary observation may be conspicuous, visible, or
concealed, depending upon the location of the patrol unit in relation to the streets
under observation.

1. Conspicuous Observation. Stationary observation in which observer remains in full

view of traffic conditions. Here, the traffic patrol officer is situated in any place
where he could be seen by all traffic users.
2. Visible Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view but
also located, for example, at side street, so as to require the effort on the part of
traffic users to discover the observer.
3. Concealed Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible
to persons using ordinary power of observation from the roadway being observed.

C. Purposes of Traffic Patrol. Traffic patrolling is usually conducted for the following
purposes:
1. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.
2. Detecting and apprehending violators.
3. Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
4. Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction which needs
attention.
5. Providing certain services to the public.
6. Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly.

D. Deterring Drivers from Violating. The effect of traffic law enforcement on the
behavior of the motorist drivers depends upon what they think the police will do or
the reputation of the police for action. Once you have a good reputation as a good
traffic enforcer for taking action when it necessary, a deterrent effect may be
achieved in several ways:
57
 1. Be sure you are seen by other motorist while taking enforcement actions against a
violator.
2. Be in full view while simply patrolling or inspecting.
3. Leave the area and proceed to another area after you have taken enforcement
action.
4. In order to achieve a deterrent in law enforcement, be sure to spend more time in
some area wherein motorist or drivers fail to be aware of their common bad driving
practices.
5. Enforcement action should be taken once among habitual violators in order to deter
traffic violators.

E. Deter Violator for Unsafe Driving. Be alert for potentially hazardous drivers. His
action may not be illegal, but may serve as road hazards that need to be cautioned.

This kind of driver may have not have enough driving experience; he may be under
the influence of liquor or narcotics that may later on contribute to an accident if no
action is taken against him at once.

F. Example of Actions and Conditions which may Need Close Watching for Further
Investigations. While patrolling, traffic officers must give special attention to come
conditions that may result to greater danger or continuous violations. These are:

1. Driving extremely at low speed.

2. Slow moving vehicles in left or “high speed” lanes.
3. Racing motor sliding stops, jumping starts, and the like.
4. Excessive maneuvering such as backing up[four or five times to get into a parking
space.
5. Pulling to curb lane at traffic signal.
6. Having turn signals on when not attempting to turn.
7. Waving roadway.
8. Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view.
9. Passing or attempting to pass several cars in bunch.
10. Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle.
11. Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles.
12. Damage or dressed up vehicles.
13. Faulty or obscured license plates.
14. Unlighted parked cars with motor running.

Warn drivers or pedestrians who are about to stop and to double park or start to leave a
vehicle which is standing in a driveway. A gesture is usually enough to warn the driver to
desist.

G. Detecting and Apprehending Violators. These are the main jobs or duties of traffic
patrol officers.
H. Observing Traffic Conditions. As traffic patrol officer, you are the eyes and ears of
the department when on traffic patrol. You must apply information about what is
happening on the street. This information may be used for many purposes.
I. Road Intelligence. Unusual points of serious congestion must be noted. You may
observe an unusual amount of delay at a certain intersection each morning and
when you learn that it is due to loading or unloading of passengers on a “NO
LOADING ZONE” , be sure to report the situation at once to your superior officer.
Pay special attention to congestions that tie up traffic for a block or more. You
should also report unnecessary delay at stop signs or signals which are installed
when traffic is heavier. Include in your report all road and bridge conditions.
J. Patrol Assignment. You may be assigned to either area or line patrol, or you may
have instructions to use a combination. For example, you may patrol certain street
noted for excessive accidents in a line at specific times. The following are some
guidelines when assigned in traffic patrol unit.
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 1. Be sure to be familiar with the street lay out in your area. Learn the short cuts, the
dead ends, and the back streets. Learn which streets are likely to serve as escape
routes from the city or provincial roads.
2. Familiarize yourself with the places where congestion is likely to occur so that you
can “drive around” these places when on emergency call.
3. When assigned to area patrol, you may or may not be able to cover your entire
assignment area on each tour of duty, depending upon its size. You may not able to
give same amount of attention to each section due to necessity of concentrating on a
certain trouble spots. However, you should consider yourself responsible for traffic
conditions in the entire area.
4. When assigned to line patrol, you are responsible for the traffic conditions on a
particular street or highway. You may be permitted to depart from your assigned
street when, for example, you pursue violator or on an authorized break time such
as lunch.
5. You may also want to employ patrol techniques which will require you to depart
momentarily from an intersecting street rather than always approaching it from the
street which you are patrolling. At times this will enable you to get better view of
traffic conditions on your assigned street.
K. Patrol Tactics and Techniques. Occasionally, you may have an assignment in which
you work with another patrol unit. When multiple patrol units are used, special
tactics are possible. Examples of these are the following:

1. When one unit overtakes a group of vehicles, the other unit brings up the rear of the
group. If one or more drivers in the group think that they can no longer be observed
since they have been passed by the first patrol unit, they feel free to violate. The
following patrol unit observes and apprehends the violators. A conspicuous and
concealed unit may be used together in much the same manner.
2. When an entire column of vehicles must be stopped, one unit stays at the rear while
overtakes the leader. If two vehicles are racing, or if two violators separate, the
paired patrol units can separate for individual pursuit.
3. Another advantage of working together is that is officers can protects each other,
particularly when approaching suspicious persons or vehicles. Except for special
purposes or occasion, patrol unit works independently so that more areas can be
covered that way.
L. Steps to take in Cases of special and unusual Situations.
Oftentimes, traffic patrol officers are confronted with unusual situations while on field
operations. The following are some of the guidelines to be observed when faced with
unusual incidents:

