Chemistry

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
ON THE VOLUME OF A GAS

Effect of pressure on a fixed volume of a gas: [ at constant
temperature] BOYLE’s Law
• Since the temperature is held constant, the kinetic energy of

the particles is also held constant.
• Decreasing the volume of a gas will increase its pressure. When
molecules collide, they create pressure. When the molecules are closer
together, they collide more frequently. Hence less volume more
collisions more pressure.
• If the volume of given mass of a gas is reduced to half of its original
volume. The same number of particles will have half space to move.
• As a result, the number of molecules striking the unit area of the walls
of the container at given time will get doubled of the pressure will also
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get doubled.
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Increasing the volume of a gas will decrease its pressure. When

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molecules collide, they create pressure. When the molecules are

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further apart than before, they collide less frequently. Hence more
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volume causes lesser frequent collisions and hence lesser pressure.

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• Alternatively, if the volume of a given mass of a gas is doubled at

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constant temperature, same number of molecules will have double space

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to move. Thus, number of molecule striking the unit area of the walls
of container at a given time will become one half of original value.
Thus, pressure will also get reduced to half of original pressure.
• This indicates that the volume and the pressure of a gas are
inversely proportional.
𝟏𝟏
• 𝑽𝑽 ∝ [ Temperature=Constant]
𝑷𝑷
www.smartexamresources.com 1
Effect of temperature on a fixed volume of a gas: [ at constant
pressure] CHARLE’s Law
• Here the volume is directly proportional to the temperature.

• As the temperature increases, the volume also increases.
• When the temperature is increased, the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases. This increases the rate of collision and causes an
increase in pressure. If the dimension of the container is increased the
molecules will move a larger distance before collision. This maintains
the rate of collision and keeps the pressure constant.
• As the temperature decreases, the volume also decreases.
• When the temperature is decreased, the kinetic energy of the
molecules decreases. This decreases the rate of collision and causes a
decrease in pressure. If the dimension of the container is decreased
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the molecules will move a shorter distance before collision. This
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maintains the rate of collision and keeps the pressure constant.

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• V ∝T [ Pressure=Constant]
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PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
All matter is made up of mostly three types of particles namely; solids. liquids and gases
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Copyright-Smart Exam Resources 1

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EXPLAINING THE CHANGES IN STATE BASED ON KINETIC THEORY
• Between A -B:The temperature of

the solid increases. This is because
increasing the heat energy increases the
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vibration of the particles in the solid.
• Between B-C:The force of
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attraction between the particles is
weakened so the particles are able to
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slide past over each other. The
temperature does not increase as all the
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heat supplied goes into overcoming the forces between the particles instead
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of raising the temperature. The substance melts.
•
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Between C-D. As time progresses the average kinetic energy of the
liquid particles increases. Hence the temperature increases.
•
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Between D-E: The force of attraction between the particles is further
weakened, so much so that the particles move well away from each other. The
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temperature is constant because the energy supplied goes into overcoming the
forces between the particles instead of raising the temperature. The
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substance boils.
• Between E and F:The average kinetic energy of the particles increases
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and hence the speed of the particles also increases. Hence the temperature
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increases. The gas particles are now further away from each other.
• Note: In the region BC, The equation of the equilibrium is:
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Solid Liquid
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X(l)
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• The graph proves that a pure substance was used as the substance has
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a sharp melting point (at BC) and a sharp boiling point (at DE.)
• The temperatures 150C and 800C are important as they represent the
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melting and the boiling points.

• If an impure sample would have been used, the line BC would have been
lower and the line DE would have been higher.
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C TO D E TO F
Separation between Close and touching Far apart
particles
Movement of Random and slow Fast and random
particles
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Can the particles Cannot move apart Can move apart
move apart to fill
the volume
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APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS WITH MARKING SCHEME-NEW ADDITIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
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ANSWER:D
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ANSWER:C
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3
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MARKING SCHEME:B
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MARKING SCHEME:B
5
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MARKING SCHEME: A

EXTENDED THEORY QUESTIONS-NEW ADDITIONS
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MARKING SCHEME:
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2
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MARKING SCHEME:
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3
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MARKING SCHEME:
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DIFFUSION
Define diffusion:
Diffusion is the random movement of particles from a region of their high
concentration to a region of their low concentration down the concentration
gradient.
Speed of diffusion depends upon the M r ( relative molecular mass):
This means that the speed of diffusion of a gas depends on how heavy it's
molecules are. Molecules with a lighter mass diffuse faster than those with a
heavier mass.
Observations:
• The white ring is
formed at C. This is
because ethylamine is
less dense( or has a
lower Mr) than HBr.
Hence ethylamine
diffuses faster than
HBr.
----------------------------------------------- --------------------
Why do the gases diffuse?- Explanation based on kinetic theory:
Gases diffuse because their particles move in random motion. These particles
then collide .This diffusion is from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration.
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Diffusion happens faster in warmer temperatures than in cooler temperatures.
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When a liquid spills on a floor and can be smelt far away it means that it has
first evaporated then diffused.
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When a precipitate is formed
during chemical reactions, the
particles, diffuse, collide and then
react
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Particles spread out evenly as a result of diffusion
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Note here sugar dissolves then diffuses. You cannot say sugar melts
and then diffuses.
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Generally diffusion happens in liquids and gases as the particles are free to
move. Their particles are constantly moving colliding and changing directions.
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Diffusion in gases is faster than diffusion in liquids because the gas particles
move rapidly. They are able to move freely because kinetic theory assumes
that there are no forces of attraction between the gas particles while there
are weak forces of attraction between liquid particles.
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Diffusion does not happen in solids because the particles are tightly packed
and they can only vibrate in their mean positions and not move about.
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Diffusion can occur in liquids which are miscible
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Diffusion is also possible in solids that dissolve in liquids.
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At the same temperature, the molecules that have the lower mass diffuse
faster than the heavier molecules. If the lighter and heavier molecules have
the same amount of energy when they collide, then, the lighter ones will
bounce off the heavier ones at a faster rate. So, lighter molecules diffuse
faster than the heavier molecules.
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APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS-NEW
ANSWER:A
ANSWER:C

3
ANSWER:B
ANSWER:C

5
ANSWER:C
ANSWER:D

7
ANSWER:D
ANSWER:D
ANSWER:D

10
ANSWER:C
11
ANSWER:B

12
ANSWER:C

13
ANSWER: C
14
ANSWER:B

APPLICATION-BASED QUESTIONS-THEORY-NEW
MARKING SCHEME:

2

MARKING SCHEME:

3

MARKING SCHEME:

4
MARKING SCHEME:

5
MARKING SCHEME:

Atomic structure and electronic Configuration of first 20 elements of
the periodic table
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Comparing elements/compounds and mixtures

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Element Compound Mixture

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Cannot be broken to anything Two or more elements Two or more substances that
simpler by chemical means chemically bond together to are not chemically bonded
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Or made up of only one type form a compound together are termed as a

of an atom mixture
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Structure of an atom
An atom is the smallest uncharged particle that can take part in a
chemical change.
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• An atom contains a centrally
located nucleus.
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• The nucleus contains positively
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charged protons and neutral
neutrons.[Protons + neutrons=
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nucleon number or mass number]
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• The electrons revolve around the
shells or energy levels. so

nucleus in fixed orbits called electron
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• An atom is electrically neutral as the number of protons
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(+vely charged) are equal to the number of electrons (-vely

charged).
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• Position of elements in the periodic table is based on their

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atomic number.
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Subatomic Symbol Relative mass Relative charge

particles
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PROTON p 1 +1
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NEUTRON n 1 No charge
ELECTRON e 0.00054 -1
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Define:
• Proton number ( Atomic number): It is the number of protons

in the nucleus of an atom.
• Nucleon number ( Mass number): It is the total number of
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protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
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Electronic configuration for the atoms and ions of first 10
elements
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Atom E.C. Type of ions Reason for no ion
formed formation
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Hydrogen 1 H+ , H-
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Helium- 2 Ni ion It has a completely
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Group-8 formation filled outer shell
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Lithium 2,1 Li+
Group-1
Beryllium 2,2 Be2+ so

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Group-2
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Boron 2,3 B3+

Group-3
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Carbon 2,4 No ion It has a tendency

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Group-4 formation to share electrons

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Nitrogen 2,5 N3-

Group-5
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Oxygen 2,6 O2-

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Group-6
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Fluorine 2,7 F-
Group-7
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Neon 2,8 No ion It has a completely

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Electronic configuration for the atoms and ions of from atomic
number 11-20 of the periodic table:
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formed formation
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Sodium 1,8,1 Na+
Group-1
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Magnesium 2,8,2 Mg2+
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Group-2
Aluminium 2,8,3 Al3+
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Group-3
Silicon 2,8,4 No ionso It has a tendency
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Phosphorous 2,8,5 P3-

Group-5
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Sulfur 2,8,6 S2-

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Group-6
Chlorine 2,8,7 Cl-
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Group-7
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Argon 2,8,8 No ion It has a completely

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Potassium 2,8,8,1 K+
Group-1
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Calcium 2,8,8,2 Ca2+

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Group-2

Note:
• Group 8 noble gases have a fuller outer shell
Example:
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formed formation
Helium- 2 Ni ion It has a completely
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Neon 2,8 No ion It has a completely
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Argon 28,8 No ion It has a completely
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• The number of outer shell electrons is equal to the group
number in groups 1 to VII
Example:
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formed formation
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Sodium 2,8,1 Na+
Group-1
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Magnesium 2,8,2 Mg2+
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Group-2
Aluminium 2,8,3 Al3+
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Group-3
Silicon 2,8,4 No ionso It has a tendency
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Phosphorous 2,8,5 P3-

Group-5
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Sulfur 2,8,6 S2-

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Group-6
Chlorine 2,8,7 Cl-
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Group-7
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• The number of occupied electron shells is equal to the
period number:
Example:
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Element Period Number of occupied electron shells
Lithium 2 2
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Beryllium 2 2
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Boron 2 2
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Isotopes
Note:
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• Isotopes are different atoms of the same element that have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
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Examples of some isotopes:
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Elements Isotopes
Chlorine 𝟑𝟓
𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
𝟑𝟕
𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
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Carbon 𝟏𝟐
𝟔𝑪
𝟏𝟑
𝟔𝑪
𝟏𝟑
𝟔𝑪
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Hydrogen
so
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏𝑯 𝟏𝑯 𝟏𝑯
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Interpretation of some special symbols:
Example:1
𝟑𝟓 −
𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
• The above symbol has a 1- charge . This indicates that the above is
an ion of Chlorine ( the chloride ion) and is formed by accepting an
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electron. Hence it now has 17+1=18 electrons.
• Z=17 =atomic number=number of protons
• A= mass number=total number of protons and neutrons=35
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Example:2
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𝟐𝟒 𝟐+
𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈
• The above symbol has a 2+ charge . This indicates that the above is
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an ion of Magnesium and is formed by losing 2 electrons. Hence it
now has 12+2=14 electrons.
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• Z=12 =atomic number=number of protons
•
so
A= mass number=total number of protons and neutrons=24
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Some More examples for quick reference:
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Calculate the relative atomic mass of an element from the relative masses
and abundances of its isotopes
Example 1:
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• In the adjoining
diagram, is shown , a mass
spectrum of Magnesium.
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• Using a mass
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spectrometer, the proportion of
each isotope present in a sample
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of an element can be measured.
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• The readout of the
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mass-spectrometer is called as
the mass spectrum.
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• In the mass spectrum every
isotope appears to have one peak.
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The height of each peak (also

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called as the area under each

peak) is
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proportional to the number of atoms of the isotope in the

sample tested.
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• The relative atomic mass can be calculated in the following way:

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(𝟕𝟖.𝟔×𝟐𝟒)+((𝟏𝟎.𝟏×𝟐𝟓)+(𝟏𝟏.𝟑×𝟐𝟔)
Ar= =24.3
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𝟏𝟎𝟎
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Note: The scale on the x-axis is m/z, which represents the

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mass:charge . we can also consider this to be the mass of

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the isotope. [ Detailed explanation has not been provided as

it is not required as per the syllabus].