1. What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicle? A motor vehicle is said to be

abandoned when it is left unattended in an area not provided for parking. For these
reasons unattended vehicles become a problem to traffic flow. In some instances,
they are accidentally found to be a more serious problem that what is actually
thought of, particularly when they are abandoned by carpenters or hold-uppers.
Abandoned vehicles may be classified into two categories: a) unattended due to
mechanical detects, and b) abandoned by carnappers or hold-up men.

a. In the case of the second category:

(1) Verify and check on the ownership of the vehicle,
(2) And if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer place.

b. In case of the second category:

(1) Get the plate number and other data of the vehicle,
(2) Make a report on the presence of the abandoned vehicle to the nearest TRAFCOM
or traffic police unit,
(3) Make possible steps to inform owner,
(4) Bring the vehicle to the TRAFCOM or traffic police impounding area and conduct a
technical Inspection Report in the presence of the alleged owner

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(5) Advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of the vehicle for the identification
of the ownership,
(6) If the vehicle is found to have violated any provision or RA 6539, note its violation
and together with the technical Inspection Report, submit it for investigation, and
(7) Finally, submit a duly accomplished spot report.

2. What to do on stalled or bogged down motor vehicles? In most instances, traffic

accidents or jams are caused by installed or bogged down vehicles that are left
carelessly unattended in the highways. In these cases therefore, it is important that
you should know the basic courses of actions in order to avoid unnecessary risks of
human lives and property and further allow the continuous free flow of traffic.
When you notice stalled or bogged down vehicles having mechanical defects and
blocking the roads; take these precautionary measures:

a. Check the defect or condition of the vehicle,

b. Ensure the safety of vehicles and persons involved by conducting traffic direction
kin the vicinity
c. If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder. You may request assistance of
other motorist to do this, otherwise avail of wreckers or heavy trucks to move it.
d. Advise the owner of the vehicle to avail the services of the repairman, and
e. Provide early warning devices or any lantern to deter accident occurrences and
provide appropriate precautions for the safety and conveniences of the repairman
and the other motorist.
3. How to handle traffic jam? Traffic jam is caused by such factor as vehicular
accident, stalled vehicle due to engine trouble, absence of traffic officer at an
intersection, or road construction.
Steps to be taken by the traffic officer are:

a. Determine the cause of the traffic jam,

b. Where the traffic jam is caused by vehicular accident, conduct fast, immediate
but complete investigation and remove vehicles involve at the scene of accident
c. If the traffic jam is caused by the mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push the
vehicle to a place where it will not obstruct the flow of traffic
d. Establish yourself and conduct systematic flow of traffic
e. Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not, refer back to letter “a”
above, and
f. Implement proper traffic regulation to avoid further traffic jam.
4. In case of vehicle cannibalization. Vehicle cannibalization is characterized by
stealing the parts of the motor vehicle instead of carnapping the whole car. In case
of this accident, take the following steps:

a. Determine the vehicle parts that were stolen

b. Take down the name of the owner of the vehicle, the description of the vehicle, and
the location or where the incident took place,
c. Look fort immediate possible clues that might lead to the identification of the
perpetrators or their modus operandi,
d. Interview the witnesses and owner to get a general picture of the situation prior to
the incident,
e. Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit, and
f. If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for safekeeping.

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LESSON 5.4
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Concept:

Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know what question to ask and what to look
for, you must fundamental bearing on accidents and their cause. When you speak of traffic
accident, everybody knows what you mean- SOMETHING WENT WRONG on the
highway, either a wrecked car, somebody is injured or possibly killed.

A. What Traffic Accident Investigation Determined? I t aims to know the five (5) “Ws”
and one (1) “H” of the accident

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. HOW did the accident occur?
5. WHEN did the accident happen?

B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation. There are four (4) main reasons,
depending on who does the investigation:
1. Everyone involved is curious about the cause and circumstances of the accident.
2. For the police – find out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the
accident.
3. Claims attorney and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the
drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be properly adjusted.
4. Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how to
prevent future accidents.

C. Common Words and PHRASE Used in Traffic Accident Investigation. The

following words and phrase with their corresponding meaning are often used in the
process:

1. Accident. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces

unintended injury, death, or property damage.
2. Traffic Accident. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
3. Motor Vehicle Accident. Events resulting in unintended injury or property damage
attribute directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Included
are:

a.Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;

b.Fires;
c.Explosion;
d.Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e.Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary
rails or tracks; and
f. Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:

a. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;

b. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth
surface) ; and
c. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded or
unloaded from another conveyance.
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4. Motor VEHICLE. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is
by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
5. Key Event. An event on the road which characterize the manner of occurrence of a
motor vehicle traffic accident.
6. Debris. The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials
left at the scene of the accident caused by a collision.
7. Skid Marks. These are marks are left on the roadway by tires which are not free to
rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
8. Traffic Unit. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as
a pedestrians or driver, including any vehicle or animal which he is using. It applies
not only to motor vehicles but also to:

a. Pedestrians;
b. Cyclist
c. Street cars
d. Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles
e. Farm tractors; and
f. Other road users in almost any combination –Example: A traffic accident could
involve a cyclist and pedestrian.
9. Hazards. A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between
a traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both.
Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a
hazard.
10. Safe speed. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and
traffic situation ahead. Safe speed on the road is determined by the road rather than
the particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe a
speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.
11. Strategy. It is adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of motion,
giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in situations
involving potential hazards.
12. Tactics. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like
steering, braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.
13. Impact. The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle
with another motor vehicle.
14. Contact damage. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some foreign
object in a collision or roll- over. It is usually indicated by striations, rub-off of
material or puncture
15. Factor. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could
have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself
sufficient.
16. Primary Cause. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily explained
factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified condition factor.
17. Cause. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one of
which result could not have occurred.
18. Attribute. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects
the probability of a traffic accident.
19. Modifier. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

D. Kinds Of Traffic Accidents. In the investigation of traffic accidents, it is imperative

for the traffic investigator to know the kinds on accident occurred in order to map
out the necessary activities to be done when responding and investigating.

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Refers to any accident occurring on traffic

way involving persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not
involving a motor vehicle in motion. Examples: pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic
way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicles accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way. Examples: accident on private
driveway.
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 E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This usually characterized by a motor vehicle failing on the road side
or on a cliff along mountainous roads (see figure 47)
2. Non-collision road. This does not involve any collision an example of which is
overturning (see figure 48)
3. Collision road. On the other hand, this type of accident includes all forms of accident as
long as there is a collision. Examples of this are motor vehicle colliding with:

a. Pedestrian- may be walking, running or standing on a roadway (see figure 49).

b. Other motor vehicle in traffic- may be head on, head and rear, sides opposite direction,
sides the same direction, head and side collision, etc. (see figure 50.1- 50.5)
c. Parked motor vehicle- the form of collision may be similar to a moving vehicle like head
on collision, however, one is parked anywhere on a roadway.
d. Railroad train- this type of collision usually occurs along railroad crossings
e. Bicycle – in this form of collision, it is either the motor vehicle or the bicyclists who
initiated the collision.
f. Fixed object-traffic islands, pedestrians barriers, electric post (see figure 51)
g. Other objects- street cars, ice cream vendor, etc.

F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.

1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any including injury to

animals.
2. Slight. Only slight damages to properties.
3. Non-fatal Injury Accident. This is result in injuries other than fatal to one or more
persons.
4. Less serous. Only serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.

G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents. Traffic accidents occur due to varying
circumstances and only after thorough investigation, when liability and responsibility can
be understand ascertained. Notwithstanding that no driver will readily accept that he
initiated the accident. With these, the traffic investigator is faced with a gargantuan task
of bringing out the truth on who should be held responsible for the unusual incident. His
primary concern will be to determine how and why the accident happened.
1. Simultaneous Factors

a. Road conditions
b. Driver’s attitude or behavior
c. Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
3. Operational Factors

a. Road hazards
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.

4. Perception Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.

When all possible cause of an accident have been grouped together by an investigating
officer and he believes the accident would not have occurred if any one of these cause did
not exist, then the investigator may have identified the combination of factors causing the
accident.

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On-the-scene reconstruction of traffic accident relates accident causation to direct causes
for summary police action and to direct, mediate and early causes for ongoing studies of
high frequency accident locations and future research and analysis.

H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident
may usually be described well enough as a single occurrence but when accident is
investigated, attention is directed to particular stages of the occurrence. In fact, an
accident may be usually defined as a series of an expected leading to damage or injury.
One of event usually leads to another so that the series can be spoken of as a “chain of
events”. These events are described and illustrated below:

1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or

unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to be
happen (see figure 52)
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard (see figure 53)
3. Initial Contact. The first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise
avoids a hazard (see figure 54)
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force
between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement
(see figure 55).
5. Disengagement. It is separation of a traffic unit motion from an object with the force
between the object ceases at this time (see figure 56).
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It is usually stabilizes the
accident situation (see figure 57)
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the accident
but within any of the chain of events. It may also happen right after the evasive action
taken by the drivers involved or during the initial contact.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.

a. Point of possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard could have been
perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is the beginning of
perception delay (see figure 59)
b. Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be
prevented by the traffic unit under consideration (see figure 59)
c. Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to actual perception.
d. Final Disposition. It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally
come to rest without application of power.
I. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation. In the investigation of traffic
accident, the police are guide by the following stages or levels of investigation:
1. Reporting. This stage involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor
vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by7 the investigator at the
scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Caused analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the cause of accident
which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.

J. Steps taken by the police during Traffic Accident Investigation. Like any other forms of
police investigations, the traffic investigators follow chronological steps in responding
and investigating traffic –related accidents to insure gathering of thorough information.

1. Step One. Upon learning of the Accident.

a. Ask first: When did the accident happen?; Exactly where was it?; How bad was it?; Did
you see the accident happened?; and Where can you can reached?
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have been cleared by the time of arrival?;
Is it in in investigator’s area?; and Should headquarters be informed or consulted?
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c. Then find out if necessary: Is the traffic blocked?; Has ambulance been called?; Has
wrencher been called?; and Was fire apparatus called?
2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two-way radio, you can do two things while on
the way.
a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible Traffic jams; possible route of driver
involved; and probable situation at scene.
b. Drive safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accident yourself, then other units
must be used.
c. Be alert for cars leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and run driver’s and
record registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d. Get equipment Ready for use. So far as practical on the way.
e. Look for conditions confronting a driver approaching Scene:
Low visibility view obstructions; and traffic control devices.

F. Note hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary; and
look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined, collected or
located.
3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.

a. Select parking place carefully: It is safe?; Will it block traffic?; and Can headlight
illuminate scene?;
b. Careful injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary; help injured from cars
safely; protect injured from exposure; and ask for emergency assistance from bystanders
from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others: Look for drivers; look for possible witnesses; look for
volunteers who will help you; and get them under control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; look for fire and
electrical hazards; look for traffic hazards; put out flare; ask helper to direct traffic; keep
bystanders off roadway; and request help from headquarters if needed.
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and need to alert
headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
4. Step four. When Emergency is under control.
a. Preliminary questioning of drivers; who was driving each vehicle?; Note unpremeditated
statement; and look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses especially
bystanders in hurry to go; if needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be
hard to find later
c. Examine driver’s conditions: Get specimen for chemical test; and question about trip plan
for possible fatigue.
d. Question driver’s carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify and identify
address; check registration and record data; verify ownership and correct address; and get
step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e. Position and condition of vehicles: Note lights and light switches; note gear position and
tires; mark position of vehicles if it must be removed; and look for unusual thing outside
the vehicles.
f. From preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and skid mark location for
later measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.