Ions and ionic bonds
1. Ions are electrically charged particles formed by the loss of gain or electrons.
2. Anions(-vely charged) are negatively charged ions formed by gaining electrons.
3. Cations are positively charged ions formed by losing electrons.
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4. The electrostatic attraction between the positive ions and the negative
ions results in an ionic bond
5. Atoms lose or gain electrons to attain the stable electronic structure of the
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nearest inert element and become more stable.
6. When elements of group 1 an 7 react, the group 1 atom loses an electron and
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the group 7 gains it.
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Formation NaCl
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[2,8,1] [2,8,7] [2,8] [2,8,8 ]
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In the formation of sodium chlorine, sodium atom loses one electron and becomes a
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+vely charged cation. The chlorine atom accepts this electron and forms a negatively
charged ion called the anion. Thus by doing so both the ions have a stable electronic
structure which is the same as the noble gas. So a stable electronic structure has
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been formed.
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Formation of Calcium chloride CaCl2

• The calcium atom has 2
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electrons in the outer orbit.

• But each chlorine needs
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only one electron. to get a

stable octet.
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• So 2 chlorine atoms
are needed in the reaction to
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bond with calcium.

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Ionic and covalent compounds- A comparison
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Covalent Ionic
Formed between Non -metals Metals and non-metals
Melting points and Low melting and boiling High melting and boiling
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boiling points points because the points because of strong
intermolecular attractive electrostatic forces between
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forces are very weak. the ions in the giant lattice
Exceptions are: SiO2 with
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a high melting point
Solubility Insoluble in water Soluble in water because the
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( Exceptions: sugar and water molecules are able to
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amino acids-water soluble) separate the ions from one
another and keep them in the
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solution.
Electrical Do not conduct electricity They conduct electricity in
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conductivity because they have no ions. the molten or aqueous form

Hydrogen chloride gas, a due to the presence of
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covalent compound reacts mobile ions.

with water to form HCl acid
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which splits up into ions.

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Simple molecules and covalent bonds
A covalent bond is formed when a pair of electrons is shared
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between two atoms leading to noble gas electronic
configurations.
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Example:
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When four hydrogen atoms covalently
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bond with one carbon atom, each
hydrogen atom attains the electronic
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configuration of helium which is it’s
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nearest noble gas. Similarly, carbon
also attains the electronic
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configuration of neon, which is again
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the nearest noble gas for oxygen.

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Note: A covalent bond is formed between two or more non-

metals.

Formation of covalent bonds using dot and cross
diagrams.
Some more examples:
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[Note only the outer shells have been shown]
Hydrogen Chlorine Water
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Methane Ammonia Hydrogen chloride gas
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Some more examples:
[Note only the outer shells have been shown]
Methanol: CH3OH Nitrogen:N2
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Carbon dioxide:CO2 Oxygen: O2
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Ethene:C2H4
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Note:
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• Sharing of 1 pair=Single bond formation

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• Sharing of 2 pairs=Double bond formation

• Sharing pf 3 pairs=Triple bond formation

Properties of simple molecular compounds
• They have low melting points and boiling points because
the intermolecular forces of attraction are very weak.
Exceptions are SiO2 with a very high melting point.
• They have poor electrical conductivity because they
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have no free ions. Note that HCl gas , which is a
covalent compound, reacts with water to form HCl
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acid, which splits up into ions and then conducts
electricity.
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Macromolecules
Giant covalent structures of Diamond/Graphite/Silicon(IV) oxide
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• Macromolecules are giant covalent structures
• They have a rigid three dimensional network of strong covalent bonds
throughout the crystal.
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• It takes a lot of energy to break the bond
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• They have very high boiling and melting points.
• Example of giant covalent structures are: Graphite, diamond and
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[Silicon(IV) oxide-also called as silicon dioxide]
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Diamond Silicon
Structure
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Bonding One carbon atom is bonded to One silicon atom is bonded to 3

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4 other carbon atoms and no other oxygen atoms and no

electrons are set free. electron is set free.
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Electrical Does not conduct electricity as Does not conduct electricity as

Conductivity it does not have any it does not have any delocalised
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delocalised electrons electrons

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Melting and High-because a lot of energy High-because a lot of energy is

boiling point is needed to break the strong needed to break the strong
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covalent bonds. covalent bonds.

Hard Very hard-It can't be Very hard-It can't be
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scratched easily scratched easily

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Colour Colourless Colourless
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Graphite
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• Graphite is a black shiny solid.
• It's carbon atoms are arranged in layers.
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• Every layer consists of carbon atoms in hexagonal ring.
•
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Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms and one
electron is set free. Thus in the entire lattice there is a sea of
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delocalised electrons. Hence graphite conducts electricity because the
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delocalised electrons can drift along the layers when voltage is applied.
As graphite conducts electricity , it is used to make electrodes for
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electrolysis.
• Graphite has a slippery feel as the bonding between the layers in
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graphite is weak. hence the layers can slide past each other. Hence it
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has a slippery feel.

• The layers of graphite can flake off because of this weak bonding.
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hence it is used as a lubricant and in pencil leads.

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Metallic bonding
• Metallic bonding is a third type of giant structure.
• The metal atoms are closely packed together in a regular arrangement.
As they are very close to each other,
the valence electrons tend to drift away
from the atoms. Thus a sea of
delocalised ( mobile) electrons is formed
surrounding the positive metal ions. The
positively charged metal ions are held
together by their strong attraction to
the mobile electrons that keep moving
between the ions. This is metallic
bonding. The electrostatic attraction
between the metal ions and the
electrons exists in all directions.
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Metallic Bonding:
Definition:Metallic bonding is defined as the electrosatic attraction between
the positive ions in a giant metallic lattice and a "sea" of delocalised
electrons.
Properties of metals
• Metals have good electrical conductivity
Reason: When a voltage is applied, the delocalised electrons move through the
metal lattice towards the positive pole of the cell or power pack. But if the
vibrations of atoms becomes faster due to high temperature , The electrons
will not be able to move easily through the lattice. That is why the electrical
conductivity of a lattice decreases with an increase in temperature.
• Metals are malleable and ductile.

The positive ions in a metal are arranged regularly in layers. When a force is
applied, the layers can slide over each other. In a metallic bond, the
attractive forces between
the metallic ions and the
electrons exist in all
directions. So when the
layers slide, new bonds
can easily form. This
leaves the metal with a
different shape.
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CALCULATING CONCENTRATION
Calculating the concentration/number of moles and volume using the
formula:
Concentration = No. of moles ÷ Volume
Unit: mole/dm3
Example: [O/N/2010-P31-Q8b]
Solution:
Ideal Mole ratio:[Equation 1]
CaCO3 : HCl : CoCl2 : CO2 : H 2O
1 : 2 : 1 : 1 : 1- Ideal mole ratio
0.040 : 0.080 : 0.040 : 0.040 : 0.040-Experimental mole ratio
Moles of HCl= Concentration of HCl x Volume of HCl
=2 x 0.040 =0.080
Comparing with the ideal mole ratio ;
Moles of CoCl2 formed = 0.5 x moles of HCl
= 0.5 x 0.080 = 0.040
Also;
Ideal Mole ratio:[Equation 1]
CoCl2 : H 2O : CoCl2.6 H2O
1 : 6 : 1
0.040 : 0.24 : 0.040-Experimental mole ratio
Hence;
Moles of CoCl2.6 H2O formed = Moles of CoCl2 used = 0.040
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Note: The underlined mole ratio is the data we obtain after calculations.
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Concentration can be measured in g/dm3 or mo/dm3
THE MOLE AND THE AVOGADRO CONSTANT
1. Mole:
[M/J/04-P3-Q7(a)-1m]/[M/J/13-V32-Q8a] -1m
One mole is the number of particles which is equal to the number of atoms in
12g of carbon-12
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or
One mole is equal to 6.023 x 1023 atoms/ions/molecules/particles or electrons
or
co
One mole of a substance is that substance that has a mass equal to its
relative formula mass/relative atomic mass/ relative molecular mass in grams
b.
or
One mole is the amount of a substance that has a volume equal to 24dm3 of a
gas at r.t.p.
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or
One mole is the mass in grams that contains the avogadros number of
du
particles.
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2. Avogadro constant [M/J/13-V32-Q8a] -1m
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Avogardro constant is the number of particles/atoms/ions or molecules in one
mole of a substance.
or
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It is the number of carbon atoms in 12grams of carbon-12

or
m
It is the number of particles or molecules in 24dm3 of a gas at RTP.

or
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It is equal to 6.023 x 1023 atoms /ions/molecules/particles or electrons.

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RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS-RELATIVE FORMULA MASS
Note : Room temperature and pressure is sometimes written as r.t.p. or RTP.
r.t.p means a temperature around 250C(298K) and 1 atmosphere pressure
AND the gas volume at r.t.p. is 25dm3.
3. Relative molecular mass (Mr)/Relative formula mass (Mr)
m
Units: no units
It is the mass of atoms on a scale where the mass of carbon is exactly 12
units.
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Note: One must know to calculate Mr as it is required in 90% of the sums one
comes across in stoichiometry.
b.
hu
Solution:
Mass of one carbon atom= 12g du
Hence mass of x carbon atoms is 840g
12x=840
x=840 ÷ 12 = 70
te
Hence There are 70 carbon atoms in 1 molecule of fullerene.
---------------------------------------------------------------
ar
Example 2: [O/N/06-P3-Q3b]
m
.s
Mr ( CaCO3)= Ar ( Ca) + Ar ( C) + 3Ar( O)

= 40 + 12 + 3(16) = 40+12+48=100
w
Note : The answer does not have units written

---------------------------------------------------------------
w
Note: The word relative molecular mass is used for covalent compounds and
the word relative formula mass is used for ionic compounds. But both are
w
calculated in the same way.