5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence

a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide whether proof of violation is sufficient
for arrest; if so, make arrest or issue citation; get additional formal statement, from
witnesses remaining at the scene; have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b. Suggestions to drivers, if necessary: How much accidents can be avoided in the future;
and tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
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c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for: View obstructions;
traffic control devices etc.; probable points of perception; and toad surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles.
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs of: Vehicle damage; view obstruction; pavements
conditions; and control devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidences of testimony: Get additional facts at scene; and identify all
notes with places and time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone. Nowadays, the cellular phone is a ready
alternative in reporting to police headquarter.

6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene.

a. Get medical on injured persons from doctor or hospital.

b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately questioned; and take
additional statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and or Owner of vehicles.
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident: have copies made if necessary; file report and
copies; and complete factual data on investigation report if not completed at scene.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: Estimate speeds of vehicles involved; draw scale
diagram; analyze angle of collision; get technical help if necessary; and summarize
opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other agencies or Departments of any condition at the scene which needs attention
for safety.

7. Step Seven. If the Case Goes to Court:

a. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.

b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: Additional photographs of general
scene and long-lived evidence; measure for the scale diagram for use in court; and locate
additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and friends who confirm activities before the
accident; technicians who developed pictures, made chemical test, etc.; and expert who
can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed made for court use.
e. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
f. Insure that subpoenas are issued.
g. Testify in court.
h. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
i. Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers record and others reports.

K. The Traffic Accident Report. In the preparation of the traffic accident investigation
report, the officer of the case must consider the following:
1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:

a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident investigator.

b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence gathered,
diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.

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 c. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies for: the
Court or Prosecutor’s Office; TRAFCOM (TMG) or Traffic Division; the Investigator;
the Insurance company of party involved #; and the Insurance Co. of party involved #2

However, additional paper is usually used by traffic accident investigators to prepare the on-the-
spot sketch of the accident.

LESSON 5.5
HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION
Concept

Rationale. The objective of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight of
one participant is two-fold: First, responsibility for the collision must be determined; and second,
the identity of driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.

This lesson covers the latter of these objectives, the identification of the driver who left the scene
without complying with the legal requirements of stopping, giving aid and identifying himself to
the other participants.

A. Hit and-run Cases Defined. Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a

traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec.
55 of RA 4136. Further, it states that no driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle
accident shall leave the scene of the accident without aiding the victim, except under any
of the following circumstances, as discussed earlier in this book: If the driver is in
imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by reason of
accident; If the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or if the
driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or if the driver has the
common a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers. Hit-and-Run drivers
must be apprehended and the proper charges must be filed against them because of the
following reasons:

1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had promptly sought
help instead of leaving the accident scene;
2. Streets would be safe if motorist could flee accident scenes without accepting
responsibility. Unless the negligent driver is found accident victims cannot get
compensation for injuries and property damage;
3. Public knowledge that the police usually apprehend and convict hit-and-run drivers deter
other drivers who might otherwise be inclined to evade responsibility by committing this
serious offense ;and
4. Since leaving the scene of an accident is not socially acceptable, the police secure
increased public support for the entire traffic control program by prompt apprehension
and successful prosecution of these offenders.

C. Two Important Considerations. In any investigation of this kind of accident, two basic
considerations must be kept in mind. These are:
1. The driver who flees the scene of an accident. His reasons for flight are often more
important than the simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted for another crime,
or intoxicated, or without a valid license, etc.
2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle as having been
result of another hit-and-run accident in which some “other mysterious driver” fled
without identifying himself. Similarly, it is not unusual for the hit-and-run driver abandon
his vehicle and then report it stolen as a means of covering up his involvement in the
accident.

As stated earlier, the basic objective of these investigations is the identification of the driver who
fled the scene. The discovery and arrest of the driver, once identified generally comes after the
location and recovery of the vehicle.

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However, the mere recovery of the vehicle does not always immediately establish the identity of
the driver.

D. Elements of Hit-and-Run. To attain the objective of identifying and apprehending the

hit-and-run driver, as the investigator:

1. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of the accident. Even if you
have witnesses to prove this, get evidence to disprove his alibi.
2. Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or damage to
property.
3. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his identity to other person(s)
involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene; or failed to take reasonable steps to
notify the owner of damaged property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the
possibility of a simulated second accident to explain damaged caused by the first
accident.
4. Suspect had knowledge of the accident.

a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.

b. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude allegation of
lack of knowledge. If suspect refrained from using his vehicle for several days since the
accident, this would also indicate the guilt.
c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.

E. The hit-and-run Operator. The personality of the Hit-and-Run driver may be one of the
following:
1. Three categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their motivation of
flight:
a. Apprehensive-panic drive, fearful driver: intoxicated drivers; without license; no
insurance; his companion in the car is not his/her; stolen car; stolen goods in car; leaving
scene of another crime; and fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime.
b. Projectionist-projects guilt. This type of drivers sits as judge and jury, tries the case
himself, finds the other driver at fault refuses to be a party to the accident and drives off
as the offended person.
c. The sneak operator. This type involves minor property damage only accidents like one
that smashes a fender and smashes grill work in his daily occupational activities and
chalks up his action as the calculated risk shared by all vehicle owners who place their
vehicle on the roadway.
2. Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers. They could be: Drunk drivers; criminals fleeing from the
scene of the crime; improperly licensed drivers or drivers with revoked or expired
license; drivers who flee in panic; drug addicts; insurance or financial reasons; and also
or juveniles.
F. Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation. The following usually serve as the
guide for hit-and-run cases investigators:

1. Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.

2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a. A good description may be obtained from partial description given by witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c. Concentrate on the cars description first.
d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the headquarters and to
police agencies that may assist in spotting the suspect vehicle.
e. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and driver to all police units and offices.
f. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.

3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.

4. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.
a. These may request laboratory study of evidence.
b. Watch be include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps, paint scrapping from hit-
and-run car, other evidence such as dirt from subject car, radiator, ornaments.
c. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
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d. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the
accident. This has been known happen.

5. The Victim
a. Check his clothing; other parts of his body, tie marks, grease, paint chips,
fragments, and such things that might happen been left on him by the suspect car.
b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood from him at the morgue
and samples of hair, skin, etc.,
c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other items
he was wearing at the time of the accident.

G. Follow-up Investigation. During follow-up investigation, the investigator should:

1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the lift the hit-and-run driver; also
operators or filling stations and garages.
2. Canvas parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the same day of
the following weeks obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men operating on
schedule routes.
4. Follow-up and dealers of auto parts.
5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.

H. Search for Suspect Car. If it is located and recovered.

1. Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks,
damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the car as that involved in the hit-and-
run accident.
2. Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication of
disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.

I. Interview of Suspect. When the suspect is.

1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.

2. Get a full account of suspect whereabouts and write it down just in case he refutes in
later.
3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the as soon as his identity and whereabouts are
ascertained.
4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon approach.

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LESSON 5.6
SKIDMARKS AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
CONCEPT

Skid marks The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition places
the great between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional force at this point
becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and the road surface. When this
condition exists, the wheels skid.

A. Skid marks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation. The following are the
principles underlying on skid marks: as a tool in investigation.
1. Measurement of skid marks give idea on how fast the car which left these marks was
going prior to the accident.
2. Estimates of speed based on skid marks may lead to convictions; or knowing how to
estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent persons from being convicted.
For example, skid marks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test skid made 20
miles per hour showed 20 feet long skid marks. It was argued in court that with skid marks 20
feet long from a speed of 20 miles per hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80
feet skid marks. The driver was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was more nearly half of
that, or 40 miles per hour.

B. Other Tire Marks. The investigators’ first job is to find out if the mark on the pavement
is skid mark or another type of tire mark. Thus, he must familiarize himself with the
following marks that may be left by a motor vehicle on road surface:

1. Centrifugal skid mark. A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of a
speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical speed of
the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially overcomes the friction between
the mass of the vehicle and its tires and the surface of the roadway.
2. Impending skid mark. Marks caused by forward rotation of the wheels being slower
than the forward movement of the vehicle. The shadowy beginning of a skid mark along
the approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as tire shadow
marks), while the darker markings are the skid marks which begins in the impending skid
mark and ends at the end point of collision or final rest.
3. Yawn mark. A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the road
by rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.
4. Skip mark. A barking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals; the skid mark
made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning. Compare with
gap skid.
5. Side Skid mark (Scuff mark). It is a roadway marking left by the tire and wheel of a
vehicle sliding sideways as a result of force other than centrifugal force.
6. Gap skid. A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of
brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.

C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the road Surface or
on the Other Motor Vehicle. When a motor vehicle overturned or collided with
another object like another motor vehicle, it sometimes impresses or leaves marks
that may be used to identify the motor vehicle, it fled the accident scene. These
impressions or markings are:

70
 1. Ruts. A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove forming a path for
anything.
2. Gouge. A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after side
sweeping each other or it may be left on a road surface by motor vehicle which
overturned then slid on the road surface.
3. Paint Strips. When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes s its paint to the
other object.

D. Skid Marks as evidence in Accident Cases. Skid marks will: Aid in determining the
speed the speed prior to the accident or collision; show if the vehicle was travelling in the
wrong side of the road; indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way; and also
show if the driver did not abbey a traffic signal.
E. Skid marks Do Not Show All of the Speed. Skid Marks never show all of the speed of a
car before the accident. They show only how far the car would have had to slide to stop
in the distance shown by skid marks.

Evidence of Additional Speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is calculated
from skid marks because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown by the skid
marks, the car loses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:

1. Sliding with one or more wheels before any skid marks begin to appear. Dark clear skid
marks do not appear until the tires have slid far enough to get hot enough to smear rubber
or scar on the pavement. This is less true on such materials as gravel and dirt.
2. Braking without skidding. Cases that the motor vehicle does not skid particularly: before
sliding begins; during gaps; and after marks and before the car comes first to rest.
3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4. Damaging other cars or objects.
5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way
6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.

F. How to Estimate the Approximate Sped of Motor Vehicle in Case Skid Mark is not
present? In many accident of course, other evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE
(EXTENT OF DAMAGE), But there are no skid marks at all because brakes were not put
hard enough to lock the wheels. The following guides the investigator:
1. When brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the skid marks maybe only two or
three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five or six miles per hour. While the
wreckage tells that total speed may have been ten times as great.
2. In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from skid
marks may come close to showing how fast the car was actually going. Accidents
involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.
3. In any accident in which great damage was done will skid marks show more than small
part of the speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skid marks have been rightly
identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster than the speed
calculated from the skid marks, much faster if there was considerable damage.