--------------------------------------------------------------
4. Calculating the mass/number of moles and Mr using the formula:
Mass = No. of moles x Mr
Unit: Mass-g ; Mr- no units ; No. of moles-no units
m
Example: [O/N/06-P3-Q3-b(ii)]
co
b.
hu
Mass= no of moles x Mr
Ideal mole ratio: CaCO3 : CaO : CO2
1 : 1 : 1
du
Note: For every sum, writing down the ideal mole ratio is essential
Given:
Mass of CaO=7kg
te
Mr of CaO= 40+16= 56
No of moles of CaO= Mass ÷ Mr = 7 ÷ 56 = 0.125
ar
Since;
Ideal mole ratio: CaCO3 : CaO : CO
m
1 : 1 : 1
Hence 0.125 : 0.125 : 0.125
.s
Mass of CaCO3 that was heated(used)= no of moles of CaCO3 x Mr of CaCO3

w
= 0.125 x 100
= 12.5kg
w
---------------------------------------------------------------
w
MOLAR GAS VOLUME
7. Molar gas volume and Percentage purity
At r.t.p., one mole of a gas occupies 24dm3. This is called as the molar gas
volume.
Examples: [M/J/2010-P32-Q8c]
Solution:
Note: The statement that the impurities did not decompose indicates that the
5.00g sample was not entirely made of lead (II) nitrate and that it contained
impurities.
Number of moles of O2 formed:
At r.t.p.;1 mole occupies 24dm3
x moles occupy 0.16dm3
24x =0.16
x=0.16÷24 =0.0067= Number of moles of O2 formed:
Ideal mole ratio Pb(NO3)2 : O2
2 : 1
Experimental mole ratio 0.0067x2=0.0134 : 0.0067
Mass of lead (II) nitrate in the sample=
moles of lead (II) nitrate x Mr of lead (II) nitrate
=0.0134 x 331 =3.972= 4.4g
Percentage of lead (II) nitrate in the sample= [4.4 ÷5] x 100 =88%
Note: This question could have also been asked as "Calculate the percentage
purity of Lead nitrate sample". % of lead (II) nitrate in other means % of
pure lead (II) nitrate which in turns means % purity.
Percentage purity=
{[Mass of pure product] ÷ [Mass of impure product]} x 100
=4.4/5 =88%
--------------------------------------------------------------
LIMITING AN DEXCESS REAGENTS
The reagent that gets over first is called a sthe limiting reagent
SOLVED EXAMPLE
Solution:
Ideal mole ratio: Si : F2 : SiF4
1 : 2 : 1
• We do not know which reagent is in excess. Suppose we consider that
0.08 moles of Si are correctly taken. So according to the ideal stoichiometric
equation, 0.08 Si react with 0.16 ,moles of F2.
7.2g of F2 = 7.2/38=0.189. This shows that reaction will get over when 0.08
moles of Si are completely used up with 0.16 moles of F2 leaving behind
(0.189-0.16=0.029) moles of F2.Thus F2 is in excess and Si is the limiting
reagent as reaction stops because all of Si is used up.
• Hint: To find how many moles of SiF4 were formed, we need to take
the moles of the limiting reactant and not the excess reactant.
Hence Si : F2 : SiF4
0.08 : 0.16 : 0.08
Hence 0.08 moles of SiF2 will be formed
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA
Empirical formula of a compound: It is the simplest whole number ratio of the

different atoms or ions in a compound
Molecular formula of a compound : It is the number and type of different
atoms in one molecule
WORKED EXAMPLE:
Across the world, food safety agencies are investigating the presence of minute traces of
the toxic hydrocarbon, benzene, in soft drinks. It is formed by the reduction of sodium
benzoate by vitamin C.
INGREDIENT
S Orange
juice, sodium
benzoate,
vitamin C
Benzene contains 92.3% of carbon and its relative molecular mass is 78.
(i) What is the percentage of hydrogen in benzene?
[1]
(ii) Calculate the ratio of moles of C atoms: moles of H atoms in benzene.
[2]

(iii) Calculate its empirical formula and then its molecular formula.
The empirical formula of benzene is
The molecular formula of benzene is [2]

[2]
4.8.5
Maleic acid is an unsaturated acid. 5.8 g of this acid contained 2.4 g of carbon, 0.2 g of
hydrogen and 3.2 g of oxygen.
(i) How do you know that the acid contained only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?
[1]
(ii) Calculate the empirical formula of maleic acid.
Number of moles of carbon atoms = ................................
Number of moles of hydrogen atoms = ................................
Number of moles of oxygen atoms = ................................

PERCENTAGE PURITY AND PERCENTAGE YIELD
At r.t.p., one mole of a gas occupies 24dm3. This is called as the molar gas
volume.
Examples: [M/J/2010-P32-Q8c]
Solution:
Note: The statement that the impurities did not decompose indicates that the
5.00g sample was not entirely made of lead (II) nitrate and that it contained
impurities.
Number of moles of O2 formed:
At r.t.p.;1 mole occupies 24dm3
x moles occupy 0.16dm3
24x =0.16
x=0.16÷24 =0.0067= Number of moles of O2 formed:
Ideal mole ratio Pb(NO3)2 : O2
2 : 1
Experimental mole ratio 0.0067x2=0.0134 : 0.0067
Mass of lead (II) nitrate in the sample=
moles of lead (II) nitrate x Mr of lead (II) nitrate
=0.0134 x 331 =3.972= 4.4g
Percentage of lead (II) nitrate in the sample= [4.4 ÷5] x 100 =88%
Note: This question could have also been asked as "Calculate the percentage
purity of Lead nitrate sample". % of lead (II) nitrate in other means % of
pure lead (II) nitrate which in turns means % purity.
Percentage purity=
{[Mass of pure product] ÷ [Mass of impure product]} x 100
=4.4/5 =88%
--------------------------------------------------------------

Percentage yield (yield means product)
Unit: grams/kilograms
Percentage yield tells us how much percent product was formed.
% Yield = Actual yield ÷ Predicted yield.
m
Note: Actual yield is the yield ( Product) we get through our experiment and
Predicted yield is the yield( product) that we get via calculations.
Example [O/N/2012-P31-Q7c]
co
b.
hu
du
te
ar
Solution:
m
No. of moles of HCl formed=conc of HCl x Vol of HCl = 2 x 0.050 = 0.1

Ideal mole ratio is HCl : SrCl2.6H2O
2 : 1
.s
Experimental mole ratio 0.1 : ( half of HCl moles) =0.05

Hence: No. of moles of SrCl2.6H2O that could be formed = 0.05
w
Theoretical yield( calculated mass ) of SrCl2.6H2O

=Moles x Mr= 0.05 x 267=13.35g
w
Percentage yield= Actual yield ÷ Predicted yield

w
=(6.4 ÷13.35) x 100=47.94% =47.9%

---------------------------------------------------------------

STATE SYMBOLS OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS
12: State symbols of reactants and products:
State symbols
Sometimes it is useful to know whether the reactants and products in a
chemical reaction are solids, gases, liquids or dissolved in water. We can
add state symbol to a symbol equation to show this.
State symbol and meaning
Symbol Meaning
(s) solid
(l) liquid
(g) gas
(aq) aqueous (dissolved in water)
m
So for the reaction between sodium and water, this is the symbol equation
co
s.
with state symbols:
ce
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

ur
so
---------------------------------------------------------------
re
m
Example 1:
xa
te
[M/J/04-P3-3a]
ar
m
.s
w
w
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--------------------------------------------------------------
Smart Ways to Remember Concepts
-----------------------------------------------------------------
m
co
-----------------------------------------------------------------
OIL RIG
b.
hu
du
------------------------------------------------------------------
ROYAL CHALLENGERS
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REDUCTION at CATHODE
ar
------------------------------------------------------------------
ANION =A NEGATIVE ION

m
------------------------------------------------------------------
.s
ANIONS GO TO THE ANODE

CATIONS GO TO THE CATHODE
w
------------------------------------------------------------------
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Reactive electrodes: Silver, Copper, Zinc

w
Inert electrodes: Platinum, Rhodium, Graphite, Carbon

------------------------------------------------------------------
Reactivity series:
Cation list
m
Mnemonic Ion
People K+
Should Na+
co
Carefully Ca2+
Make Mg2+
All Al3+
b.
Commedy C
Zoo Zn2+
Fe2+
hu
Insects
Tall Sn2+
Like Pb2+
How H
Camel Cu2+
du
Should Ag+
Get Au+
te
Pepsi Pt2+
ar
Anion list
Mnemonic Ion
Some
m
Nonesense
On OH-
.s
C Cl-
B Br-
I I-
w
Note: The ions in each series that are lower down are liberated. OH- is
w
placed last in the anion list.It has been placed after nitrate to make the
mnemonic work..
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Basics of electrolysis
• Electrolysis: Electrolysis is the breakdown of an ionic compound in the
m
molten or an aqueous state by passing electric current through it.
• Cell: A cell is a device that changes chemical energy to electrical
co
• energy.
Electrodes: These are rods that carry electric current to and from the
electrolyte.
•
b.
Decompose: When an ionic compound breaks down due to passage of electric
current we say that it has got decomposed.
• Electrolyte: It is the compound that conducts electricity when in molten or
hu
in aqueous state during electrolysis.
• Inert electrode: Inert electrode is an electrode that serves only as a source
or sink for electrons without playing a chemical role in
the electrode reaction.
du
• Anode: It is the positive electrode.
•
te
Cathode: It is the negative electrode.
• Anion: It is the negative ion
• Cation: It is the positive ion.
ar
• Electroplating: It is the method in which a thin layer of one metal is put on

the top of another metal.
m
• Examples of inert electrodes: Graphite(Carbon), platinum, gold and rhodium,

• Examples of reactive electrodes: Copper and Silver
.s
• Reduction always happens at the cathode (Reduction is the loss of

electrons).[RIG]
w
• Oxidation always happens at the anode (Oxidation is the gain of

electrons).[OIL]
w
• The electrolyte should be either in the molten or the aqueous state as in

these states the ions are free to move.
w
• Metals or hydrogen are formed at the negative electrode and non metals
(other than hydrogen) are formed at the positive electrode.
Transfer of charge during electrolysis
This happens in three steps:
• The movement of electrons in the external circuit.
• The loss or gain of electrons at the electrodes
• The movement of ions in the electrolyte

--------------------------------------------------
Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
• Whenever a molten ionic compound is electrolysed with inert or reactive
electrodes, a metal is always formed at the cathode and a non-metal is
m
always formed at the anode.
• Knowledge of reactivity series is not needed.
co
Example: Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride produces silvery white sodium
metal at the cathode and a yellow green chlorine gas at the anode.
b.
hu
du C
A A
N T
te
O H
ar
D O
m
E D
.s
E
w
w
w
Half equations :
Metal ions get reduced Non-metal ions get oxidised
At the cathode: (Reduction) At the anode: (Oxidation)
+ -
Na (aq) + e ----> Na(s) 2Cl-(aq) - 2e- ----> Cl 2 (g)
Overall reaction is: 2NaCl ----> 2Na + Cl 2
----------------------------------------------------------------
The following table shows the half reactions for the electrolysis of molten ionic
compounds and the colour of the compounds formed.
m
Some examples of electrolysis of molten ionic compounds
co
Compounds PbBr 2 Al 2 O 3
Product at cathode Pb -Bluish white Al-Silvery white
(-ve electrode)
Half equation Pb2+ + 2e----> Pb Al3+ + 3e- ---> Al
b.
Product at the anode Br 2 gas-Reddish O 2 gas-colourless
(+ve electrode) brown
hu
Br- - 2e- ---> Br 2 4OH--4e---->2H 2 O +O 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------
du
Colour of products formed during electrolysis
Colours of metals Colours of non metals
Li-Silvery white F 2 -pale yellow
te
Na-Silvery white Cl 2 -yellow green
K-Silvery white Br 2 -reddish brown
Mg-Silvery white I 2 -purple
ar
Ba- Silvery white O 2 -colourless

Ca-Silvery grey H 2 -colourless
2+
Cu -Brown N 2 -Colourless
m
Zn-Bluish grey CO 2 -Colourless

CO-Colourless
.s
w
-------------------------------------------------------------------
w
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Type of past paper questions asked so far:
Example 1: From the tabulated data identify the products of electrolysing a molten
ionic compound
m
co
b.
hu
-------------------------------------------------------------------
du
Example 2:You must be able to identify the products of electrolysing compounds
using inert electrodes
te
ar
m
.s
Note:
• The products do not change in case of molten ionic compounds whether it
w
involves inert or reactive electrodes.

• The only thing that changes is the colour of the electrolyte.
w
• In the case of reactive electrode the colour of the electrolyte stays the
same
w
• In the case of inert electrode, the colour of the electrolyte fades away and
become lighter(pale) than what it was earlier.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 3:Deriving the formula of the electrolyte from the products obtained at
the cathode and anode.
m
co
b.
hu
du
te
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 4:Identifying the products and the colour of the products obtained.
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 5:Identiying the electrolyte from the given products.
m
co
b.
hu
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 6:You should be able to identify the ions present in a given ionic compound
and then the products of the electrolysis.
du
te
ar
m
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 7: Identifying the product formed and linking it to the its position in the
.s
periodic table.
w
w
w
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 8:
Identifying products formed from the combination of two electrodes.
m
co
b.
hu
du
----------------------------------------------------------------
Example 9: You must know that energy is taken in during electrolysis
te
ar
m
.s
w
-------------------------------------------------------------------
w
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Theory Questions:
Example 1:You must know to write ionic equations at each electrode
m
co
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2:You must know to label the direction of electron flow, which is
b.
towards the negative terminal of the battery as shown by the arrows
hu
du
te
ar
m
-----------------------------------------------------------------
.s
w
w
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Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous ionic compounds
Note: When electrolysing concentrated aqueous ionic compounds,
• The cations ( +ve ions ) always follow the reactivity series.
m
• The anions DO NOT FOLLOW the reactivity series. Only those
anions that are in excess are oxidised.
co
• The basic electrolysis concepts stay the same, i.e. the cations go
to the cathode and the anions go to the anode / reduction at
cathode and oxidation at anode/ half equations etc...
b.
Example 1:Electrolysis of concentrated HCl
hu
du
te
ar
m
• The electrodes are made of platinum and not aluminium as

aluminium would react while platinum would not.
.s
• Anode:
Cl- would be in EXCESS and therefore they would be liberated
w
at the anode.
2Cl - 2e- ----->Cl 2 ------oxidation
w
• Cathode:
w
+
H are the only positive ions ( cations), hence they would be
liberated at the cathode.
2H+ + 2e- ----->H 2 ------reduction
--------------------------------------------------
AND
If you are asked to show how to collect the hydrogen gas
produced at the cathode, use a graduated test tube or a
measuring cylinder filled with the acid or water and invert it
m
over the cathode as shown below
co
b.
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
--------------------------------------------------
w
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Type of questions based on electrolysis of concentrated solutions with
inert electrodes.
The word inert means that it is to be considered as " The electrolysis
of concentrated hydrochloric acid"
m
Example
1:Identify
co
the
products
formed
b.
hu
du
te
ar
----------------------------------------------------------------
Example2:
m
Complete the
diagram.
.s
w
w
w
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Electrolysis of brine
• Brine is a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium
m
chloride.
• It is obtained from sea water or from seams of rock salt
co
underground.
• The electrolysis of brine is used to produce 3 important
b.
products on a large scale namely;H 2 , Cl 2 and NaOH.
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
General observations: fizzing/bubbling/effervescence.

w
Ions present in the solution:

Cations: Na+, H+
w
Anions: Cl-, OH- (Cl- present in excess)
Anode(+ve electrode): 2Cl- - 2e- ----> Cl 2 ---Oxidation

Cathode(-ve electrode): 2H+ + 2e- ----> H 2 ---Reduction
Ions remaining in the electrolyte: Na+ and OH- which react to
form NaOH.
Change in the electrolyte: The electrolyte changes from being
m
Concentrated NaCl to NaOH.
No. Of products formed:3- namely;H 2 , Cl 2 and NaOH.
co
3 products
b.
• Chlorine: Water treatment/solvents/plastic/PVC/bleach/
disinfectants/HCl/kill bacteria/sterilising water/chlorination of
hu
water/swimming
pools/pesticides/herbicides/insecticides/germicides/phamaceuti
du
cals
• Sodium hydroxide: Soap making/degreasing/making
paper/detergents/bio-diesel/paint stripper/clearing
te
drains/alumina from bauxite/oven cleaner /bleach.
• Hydrogen: Chemicals made from hydrogen include
ar
ammonia, methanol. hydrogen chloride and margarine.

Hydrogen is also used in fuel and fuel cells.
m
----------------Extra info starts here---------------

.s
Following additional information might be useful in explaining

w
the use of a diaphragm cell.

w
• Diaphragm prevents hydroxide ions entering anode

w
compartment and prevents chloride ions entering cathode

compartment.
The need to keep all the products separate
• If chlorine comes into contact with hydrogen, it produces
a mixture of hydrogen chloride which will explode violently on
m
exposure to sunlight or heat.
• Also if chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide it will
co
produce a mixture of sodium chloride and sodium chlorate(I)
- also known as sodium hypochlorite. This mixture is commonly
b.
sold as bleach.
•
hu
Therefore, if you are trying to manufacture chlorine and
sodium hydroxide rather than bleach, you have to keep the
du
chlorine and sodium hydroxide apart as well.
The diaphragm and membrane cells are designed so that all
te
the products are kept separate.
ar
The diaphragm
•
m
The diaphragm is made of a porous mixture of asbestos

and polymers. The solution can seep through it from the anode
.s
compartment into the cathode side.

• Notice that there is a higher level of liquid on the anode
w
side. That makes sure that the flow of liquid is always from
w
left to right - preventing any of the sodium hydroxide solution

w
formed finding its way back to where chlorine is being

produced.
-------------EXTRA INFO ENDS HERE----------------
Type of application based questions on Brine asked so far:
MCQ Paper
Example 1: Identify the products of electrolysing brine
m
-------------------------------------------------------
co
b.
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
--------------------------------------------------
Example 2:
w
w
w
--------------------------------------------------
Example 3:
Some questions might need the knowledge of the test for
gases along with electrolysis.
m
co
b.
hu
du
te
-------------------------------------------------
ar
m
.s
w
w
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Electrolysis of dilute aqueous ionic compounds
Note: When electrolysing dilute aqueous ionic compounds,
• The cations ( +ve ions ) always follow the reactivity series.
m
• The anions DO NOT FOLLOW the reactivity series. Only those
anions that are in excess are oxidised.
co
• The basic electrolysis concepts stay the same, i.e. the cations go
to the cathode and the anions go to the anode / reduction at cathode
and oxidation at anode/ half equations etc...
b.
Example 1:
Electrolysis of dilute sulfuric acid
hu
du
te
ar
m
Anode:
In a dilute solute since the OH- are in excess so the OH- are reduced to O 2 gas.
.s
4OH--4e---->2H 2 O +O 2
w
Cathode:
Only H+ ions are present, so they get reduced to hydrogen gas.
2H+ + 2e- ----> H 2
w
Change to the electrolyte:

w
The sulfuric acid becomes more concentrated as the water is used up

----------------------------------------------------------------
Table showing the electrolysis products of some more dilute aqueous products
Dilute Ions Cathode Anode Change to the

Aqueous present (-ve (+ve electrode) electrolyte
m
Ionic electrode)
Compound
co
KI K+,H+, 2H++2e--->H 2 4OH- -4e--->2H 2 O + O 2 KI becomes
OH-,I- more
concentrated
b.
NaCl Na+, H+ 2H++2e--->H2 4OH- -4e--->2H2O + O2 NaCl becomes
OH-,Cl- more
hu
concentrated
Cu(NO) 3 Cu+,H+ Cu++2e--->Cu 4OH- -4e--->2H 2 O + O 2 Cu(NO) 3
OH-, changes to
HNO 3 ,i.e.
du nitric acid. So
the electrolyte
becomes acidic
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Electrolysing aqueous copper sulfate using inert
electrodes such as carbon, platinum or rhodium
m
----------------------------------------------------------------
co
1. List of ions present in the solution: Cu2+, H+, OH-,
2. Electrodes are inert so they do not take part in electrolysis.
3. Ions attracted to the anode are OH-,
b.
4. Ions attracted to the cathode are Cu2+, H+
5. Ions lower down the series are:
hu
Anode: OH-
Cathode: Cu2+
du
• Half equations at the anode: 4OH- 4e---->2H 2 O + O 2
Observation at the anode: Colourless gas given off.
te
• Half equations at the cathode: Cu2+ + 2e- ---> Cu.
ar
• Observation at the cathode: brown colour copper settles at the

cathode.
m
• Ions left behind in the solution : H+ and These react to

form H 2 SO 4 which is sulfuric acid. Hence the electrolyte becomes
.s
acidic in nature. As the copper ions are lost from the solution, the
colour of the electrolyte goes from blue to colourless.
w
-----------------------------------------------------
w
w
Electrolysing aqueous copper sulfate using reactive
m
electrodes such as copper
co
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Note : When the electrodes are reactive , the anode takes part in the reaction
and loses electrons and the cathode products are based on the position of ions in
the reactivity series.
b.
List of ions present in the solution: Cu2+, H+, OH-,
hu
Anode:
Electrode is reactive so it will WILL TAKE PART in electrolysis and get
reduced to copper ions(Cu2+)
Half equation:
du
Anode: Cu - 2e----> Cu2+------Oxidation
te
Cathode:
ar
Ions attracted to the cathode are Cu2+, H+

Cu2+ ions being lower down in the series are reduced to Cu atoms.
m
Half equation:
Cu2+ + 2e----> Cu-----------Reduction
.s
Observation:
w
Anode: Anode becomes smaller (It loses mass as it gets oxidised)

Cathode: Cathode becomes thicker
w
Electrolyte: Colour of the solution does not change, it stays blue. This
is because copper ions lost from the electrolyte at the cathode are
w
replaced by the copper ions formed at the anode.