G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance. How far a car will take to skid or slide to
stop when all four wheels are locked depends on many things. These of these factors are
important, and you must consider them in every estimate of speeds based on skid marks:
Speed itself is by far The most important; slipperiness of the pavement; and grade or slop
of the road whether road up or down.
H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding. Every driver knows, of course, that it takes
much longer to stop on pavements that are slippery, and that he can stop more quickly on
an upgrade than down grade road.
Of many other factors on which distance depends, none has had a very great effect. Most
of them will affect a calculated speed by only a few miles per hour. They, therefore, have
a little effect on the speed calculated from the skid marks usually not more than a couple
of miles per hour. Among those other factors are the following:

71
1. Brake Pedal Pressure. When wheels are actually sliding, additional brake pedal pressure
will not make the stop any quicker. Once the wheel have been locked and the car is
sliding, the brakes have done all they can in slowing the car and the grab of the pavement
on the tires is what determines how fast the car will slow down.
2. Weight of the Car. Makes a great difference in stopping distance before the wheels lock,
but once they have locked, it makes a very little difference. It is true that it takes much
greater pressure to lock the wheels on a vehicle when it is heavily loaded than it is empty.
However, when the wheels are once locked, a great weight of the vehicle, which gives it
greater momentum, also causes it to press harder on the road surface and therefore, give it
a corresponding greater drag from the pavement.
3. Tire Thread. On the most ordinary surfaces, a smooth tire and one with deep tread
pattern will stop the car in about the same distance. On some other surfaces, particularly
on ice, a smooth tread is better because it distributes the weight over a greater area.
4. Air Pressure. Makes a very slight difference in stopping distance. On ice, for example,
soft tire will distribute the weight a little more and give somewhat better traction.
5. Tire Material. There is a slight difference tires made of synthetic and those made of
natural rubber.
6. Road Surface. Of surfaces such as mud, snow, and on ice, tires equipped with chains
have better road-gripping capacity. On some hard pavements, however, chains may
decrease road-gripping capacity.
7. Direction of Slides. Makes a slight but unimportant difference. A tire will lengthwise
except in materials so soft that it plows or sinks.
8. Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface. Make some difference. In general, on
ordinary pavements, hot weather produces longer stopping distance. This is not
necessarily on ice and snow.
9. Against Head Wind. A car will slide a little farther from given speed with a tall wind
than against a head wind, but this is not a matter of great importance.

I. Speed Estimates. For most ordinary purposes, you do not have to consider those minor
factors in establishing speeds from skid marks. Because the minor factors are neglected,
we can not calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the minor factors
would tend to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly
balance or cancel out.

Sometimes all factors tend to give a high estimated speed. In this connection, the skid
marks do not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still greater
than your estimate.
J. Facts Needed. Good estimate of speed is based on certain facts that come from
observations and measurements at the scene of the accidents. The accuracy of these
observations and measurements.

1. Length of Skid Mark. Consider the following:

a. Be sure they are skid marks- not just tire marks.
b. Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is sliding
forward or sidewise.
c. Are there any gaps in the skid marks? Be sure there are gaps caused by release of brake
pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d. What is the length of each skid marks around any curves? It may not make straight from
beginning to the end in the shortest line. You may want to consider two separate lengths
for each skid mark. One of these is based on the part of the skid mark you can positively
identify. It gives you speed which will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The other
is a possible skid marks which will give you more likely speed. The first is all you can
use in court, the second is often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in the
accident.
e. Use the length that the wheels skid, not the tire slid. Dual tires which leave two marks are
considered as one wheels, and the skid mark length is counted if either tire on the wheel
leaves this mark.
f. There are two ways of figuring out the length of a slide if all on the same kind fo
pavement. These are:

72
(1) Straight Lines. A slide is considered straight if both rear wheel skid marks do not go off
to one of the front wheel skid marks.

(a) Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel minus gaps in it. This method
is possible because all wheels slide about the same distance. We know that the brakes
definitely have been applied throughout the entire distance of the longest Skid Mark.
(b) If one wheel does not slide as far as others, still it was about to slide when others the
others began. The drag on the pavement by this wheel is about the same just before it
begins to slide as when it is actually sliding. It may even be greater.
(c) Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are dragging as much as if there
were sliding wheel skid applies to motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer combinations,
and buses as well as ordinary motor vehicles.
(2) Spin. A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skid marks do get off to one side of
the front wheel skid marks.

(a) Take the length of each skid marks minus gaps. Add the skid mark length for all wheels
and divide the numbers of the wheels.
(b) This method is necessary in the case of the spins because some of the wheels slid much
farther than others; one end of the car may practically stand still while the others sweeps
around it.
(c) Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear wheels; that
is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with trailers or heavily loaded
trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels. Uneven weight with spin requires special
calculations.
(d) This method gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is necessary to
compute it more accurately than to the nearest foot. For this length you may have two
figures, one a positive distance and one a possible distance.
G. Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example, investigators may:

(1) Fail to show whether all slid.

(2) Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid a shown by a shadow as well as that more
clearly shown by the smear of the hot tire.
(3) Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skid marks.
(4) Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each wheel. This usually
includes the wheel base of the car with the result that the sliding distance appears to be
length longer than it really is.
(5) Fail to note whether the skid marks are straight or a spin.
(6) Measure straight across from beginning to the end of curve skid marks rather than around
its length.

H. If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the distance
the car slid. For legal purposes, you may assume only what may be true beyond
reasonable doubt. Hence, poor observations and measurements often leave you little
value to go on.
I. Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more definitely
observed in investigations may be very helpful in coming to a conclusion about what
probably happened.

2. Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor. It is the measurement of the maximum

frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are
divided by the weight of the car.

Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from skid
marks. We tell what this slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00.
When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire
that slows the car. A slippery movements creates a small friction drag and an abrasive
pavement a big drag. If we divide the amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight
of the car in pounds, we get the number that describes the slipperiness.

73
 a. Principle of Computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding
tires of an automobile is 3,000 lbs.. The slipperiness of the pavement, or its
friction drag, is then 3,000 divided by 4,000 or 0.75.

(1) This friction drag factor or slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT
OF FRICTION”. You can measure the drag factor a car slides on that pavement while
stopping from a known speed.
(2) The drag factor or coefficient of friction can be determined by use of a formula. If we let
“S” stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made and “D” the
distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag factor, which we call “F”,
the formula will be:

F= S2
30 (D)
(3) The “30” is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in feet
(transformation of feet per second to miles per hour). It is called a constant because stayed
the same in all problems for which the formula is used.
(4) Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided by
30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division out more than two
places to the right of the decimal point.
b. Applying the Principle of Computation. On a test to measure pavement
slipperiness, a car was stopped in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
(1) Substituting these numbers for the letters representing them in formula, and doing the
arithmetic involved, we have:
FORMULA ON PAGE 229.

(2) It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly
made. You are unlikely to do it right without special experience.
(3) At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each. Unless
these are within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several test skids made on
the same paving. This is necessary if you want to be sure beyond reasonable doubt of
calculated speeds.
(4) Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best. They thus take care of
some of the minor factor such as the weight of the car, the tire material, the tread pattern,
the pressure and therefore, make the estimate more reliable.

3. Grade or Slope (Gradient). This is the degree of inclination or declination of the road.
It is quicker to stop uphill than on level road and downhill road.

a. Grade is measured by number usually less than 1.00. The measurement is the number of
the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
b. To find: Divide the vertical rise or fall by horizontal distance. It is not necessary to carry
these division more than two places to the right of the decimal.
c. Use this formula:

d. Possible ranges of pavement Drag Factors for rubber tires. The Drag Factor or coefficient
of friction of a pavement of a given description may vary considerably because quite a
variety of road surfaces may be described in the same way. Some of these variations are
due to the wei8ght of the vehicles; air pressure in the tire; tread design, air temperature,
speed and some other factors.
4. Reaction Time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes. It is
computed by:

a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280)= 1,467.

b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50) times
the speed at which you are travelling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is ¾ of a second on the
average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works.
74
 5. Brake Tests. The brakes of the car can be tested when the test skids are made. If the
brakes are inadequate, the operator should be advised that he may attempt to
demonstrate their adequacy.

a. In most states (U.S.), a vehicle travelling at 20 mph must stop within the following
minimum distances: Two-wheel brake foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 45 ft.; four-
wheel brakes foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft.; and hand brakes: vehicle
should stop within 75 ft.
b. Brakes test should not be conducted when the road surface is wet. Test on wet surfaces
may result in personal injuries to bystanders or others concerned in the test. The vehicle
should be examined to ascertain if it complies with legal safety requirements and whether
its braking system is in operating order.
c. Use of Decelerometers . These are devices which hold their readings and indicate on a
clocklike face braking efficiency of the car being tested.

K. Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP).

Members of the PNP when considering skid mark as evidence observe the following:

1. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skid marks and the
court interprets the facts in the light of other evidence: Some courts require the assistance
of an expert; measurements should be accomplished by two men; and sketches and
photographs with measurements indicated should be made as soon after the accident.
2. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal speed
limits, if this can be done safely, and compare the skid marks with those in the accident.
3. Some would draw conclusions from test based on physical calculation.
4. Measurement of Skid Marks.

a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skid marks and the distances should
verify each other’s measurements so that they can corroborate each other testimony in
court.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skid marks were made by the suspect car.

L. Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from Skid Marks.

1. Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As the
speed of the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed also increases as the square
of the ratio of the increase in speed. Examples:

20 kph =40 30 kph = 90 40 kph =160

2. Stopping a Motor Vehicle. Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy which it
possesses at that time must be expended or spent. It is only when most or all of the
vehicle’s energy is expended through skidding tires that a fairly accurate calculation may
be made of the vehicles speed before the accident.
3. Test runs. In making calculations for speeds from skid marks, it is often necessary to
conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle involved in the accident or, if it cannot
be driven, another vehicle of similar characteristics may be used.

a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred. The
character of the road, whether wet or dry, should be the same.
b. Conduct test on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. Vehicle’s speedometer should be checked, and any difference from accurate calibrations
should be noted.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected for the
test run.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible when the car is moving at the
selected test speed.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately
determined using such equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
75
 h. It is advisable to conduct two or three test at the selected speed. The test of longest
braking distance which favors the defendant is used in calculation.
i. To avoid possible differences in the application of brakes by the driver, it is advisable to
have the driver of the accidents vehicle driver the car in the test runs.

M. Speed Calculation. If vehicle stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to calculate the

speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula based on the
principle that skidding or braking distances vary as the square of the speed.
1. Formulas Used in Finding Speed Estimates. The following are some of the formulas
being used in estimating speed (mph):

FORMULA ON PAGE 233.

2. Where: S = speed (mph); F= coefficient of friction (drag factor); f= grade (1,2,4) or super
elevation; and D = distance (feet).
When accident vehicle can be not be driven: When the vehicle is damaged that it cannot be
driven, part of the vehicles energy is expended in a damaging the car the object struck.

1. A calculation of speed from skid marks left under these circumstances gives a speed
based only on the amount of energy expended in the skidding.
2. Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual pre-
accident speed, since it is not possible to determine how much farther the vehicle would
have skidded had there been no collision.
N. Sample Problem. A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down along
Marcos Highway suddenly steps on the brake when a young boy ran across the vehicles
path. In the process, the vehicle skidded before hitting the boy. When the skid mark was
measured, it yields 55 ft. long markings. Applying the formulas for speed calculations,
find for the approximate speed of Toyota Tamaraw FX before it skidded if: 1) the skid
mark of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and 2) the vertical fall of the
highway is 1.5 ft. The solution will be:
1. Compute first for the Drag Factor. Use the figures used during the test skid:
Formulas

2. Calculate for the gradient because the highway is down hill:

Formula
3. Then, compute the speed by using the formula since the highway is downhill add the
computed “f”:
Formula
4. Then substitute the figures:
Formula