------------------------------------------------------
Applications of electrolysis
Electroplating:
m
• Electroplating is the plating of one metal on the top of the other.
• The object to be plated is made the cathode.
co
• The metal that is used to plate the object is made the anode.
• The electrolyte is a salt of the plating metal. So the size of the anode
decreases. Also
b.
the ions lost at
the cathode are
replaced by the
hu
anode. In this case
the colour of the
du electrolyte does
not change.
te
ar
• If the electrolyte is not a salt of the plating metal, and if the ions from
the electrolyte are involved in plating the objects, then the electrolyte needs
to be added.
m
.s
w
w
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This is because the electrolyte is getting used up. The ions lost at the
cathode are not being replaced by the anode.
• Some of the uses of electroplating are:
1. To prevent metals from rusting
2. To improve the appearance of objects/makes them more shiny/attractive
3. To give the objects , a hard surface
m
-----------------------------------------------------------------
co
b.
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
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Feul cells-Hydrogen fuel cells
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity, with water as
the only by-product
• Fuel cells are devices that convert chemical energy to

electrical energy.
• The oxidation of the fuel and the reduction of the oxidant
take place at the electrodes.
• Reduction and oxidation take place simultaneously and hence
it is a redox reaction. Fuel cells produce electrical energy at
much lower temperature without a flame.
• A typical fuel consists of a anode and a cathode.
• Fuel is always fed through the anode.
• Reduction happens at the cathode and oxidation at the anode.
• The anode acquires a negative polarity and the cathode
acquires a +ve polarity.
• The catalyst platinum activates the hydrogen molecules to
split into protons ( H+) and electrons ( e-).
• The electrons flow through the external circuit and complete
the circuit.
• A fuel cell produces electricity as long as the fuel (hydrogen)
is supplied.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-Advantages of using Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cells as compared to gasoline/petrol in vehicles:
1.It is non -polluting/ it does not produce greenhouse gases nor does it cause global warming.
2.It does not use up the fossil fuels. It is obtained by the electrolysis of water and water is a
renewable resource.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Disadvantages of using Hydrogen-Oxygen fuel cells as compared to gasoline/petrol in
vehicles:
1.Fuel cells cannot be used for large–scale energy production, so conventional fossil
fuel or nuclear power stations still have to be relied upon
2.A larger storage volume is need to store hydrogen as compared to gasoline
3. Also if hydrogen is stored under high pressure, the safety would also be an
issue.
Chemical energetics
Exothermic reaction:
Exothermic reaction transfers thermal energy to the surroundings
leading to an increase in the temperature of the surroundings.
-----------------------------------------------------
Note:
• The energy released goes into warming up the surroundings.

The surroundings include :
the air around the test tube, the test tube itself,
thermometers , stirring rods etc.
-----------------------------------------------------
Endothermic reactions:
An endothermic reaction takes in thermal energy from the
surroundings leading to a decrease in the temperature of the
surroundings
The heat absorbed is taken in by the reaction mixture and so
lowers the temperature of the surroundings.
Examples of exothermic Examples of endothermic
reactions reactions
Burning of substances Thermal decomposition
Nuclear fission Photosynthesis
Mixing of water and acid Action of light on Silver bromide
Rusting of iron Electrolysis
------------------------------------------------------
ENTHALPHY CHANGE
Enthalpy change: The transfer of thermal energy during a reaction is called the enthalpy
change, ∆H, of the reaction.
∆H is negative for exothermic reactions and
∆H ispositive for endothermic reactions
How to decide whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic?
m
Remember that :
co
• Breaking the bonds of the reactants needs energy. So bond
breaking is endothermic.
b.
• New products are formed by the formation of new bonds. And
energy is released when new bonds are formed.So bond
hu
making is exothermic.
• If more energy is released when new bonds are formed
du
compared to the energy taken in when the bonds in the
reactant are broken ; then the overall reaction is exothermic
and vice-versa.
te
Example:
ar
Reactants side:
Bonds break. Energy is
taken in hence its
m
endothermic
1H-H bond=+436kJ/mol
.s
1 Cl-Cl bond=+242kJ/mol
Total energy taken in
while breaking the bonds=
w
436+242 = +678kJ/mol
Product side:
w
2H-Cl bonds are formed .Total energy taken given out when these bonds are
formed= 2 X 431= -862kJ/mol
w
Adding the two +678kJ/mol-862kJ/mol=-184kJ/mol
Thus the overall reaction is exothermic as more heat is given out

than that was taken in.
------------------------------------------------------
Energy level diagrams
Activation energy: It
is the minimum amount
of energy needed for
the reaction to occur.
Activation energy can

be lowered using a
catalyst.
------------------------------------------------------
Interpreting the graph:
• Going from the reactants to the top of the curve, we are

going up the energy axis of the graph. Here the heat energy
is being put in to break the bonds in the reactants.
• At the top of the curve, the bonds in the reactants have
been broken. The minimum amount of energy needed by the
colliding particles to react is the activation energy.
• Going from the top of the curve to the products, we are going
down the energy axis of the graph. Heat energy is given out
as bonds form in the products.
------------------------------------------------------
Overall:
• The reactants are higher up the energy axis than the
products.
• The amount of energy put in is less than the amount of
m
energy released.
• The difference in the energy levels of the reactants and
co
products are given by the symbol H
• H is known as the enthalpy change and is the amount of
b.
heat taken in or given out during a chemical reaction.
• H = -ve for exothermic reactions
hu
• H = +ve for endothermic reactions
------------------------------------------------------
du
This experiment is exothermic
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------
This is an exothermic
m
reaction as more heat is
given out than what is taken
co
in.
b.
hu
-----------------------------------------------------
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
Exothermic reaction as temperature increases

------------------------------------------------------
w
Endothermic reactions
H = +ve as the amount of energy put in is more that the

amount of energy released during a chemical reaction.
Note :
• A similar method of explaining is used to explain endothermic

reactions.
• Bond breaking is always endothermic
• Bond making is always exothermic
------------------------------------------------------
You may be asked to draw energy level diagrams for endothermic
and exothermic reactions using the data provided.
Examples:
m
------------------------------------------------------
co
b.
hu
du
These are exothermic reactions as the products have less energy
than the reactants.
te
------------------------------------------------------
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
-----------------------------------------------------
Core -question for reference only[M/J/16-P31-Q6C]
m
co
b.
hu
du
This is an exothermic reaction as products have less energy than
the reactants
------------------------------------------------------
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Calculate energy of a reaction using
bond energies
m
• Bond energy ( Bond enthaly) is the amount of energy required
to break 1 mole of a particular covalent bond in the gaseous state
co
in to gaseous atoms( under standard thermodynamic conditions).It
is a measure of the strength of a bond.
•
b.
Symbol of bond energy is E.
Example:
hu
E(H-H)=+436kJ/mol. It means that 436kJ of energy are needed to
break the bonds in 1 mole of hydrogen molecules.
• Bond energies are always +ve. This is because they refer to
the bonds being broken.
du
te
------------------------------------------------------
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Application based questions showing you how to calculate energy
changes in a reaction.
Question: Calculate the energy in the reaction:
m
co
b.
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Physical and chemical changes
Physical changes
--------------------------------------------------------------
Chemical change
Difference between a physical and a chemical change
Physical change Chemical change

1 A physical change is a A change in which one or more
change in which no new new substances are formed is
m
substance is formed. called as a chemical change
2 Example: Melting of ice, Example: Lighting a match
freezing of water stick, milk going sour
co
3 These changes may be These changes are irreversible
reversible or hard to reverse
4 It is a temporary change It is a permanent change
b.
---------------------------------------------------------------
hu
du
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
MEASURING THE SPEED OF A REACTION
The speed of a reaction: is also called as the rate of a reaction.
It tells us how rapidly the products are formed from reactants.
• Rate of a reaction is =
m
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝒐𝒐 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨 𝒐𝒐𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑
co
𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕𝑨𝑨𝒇𝒇
s.
or
e
rc
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝒐𝒐 𝒑𝒑𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒓𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒓𝒓𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝒖𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒑𝒑 𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑
u
𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕𝑨𝑨𝒇𝒇 so
re
or
am
𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝒓𝒓𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪𝒇𝒇 𝒕𝒕𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪𝒇𝒇 𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒇𝒇𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒓𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑨𝑨𝒐𝒐 𝑨𝑨𝑪𝑪𝒇𝒇 𝒑𝒑𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒓𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒓𝒓𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝒖𝒖 𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑 𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒑𝒑𝑨𝑨𝒖𝒖

𝑨𝑨𝒕𝒕𝑨𝑨𝒇𝒇
x
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w

How to measure the rate of a reaction?
Measuring the rate of a reaction we may either:

• Measure how quickly the reactants are getting used up or
• Measure how quickly the products are being formed.
----------------------------------------------------------
Method for measuring the rate of reaction:
m
Case 1:If hydrogen ions are being used up in a reaction:
co
Method: Use a pH meter or an electrical conductivity meter
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
s.
Case 2:If the precipitate is one of the products being formed and the solution
gets cloudy.
e
• Method: Place a paper
rc
and make a mark on it,
example a cross(X).
u
so • Start the reaction by
adding reactants and note
the time taken for the
re
(X) to disappear.
x am
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
-------------------------------------------------------------

Case 3:If a gas is one of the products:
Use a gas syringe to collect the gas. Record the amount of gas collected at
regular intervals.
Diagram:
m
co
e s.
u rc
so
re
x am
te
------------------------------------------------------
ar
m
.s
w
w
w

Case 4:If the gas formed is allowed to escape leading to a change in mass.
Method: Use a top pan balance to record the mass of the reactants before the
reaction. As reactants change into products and if one of the products is a gas
which is allowed to escape, there will be a change in mass. Keep measuring the
m
change in the mass after definite intervals of time. Plot a graph
co
The carbon dioxide produced in the following reaction escapes through
the cotton-wool leading to a loss in mass of the contents of the beaker. A graph
s.
may be plotted is needed.
e
u rc
so
re
x am
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
------------------------------------------------------
*****Note: The cotton wool only stops the liquid drops from escaping but
allows the gas to escape*****
-----------------------------------------------------------

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Some chemical reactions can be reversed by changing the reaction conditions.
Such reactions are called as reversible reactions.
om
EFFECT OF HEAT ON HYDRATED SALTS
.c
Example 1:
es
When you heat crystals of blue copper(II) ,sulfate they breakdown
or decompose to form a white powder.
u rc
so
re
m
• The blue copper sulfate crystals have water as a part of their

xa
structure. So we call the crystals hydrated copper(II)sulfate.