APPENDICES
THE TEN (10) COMMANDMENTS OF TTRAFFIC

1. KEEP RIGHT
2. OBSERVE ROAD COURTESY- by yielding to emergency vehicles, pedestrians,
trains, vehicle with right of way, vehicles ahead, large vehicles, uphill, traffic momentum,
straight traffic and traffic signs.
3. VEHICLES SHOULD NOT BE PARKED NEAR INTERSECTIONB,
CROSSWALKS, PEDESTRIANS LANES, FIRE STATIONS, FIRE HYDRANT,
AND PRIVATE DRIVEWAYS
4. IF IN DOUBT, DO NOT OVERTAKE- In general, the overtaking lanes is the lane to
the left of the overtaken vehicle going the same direction. The overtaken vehicle is the
burden vehicle.
5. THE BUS STOP RULE- Buses queue up on single file in their order of arrival. The lead
bus moves forward to the center of the column of buses lining-up on the bus stop zone,
and remain until the zone is filled up with buses, but not longer than three minutes. Any

76
 bus has the option to move out of the area anytime or bypass a bus stop. There shall be no
doubling up at any point in the bus stop zone.
6. RULES TO PREVENT OR UNTANGLE TRAFFIC CONGESTION OR TRAFFIC
JAM- Keep opposing lanes and intersection open. In heavy, slow or stopped traffic, there
shall be no overtaking. In a construction, the vehicles should merge alternately.
7. OBSERVE THE TRAFFIC MANAGEMNT MEASURE- Like the busy yellow lane
rule, bus stop segregation scheme, truck ban, counter low reversible lane, one way, car
pool ( at last three passengers in EDSA), odd and even scheme and restraints on turning.
8. THE PHILOSOPY OF A PINOY DRIVER- Motorist should observe equity of the
lead vehicle, doctrine of the last clear chance, and the first-come first served or rotunda
rule.
9. ON PEDESTRIANS- Keep off roadway except to cross on crosswalks or pedestrians
lane, wait, embark, and light at bus or jeepney stop.
10. REMEMBER THE INTERNATIONAL DRIVING SAFETY REMINDER-
SAFETY FIRST.

Defensive driving

seconds and more, then the distance between the two vehicles is safe.

B. Additional DO's and DON'T's related to defensive driving.

1. Plan the trip and the route to be taken. This is critical particularly when going for a long
road trip. For shorter travels, a driver could avoid sudden swerving or turning toward another
road/street. Sufficient sleep and rest is also vital particularly before going out for long trips.
Sleepy or dozing drivers is one of the most common factors leading to accidents.

2. Learn to be far sighted. A defensive driver must be able to perceive what is going on
beyond the motor vehicle in front as well as beyond the vehicle right behind the rear.
Misbehavior by the driver of the motor vehicle in front may be because of the negligent act
of another driver far in front.

3. Frequent scanning the surrounding area. Learn to scan the rear, the front, and the sides of
the motor vehicle. Many times, some motorists, especially motorcycle riders, overtake on the
right instead on the left. To be able to take the appropriate evasive action, a driver should
from time to time, look at the side mirrors and the rearview mirrors. Frequent moving of the
eyes may also help alert a driver, thus preventing dozing while driving.

4. Take a rest or nap when drowsy. Resisting drowsiness is very dangerous because it affects
one's reflexes and alertness. Look for a safe place to park the vehicle so a drowsy driver may
rest and sleep before continuing to drive.
5. Always bring Early Warning Devices (EWD). Motor vehicle malfunctioning may occur
the least it is expected. Having ready early warning devices inside the car could help in
avoiding accidents when the vehicle is stalled particularly in risky areas of a highway.
6. Do not insist right of way. Accidents occur when a motor vehicle encroaches the right of
way of another vehicle and when the driver who has the right of way insists his/her
right. Example of this is when a vehicle suddenly counter flows to pass numerous
vehicles and the affected driver on the opposite direction does not give way, collision is
likely to occur.
7. Do not take alcoholic beverages hours before operating a motor vehicle. It is proven that
intoxication of alcohol affects the reflexes and the alertness of a driver.
8. Misusing the horn. The horn is use to communicate with other road users such as warning
pedestrians that you are approaching, expressing gratitude to those who yielded the way, and
telling a road user to pass ahead. Misuse of the horn may cause accident and it is also
annoying. Some of the don'ts in using the horn are listed below.

a. Blowing the horn on pedestrians crossing on a crosswalk unless the crosswalk is controlled
by a traffic signal light. The pedestrians are priority in any crosswalk.

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b. Lengthy blowing of the horn when another motorist committed misbehavior in the road.
The negligent driver may just be rattled causing him/her to commit further error that can lead
to accident. In addition, lengthy blowing of the horn may indicate anger and could irritate the
erring driving which may erupt into fight between the two drivers.

c. Continuous blowing of the horn to inform the motorist in front which failed to
immediately move forward after the traffic light turned to green. This can also irritate the
affected motorist causing him/her to retaliate or be rattled causing him to abruptly move
forward.

9. Switching the headlight in bright position to warn an overtaking vehicle coming from
opposite direction. As defense, consider the following whenever wrong overtaking of
oncoming motor vehicles happens.

a. Miscalculations in overtaking is one of the most common mistakes committed by

motorists. A driver affected by such miscalculated overtaking may later commit the same
error.

b. Switching on the headlight in bright or in high position is tantamount to shouting at the

negligent driver. It may only irritate the erring driver which may cause him/her to retaliate by
switching also his headlight in bright position.

c. Better to reduce speed, or come to complete stop, or change direction to give the
overtaking driver sufficient space to return back to his/her lane.

10. Racing with pedestrians along crosswalks. There are some drivers while approaching a
crosswalk, they try to beat the pedestrians to pass across the crosswalk lines. Such act may
rattle the pedestrians who are about to cross and they might run also to beat the passing
vehicle. For defense, reduce speed before approaching a crosswalk and prepare for any
misdeeds by pedestrians. Remember, not only drivers who have the tendency to "beat the red
light". Pedestrians too have the same tendency.

11. Using electronic gadgets while driving. Even with the presence of anti-distracted driving
law, many drivers, by reason of habit, are still using their mobile phones while driving. Other
are also distracted by resetting their car stereo or GPS travel equipment.

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