• The water is called as the water of crystallisation.
te
• When the blue crystals are heated, the water of crystallisation is lost.
What is left now, is only anhydrous CuSO4. Anhydrous means without
ar
water
• We can reverse the reaction by adding water to the anhydrous copper
m
sulfate.
• The half arrows shown above represent the reversible sign.
.s
• This arrow indicates the forward reaction.

w
• This arrow indicates the backward reaction.

w
w

Example 2:
When you heat the pink crystals of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride ,they
breakdown or decompose to form a blue coloured compound called as
anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride .
om
.c
es
rc
• The pink crystals of hydrated cobalt (II) chloride crystals, with the formula
u
CoCl2.6H2O lose their water of crystallisation.
What is left now, is only anhydrous CoCl2. Anhydrous means without
so
•
water
re
• We can reverse the reaction by adding water to the anhydrous cobalt (II)
chloride.
m
• The half arrows shown above represent the reversible sign.

• This arrow indicates the forward reaction.
xa
• This arrow indicates the backward reaction.

te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w

EQUILIBRIUM-AND THE FACTORS
AFFECTING IT
Equilibrium
Definition:
An equilibrium reaction is a reaction in which the rate of a forward reaction is

equal to the rate of a backward reaction.[1m].
or
An equilibrium reaction is a reaction in which the macroscopic properties do not

change with time or stay constant with time[1].
or
An equilibrium reaction is a reaction in which the rate of the forward reaction

is equal to the rate of the backward reaction [1m]and the concentration of
the reactants and products stays constant with time ( or the macroscopic
properties stay constant with time)[1m].
---------------------------------------------------------------
Dynamic equilibrium
At equilibrium, the reactants are continually being changed into products and
the products are being changed back into reactants. This equilibrium is said to
be a dynamic equilibrium.

The position of equilibrium
The position of equilibrium tells us how far the reaction goes in our favour of
the reactants or products.
Position of equilibrium to the right.

If the concentration of products is greater than the concentration of
reactants, we say that the position of the equilibrium is to the right, it
favours the products
Position of equilibrium to the left

If the concentration of reactants is greater than the concentration of
products, we say that the position of the equilibrium is to the left, it favours
the reactants.
---------------------------------------------------------------

Factors affecting the equilibrium
a. Concentration
b. Temperature
c. Pressure
Concentration
• Increasing the concentration of the reactants: If the concentration of
the reactants is increased, the equilibrium shifts to the right, thus
favouring the formation of products. So more products will be formed
until the equilibrium is restored.
• Increasing the concentration of the products: If the concentration of
the products is increased, the equilibrium shifts to the left, thus
favouring the formation of the reactants till an equilibrium is restored.

Type of application based questions asked so far: RR.1 to RR.5
Example 1:Identify the apparatus needed to study effect of concentration on

the speed of a reaction.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Identify the role of concentration as one of the factors affecting
the speed of a reaction.
-------------------------------------------------------------

Example 1: Be able to answer multi concept questions as follows:
Theory paper
(i) Because the concentration of BiCl 3 decreases with time
(ii) Because the concentration of a product decreases.
(iii) Because the reaction has reached an equilibrium or both the rates of
reactions are equal or there is no change in the concentration.
(iv) Because the equilibrium shifts to the left and the equilibrium moves to use
up all the HCl and BiCl 3 is formed or BiOCl is used up.
---------------------------------------------------------------

Temperature
If a reaction is exothermic in the forward direction then it is endothermic in
the backward direction and vice -versa. Look at the following example:
Example: [O/N/2002-P3-Q1]
Explanation:
The forward reaction is

exothermic . This means
that the backward is
endothermic. So when the temperature is increased, it will favour the
endothermic reaction, which is the backward direction. So the equilibrium will
shift to the left and favour the formation of the reactants. Therefore the
yield of ammonia will decrease at high temperatures. So the yield will increase
at low temperatures.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Predicting whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic in the forward
&backward direction from
the given information.
Example 2:
[M/J/2010-P32-Q8b]
Here the forward reaction is exothermic. This is because forward reaction is

favoured by low temperatures as reverse reaction is favoured by high
temperatures.
---------------------------------------------------------------

M/J/2008-P32-Q5
This tells us that forward reaction is exothermic as it is favoured by low

temperatures and so the backward reaction is endothermic.
---------------------------------------------------------------

Pressure
Pressure only affects a reaction where there is a gas in the reaction.
Example:
2SO 2 (g) +O 2 (g) 2SO 3 (g)
• Increasing the pressure favours the side with the least number of
moles. In this case the right hand side of the equation. This means that
the equilibrium shifts to the right. This happens because increasing the
pressure squashes the molecules of SO 2 and O 2 together ,thereby
producing more of SO 3 . Thus the reaction mixture has tried to
overcome this increase in pressure by moving the equilibrium to the
right.
• Decreasing the pressure favours the side with the maximum number of
moles .
• If the number of moles on both sides of the equation are the same then
the change in pressure has no effect on the position of the equilibrium.
--------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J-14-P33-Q5]
1. There will be a faster yield of ammonia as there is a higher collision rate
2.There will be a greater yield of ammonia as high pressure favours the side
with the least number of moles, in this case ammonia has the least number of
moles.
---------------------------------------------------------------

Catalyst
1. A catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium
2. This is because a catalyst affects the forward and reverse reaction equally.
3. Catalysts work by producing an alternative route for the reaction.This
affects the forward and back reactions equally.

CONTACT PROCESS-CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE &
PRESSURE EXPLAINED
Reasons for using a temperature of 4500C and a

pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure and a catalyst
Temperature:
The forward reaction is exothermic.
Hence a higher temperature shifts the equilibrium to the left and favours the
formation of the reactants. Hence the yield of SO3 decreases.
Also a very low temperature will slow down the rate of reaction and reaction will
not be economic. Hence a compromise temperature of 4500C is used.
Pressure:
The yield of ammonia is very high when the pressure is equal to 1 or 2
atmospheric pressure. Hence there is no need to use a higher pressure.
[ Although a higher pressure favours the side with the least number of moles, in
our case the product side]

HABER PROCESS CONDITIONS OF TEMPERATURE &
PRESSURE-EXPLAINED
High pressure:
A high pressure favours the side with the least volume side ( Least number of
moles). Hence high pressure increases the rate of reaction. So more nitrogen
and hydrogen combine to give a higher yield of ammonia.
Low temperature: favours exothermic reaction. Hence the forward reaction is
favoured and hence the yield of ammonia increases. But extremely low
temperatures gives a slow rate of reaction. The catalyst only increases the
rate of reaction ( it lowers activation energy.).Hence a compromise
temperature of 4500 and 200 atm is used.
There are advantages of using a higher pressure than 200atm:
• There is a faster collision rate
Reason: There is a faster reaction rate
• There is a greater yield of ammonia
Reason: The pressure favours products as it has lower volume ( or fewer
product molecules)
Although a higher temperature gives a faster reaction rate, it is not used
because:
• A higher temperature favours the endothermic reaction.[1]. This is the
back reaction or the left hand side reaction.[1]. Hence the yield of ammonia
will be reduced.[1]
---------------------------------------------------------------

Redox reactions
1. Reduction:
Reduction is the loss of oxygen
om
It is also an decrease in the oxidation state
It is a gain of hydrogen
It is a gain of electrons
.c
2. Oxidation:
es
Oxidation is gain of oxygen.
It is also an increase in the oxidation state .
rc
It is a loss of hydrogen
It is a loss of electrons
u
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Gain of
Oxygen so Loss of
oxygen
re
m
Increase in
the Oxidation Loss of
Decrease in
the Reduction Gain of
oxidation hydrogen
oxidation
state Is Hydrogen
state is
xa
Gain of
te
Loss of
electrons electrons
ar
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
m
Oxidation Reduction
Is is
.s
Loss of Gain of
electrons electrons
w
w
Loss of Gain of
hydrogen hydrogen
w
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Examples
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reduction/Oxidation in terms of oxygen
om
Fe 2 O 3 loses oxygen and gets reduced to Fe.
.c
(Reduction)
CO accepts oxygen and gets oxidised to CO 2
es
(Oxidation)
rc
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
u
Reduction/ Oxidation in terms of electrons
so
Mg loses 2 electrons to form Mg2+ ions.
(Mg gets oxidised to Mg2+ ions)
re
At the same time:
Cu2+ accepts these 2 electrons (2e-) and
m
gets reduced to Cu atoms

xa
Cu2+ + (2e-)----> Cu
(Cu2+ ions get reduced to Cu atoms)
te
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reduction/ Oxidation in terms of hydrogen
ar
m
H 2 S loses hydrogen and gets oxidised to S.

.s
( H 2 S is getting oxidised)
At the same time Cl 2 accepts hydrogen and
w
forms HCl (Cl 2 is getting reduced)

w
w
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Reduction/ Oxidation in terms of oxidation state
om
.c
es
rc
or:
u
so
re
m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Rules for oxidation state:
1. The oxidation number of an atom is zero in a neutral substance that contains atoms of
only one element. Thus, the atoms in O 2 , O 3 , P 4 , S 8 , and aluminum metal all have an
oxidation number of 0.
2. The metals in Group IA form compounds (such as Li 3 N and Na 2 S) in which the metal
om
atom has an oxidation number of +1.
3. The elements in Group IIA form compounds (such as Mg 3 N 2 and CaCO 3 ) in which the
metal atom has a +2 oxidation number.
.c
4. Oxygen usually has an oxidation number of -2. Exceptions include molecules and
polyatomic ions that contain O-O bonds, such as O 2 , O 3 , H 2 O 2 , and the O 2 2- ion.
es
5. The elements in Group VIIA often form compounds (such as AlF 3 , HCl, and ZnBr 2 ) in
which the nonmetal has a -1 oxidation number.
u rc
so
6. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is zero.
H 2 O: 2(+1) + (-2) = 0
re
7. The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 when it is combined with a nonmetal as in
m
CH 4 , NH 3 , H 2 O, and HCl.
8. The oxidation number of hydrogen is -1 when it is combined with a metal as in. LiH,
xa
NaH, CaH 2 , and LiAlH 4 .

9. The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the
te
ion. The oxidation number of the sulfur atom in the SO 4 2- ion must be +6, for
example, because the sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in this ion must
ar
equal -2.
m
SO 4 2-: (+6) + 4(-2) = -2

.s
10. Elements toward the bottom left corner of the periodic table are more likely to have
positive oxidation numbers than those toward the upper right corner of the table.
w
Sulfur has a positive oxidation number in SO 2 , for example, because it is below oxygen
in the periodic table.
w
SO 2 : (+4) + 2(-2) = 0
w
11. For elements that form more than one ion, the oxidation state can be worked out
from the formula of its oxide.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Reducing agent:
Is a substance that reduces another substance during a redox reaction.
Potassium iodide in acidic solution is a good reducing agent. When it reduces a
substance, its colour changes from colourless to brown.
om
Other reducing agents are:
• Carbon monoxide( CO)
.c
• Carbon(C)
• Ammonia(NH 3 )
es
• Sulfur dioxide(SO 2 )
-------------------------------------------------------------------
rc
3. Oxidising agent:
u
Is a substance that oxidises another substance during a redox reaction.
so
Potassium manganate (VII) in acidic solution is a good oxidising agent. When it
oxidises a substance its colour changes from purple to colourless.
re
Common oxidising agents:
• Halogens: Cl 2 ,Br 2 , I 2 etc..
m
• Oxygen [O2]
• Hydrogen peroxide [H 2 O 2 ]
xa
• Potassium dichromate (VII) [K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ]

--------------------------------------------------------------------
te
4. Redox: A reaction in which reduction and oxidation take place simultaneously is

ar
said to a redox reaction

--------------------------------------------------------------------
m
Note:
•
.s
Oxidation state is always written in the name of compounds having more than
one oxidation state.
w
• A compound of a transition element must include its oxidation state; Example

w
iron oxide. If it is not mentioned then we will not come to know whether
the compound is Fe(II) oxide or Fe(III) oxide as iron can have more than one
w
oxidation state.
Application based questions:
MCQ:
--------------------------------------------------------------------
om
.c
es
--------------------------------------------------------------------
u rc
so
re
--------------------------------------------------------------------
m
xa
te
ar
--------------------------------------------------------------------
m
.s
w
w
w
--------------------------------------------------------------------
om
.c
es
rc
-------------------------------------------------------------------
u
so
re
m
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
xa
te
ar
m
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
.s
w
w
w
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Extended Theory:
[M/J/2013-P33-Q4]
om
.c
Explanation: It is oxidation as the oxidation state of Ge has increased from +2 to +4
es
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/2009-P31-Q4]
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/2010-P33-Q2C]
om
.c
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
es
[O/N/2012-P33-Q6d]
u rc
so
re
m
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
xa
[O/N/2013-P32-Q5]
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2013-P31-Q5]
om
.c
es
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
---------------------------------------------------------------
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/06-P3-Q6d]
om
.c
es
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/2003-P3-Q5]
om
.c
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
es
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS BASES AND SALTS
The characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with:
(a) metals
(b) bases
(c) carbonates
ACID + METAL → SALT + HYDROGEN
ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
ACID + CARBONATE → SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE
Effect of acids on
(a) litmus :
• Acids turn blue litmus red
• Bases turn red litmus blue
(b) thymolphthalein :
• It is an acid-base (pH) indicator.
• At pH 9.3 the indicator is colourless and at pH 10.5, the indicator turns blue.
• If it is colourless, the pH is less than 9.4.
• If it is blue, the pH is greater than 10.5.
• An in-between colour means an in-between pH (9.4 < pH < 10.6).
(c) methyl orange:
• Methyl orange is a pH indicator frequently used in titration because of its
clear and distinct colour variance at different pH values.
• It shows red colour in acidic medium
• It shows yellow colour in basic medium.

3. Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals
Examples :
Hydroxides:
• Calcium hydroxide
• Lead hydroxide
• Aluminium hydroxide
• Lithium hydroxide
• Potassium hydroxide
• Boron hydroxide
Oxides:
• All oxides of group 1 and 2 {( Except BeO) are bases Beryllium oxide is
amphoteric}
4.Alkalis are soluble bases
• Sodium Hydroxide (liquid or solid)

• Potassium Hydroxide (liquid or solid)
• Sodium Carbonate (soda ash)
• Sodium Chloride.

The characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with:
a. acids
ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
ACID + METAL OXIDE → SALT + WATER
ACID + METAL HYDROXIDE → SALT + WATER
b. ammonium salts
BASE + AMMONIA SALTS → SALT + WATER + AMMONIA GAS

INDICATORS
Effect of alkalis on:
(a) litmus :Bases turn red litmus blue
(b) thymolphthalein :
• It is an acid-base (pH) indicator.
• At pH 9.3 the indicator is colourless and at pH 10.5, the indicator turns
blue.
• If it is colourless, the pH is less than 9.4.
• If it is blue, the pH is greater than 10.5.
• An in-between colour means an in-between pH (9.4 < pH < 10.6).
(c) methyl orange:

• It shows yellow colour in basic medium.

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS/STRONG/WEAK/ACIDS
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
• The aqueous solutions of acids contain H+ ions

• The aqueous solutions of alkalis contain OH– ions
DEFINITIONS:
• Acids: Acids are proton donors

• Bases: Bases are proton acceptors
Strong acids: These acids completely dissociate in aqueous solution
Example:
Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid
Equation for dissociation:
HCl(aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl – (aq)
Weak acid: These acids partially dissociate in aqueous solution
Example:
Ethanoic acid is a weak acid
Equation for dissociation :
CH3COOH(aq) ⇌ H+ (aq) + CH3COO– (aq)

Comparing hydrogen ion concentration, neutrality, relative acidity and
relative alkalinity in terms of colour and pH using universal indicator paper.
NEUTRALISATION REACTION:
Neutralisation reaction is a reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce water,
NEUTRALISATION EQUATION:
H+ (aq) + OH– (aq) → H2O(l)

Types of oxides
There are three types of oxides:
 Acidic oxides
 Basic oxides
 Neutral oxides
---------------------------------------------------------------
Acidic oxides:
 Most non-metallic oxides are acidic oxides.
 Acidic oxides react with alkalis to form a salt and water.
 Some acidic oxides react with bases such as metal oxides when they are
strongly heated.
 Many non-metallic oxides react with water to form acidic solutions.
 Examples of acidic oxides: SO2, SO3, CO2,P4O10,SiO2
--------------------------------------------------------------
Basic oxides
 Most metallic oxides are basic oxides.
 Many basic oxides are formed by the direct combination of a metal with
oxygen.
 Basic oxides do not react with alkalis.
 Only group 1 and 2 metal oxides react with water to form a metal
hydroxide. An alkaline solution is formed which turns red litmus blue.
Most other metal oxides do not react.
 Examples of basic oxides: All group 1 oxides, Group 2 oxides , except
Beryllium oxide
---------------------------------------------------------------
Amphoteric oxides:
 Amphoteric oxides show both acidic and basic properties.
 Examples: the oxides of aluminium and zinc are amphoteric.
General reactions:
Amphoteric oxide + Acid---> Salt + water
ZnO (s) + 2 HNO3 ----> Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Al 2 O 3 (s) + 6HCl(aq) -----> 2 AlCl 3 (aq) + 3 H 2 O(l)
Amphoteric oxide + alkalis ----> Complex Salt + water
ZnO (s) + 2 NaOH(aq)-----> Na 2 ZnO 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
Al 2 O 3 (s) + 2NaOH(aq)------> 2NaAlO 2 (aq) + H 2 O(l)
---------------------------------------------------------------
Preparing salts
There are 4 ways of making salts:
1. Reacting a metal with an acid.
2. Reacting an insoluble base with an acid.
3. Neutralising an alkali with an acid by titration method.
4. By precipitation. ( Making insoluble salts)
General reactions:
Metal + Acid ------> Metal Salt + Hydrogen
2. Reacting an insoluble base with an acid.
Insoluble base + Acid ------> Metal Salt + Water
3. Neutralising an alkali with an acid by titration method.
Alkali + Acid ------> Metal Salt + Water
4. By precipitation.
Soluble Compound + Soluble Compound->Soluble Salt + Insoluble Salt
Note:
• This method of salt making is used for metals above hydrogen in the
reactivity series
• The series has the most reactive metals on the top and the least
reactive metals at the bottom.
• Carbon and hydrogen are non-metals. They have been included for
comparison only.
• We cannot make salts of copper, lead and silver which are below
hydrogen in the reactivity series.
• Salts of highly reactive metals cannot be prepared in this way.
• So we can make salts of Mg, Al, Zn and Fe in this way.
Reactivity series:
Metals Metal
Mnemonics Ions
People Potassium K+
Should Sodium Na+
Carefully Calcium Ca2+
Make Magnesium Mg2+
All Aluminium Al3+
Comedy Carbon
Zoo Zinc Zn2+
Insects Iron Fe2+
Tall Tin Sn2+
Like Lead Pb2+
How Hydrogen
Camel Copper Cu2+
Should Silver Ag+
Get Gold Au3+
Pepsi Platinum Pt2+
-
Examples for:
Zn (s) + H2SO4(aq) ----> Zn(SO)4(aq) + H2(g) Zinc sulfate
Mg(s) +2 HCl (aq) ----> MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g) magnesium chloride
Mg(s) +2 HNO3(aq) --->Mg( NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) magnesium nitrate
• When a metal reacts with hydrochloric acid the salt produced is a

chloride.
• When a metal reacts with sulfuric acid the salt produced is a
sulfate.
• When a metal reacts with nitric acid the salt produced is a
nitrate.

Steps for salt making:
1. Add excess metal to the acid in the
flask.
2.Complete the reaction by warming the flask
and filtering off excess metal.
3. The filtrate is the metal salt.
4.Evaporate the water from the filtrate till
the crystallisation point is reached.
5. Filter off the crystals and wash them with
a tiny amount of solvent to remove the
soluble impurities.
paper. The salt is ready.

.
6. Dry the crystals between sheets of filter
Salts from insoluble bases:
This method is used to make salts from metals that are low in the reactivity series.
1. Add excess metal oxide to

the acid in the beaker.
2.Complete the reaction by
warming the beaker and filtering
off excess metal oxide.
3. The filtrate is the metal salt.
4.Evaporate the water from the
filtrate till the crystallisation
point is reached.
Filter off the crystals and wash
them with a tiny amount of solvent to remove the soluble impurities.
6.Dry the crystals between sheets of filter paper. The salt is ready.
Examples of insoluble basic oxides:
List of bases:
They are usually metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates or metal hydrogencarbonates.
Making soluble
salts from acids
and alkalis by
titration
A titration involves
finding the unknown
concentration of one
solution by reacting it with
a solution of known concentration. The solution of unknown concentration (the analyte) is usually
placed in a flask, while the solution of known concentration (titrant) is placed in a burette. The titrant
is added to the analyte until the endpoint is reached usually determined by a color change.
Calculations are then performed to find the unknown concentration of the analyte. Titrations are
typically performed on acid/base reactions but are not limited to them.
Macid x Vacid = Mbase x Vbase
Macid = Molarity of the acid
Vacid = Volume of the acid
Mbase = Molarity of the base
Vbase = Volume of the base
Steps:
• Measure known volume of alkali/acid in a titration flask using a pipette. Clean this
pipette with a few drops of alkali/acid that you will be using in the flask.
• Add a few drops of indicator solution to the alkali/acid in the flask.
Clean the burette with the acid/alkali that you would want to use for titration.
• Record the burette reading.( V1)
• Open the burette tap and let the acid/alkali flow into the flask. Keep swirling to let
the acid and alkali in the flask mix properly.
• Keep adding the alkali/acid slowly till the indicator changes colour. This is the end
point.A salt has been formed.
• Record the reading on the burette( V2).
• V2-V1 is the rough titre or the ' range finder ' titre.
• Repeat the experiment 4-5 times and get the accurate titre by taking the average of
the tires. Ignore the inconsistent titre.
Note: Titre: It is the minimum volume of a solution needed to reach the end point in a titration.
Making insoluble salts ( precipitate) from two soluble salts
In this method we make insoluble salts with the help of two soluble compounds.
For this you need to know the solubility rules
Method:
• Identify the ions that are present in the salt you need to make.
• Choose soluble compounds based on this information.
• Mix the two soluble compounds together.
• Filter off the precipitate.
• Then wash and dry to obtain solid crystals.
Solubility Rules:
" Some Group1 High Courts NAG that the CBI's are slower
than Some Giant Snail named CaBaLe
Mnemonic Soluble compounds Insoluble exceptions

Some Group1 High Grp 1 hydroxides and
Courts carbonates.
( calcium hydroxide is
slightly soluble)
N Nitrates-All ------------------
A Ammonium salts-All ------------------
G Group 1 salts-All ------------------
that the
CBI' s Chlorides, Bromides Slower than
are and Iodides (Silver and Lead)
Some Giant Group 1-2-oxides Most metal oxides
Snail sulphates named CaBaLe
(Calcium/Barium/Lead)
Periodic table
Basics:
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1. Periodic table is a method of classifying elements and it is
used to predict properties of elements.
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2. Elements in a periodic table are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic numbers( proton numbers).
3. Elements with similar properties fall under the same vertical
b.
columns called groups.
4. Horizontal rows are called periods.
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5. Metals are on the left hand side of the periodic table.
6. Non-metals are to the right hand side of the periodic table.
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7. Boron (B),Silicon (Si),Germanium ( Ge),Arsenic (As), Tellurium

(Te) and Polonium ( Po) are the metalloids that separate the
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metals from the non metals.

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---------------------------------------------------------------
SMART EDU HUB IGCSE CHEMISTRY NOTES-VOLUME 2-LESSON-9-14 1
GROUP 1 PROPERTIES
GENERAL:
• Group 1 elements are: Lithium, Sodium , Potassium, Rubidium, Caesium and

Francium
• All group 1 elements are metals
• They are called as alkali metals because they form alkaline solutions when
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they react with water,
• Lithium, sodium and potassium are less dense than water. Thus, these
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metals float on the water surface.
Rubidium, caesium and francium are denser than water. Thus, these
.
metals sink in water.
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
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• They are grey solids with shiny silvery surfaces when freshly cut.
• These surfaces turn dull when exposed to air because, being highly reactive,
•
•
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they react rapidly with oxygen and water vapour in the air .
They are soft solids that can be easily cut with a knife
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Alkali metals have low melting and boiling points as compared to heavy
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metals such as copper and iron.
• Their density increases down the group
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• They have low densities as compared to heavy metals such as iron and
copper.
• Their melting and boiling points decrease down the group.
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• They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
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• Their reactivity increases down the group.

• They are highly reactive and hence must be stored under oil to prevent them
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from getting in contact with air and water.

• All alkali metal exhibit similar chemical properties. This is because all the
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atoms of alkali metals have one valence electron.

• Being in group 1, they all have just one electron in their outermost orbit and
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hence are also good reducing agents as they tend to lose this electron.
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• Also since they have a tendency to lose an electron, they change into positive
ions (cations)
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GROUP (VII) PROPERTIES
Facts about halogens

• Diatomic non-metals
• They have increasing density and decreasing reactivity
• At r.t.p, chlorine is a pale yellow-green gas, bromine is a red-brown
liquid and iodine is a grey-black solid

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS OF HALOGENS
HALOGENS UNDERGO DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS WITH
OTHER HALIDE IONS
Halogen displacement reactions
• Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At) are halogen
elements.
• Halogen displacement reactions are also called as redox reactions.
• A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen from solution of its
salts.
• Reactivity of halogens decreases down the group. Hence F>Cl>Br>I
• A halogen cannot displace itself from a solution of one of its salts
Examples:
Word equation: chlorine + potassium iodide → potassium chloride + iodine
Symbol equation: Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
Word equation: chlorine + potassium bromide → potassium chloride + bromine

Symbol equation: Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
.
Word equation: fluorine + sodium bromide → sodium fluoride + bromine
Symbol equation: F2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) → 2NaF(aq) + Br2(aq)

Predicting properties of halogens:
Colour: Reactivity
Density:
• The halogens get darker down the group.

• Reactivity decreases down the group
• Physical states of halogens: State changes from F, Cl are gases; bromine is a
liquid and iodine and astatine are solids

TRANSITION ELEMENTS
They are metals that have:
• High densities
• High melting points
• Form coloured compounds
• Often act as catalysts as elements or in compounds
• Transition elements have ions with variable oxidation numbers. Example (Fe2+,
Fe3+)

NOBLE GASES
• In the periodic table, the group 8 elements are called as noble
gases.
• These noble gases are: Helium (He), Neon (Ne) , Argon (Ar),
Krypton ( Kr), Xenon (Xe) and Radon (Rn)
• These are unreactive and monoatomic gases .
• They are unreactive or inert because the atoms of all noble gases
have completely filled outer shells and hence do not have a tendency
to lose, gain or share electrons.

-----------------------------------------------
Reactivity series with respect to their reactions with:
• Water or steam
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• Dilute hydrochloric acid
• Reduction of metal oxides with carbon
-----------------------------------------------
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b.
Reaction of
metal
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With cold water
Steam
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Products are Products are
metal hydroxide metal oxide
and hydrogen and hydrogen
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www.smarteduhub.com 1
Chemical reactions( Metals + water/steam)
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General reactions:
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Metal + Cold water-->Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Example:
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Ca(s) + 2H 2 O(l) --------->Ca( OH) 2 (aq) + H 2 (g)
Calcium cold water calcium hydroxide hydrogen
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-----------------------------------------------------------
Metal + steam----> Metal oxide + Hydrogen
3Fe(s) + 4H 2 O(g)------>Fe 3 O 4 (s) +4H 2 (g)
Iron steam
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iron oxide
-----------------------------------------------
Reactivity series:
hydrogen
ed
Sodium Calcium Magnesium Zinc Copper
Most reactive Least reactive
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-----------------------------------------------
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Metals + dilute HCl
Metals Type of reaction Order of reactivity

Sodium Very violent, Most reactive
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explosive
Calcium Very rapid. Lots
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of bubbles of
hydrogen produced
b.
Magnesium Rapid bubbles of
hydrogen produced
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steadily
Zinc Slow reaction-
Bubbles of H 2
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produced slowly.
Copper No reaction with
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dilute or
concentrated acid Least reactive
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Reduction of metal oxide with carbon
K These
metal
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Na
Ca oxides
cannot
Mg be
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Al reduced
by
carbon
b.
C
Zn
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Fe These
Tn metals
Pb can be
H reduced
Cu by
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Ag carbon
Au
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Pt
• Carbon is used as a reducing agent.
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• Only the oxides of metal below carbon in the reactivity series can be
reduced by heating them with carbon.
• Metals more reactive than carbon are extracted by electrolysis.
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Example:
Chemical reaction Of CuO with C.
2CuO(s) + C(s) ---------> 2Cu(s) + CO 2 (g)
.s
copper (II) oxide carbon copper carbondioxide

--------------------------------------------------------------
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METALS
Properties of metals:
Physical properties of metals
• Metals are malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity,
lustrous and sonorous.
• All metals conduct electricity but all metals might not react with water
nor can they all be hard.
• Metals have high melting and boiling points.
Application based questions:

MCQ:
Know the properties of metals:
GENERAL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS
Chemical properties of metals
• Reaction with dilute acids
Sodium Very violent, explosive Most reactive
Calcium Very rapid, lots of hydrogen
bubbles produced
Magnesium Rapid, bubbles of hydrogen
produced steadily
Zinc Slow- bubbles of hydrogen
produced slowly
Copper No reaction with dilute or
concentrated acids Least reactive
• Reaction with oxygen

Magnesium Burns rapidly with a bright white Most reactive
light
Iron Burns only when in powdered
form or as iron wool.
Copper Does not burn but turns black on
its surface
Gold Does not burn at all , even as a
powder Least reactive
THE USES OF METALS
Following are the uses of metals in terms of their physical properties:
Metal Uses in relation to its properties

Aluminium Used in the manufacture of aircraft because of its low density
Used in the in the manufacture of overhead electrical cables
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because of its low density and good electrical conductivity
Used in food containers because of its resistance to corrosion
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Copper Used in electrical wiring because of its good electrical conductivity
and ductility
.
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[2023-2025 syllabus needs the uses of the above two metals only and as stated]
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Alloys
Alloy:
Definition
A mixture of two or more metals, or one or more metal with a non-metal is
called as an alloy.
Steel alloys are preferred to iron as they are stronger, harder and resistant
to corrosion.
Alloys of metals are preferred to the metallic elements as they:
• Are hard
• Strong
• Do not corrode
• They improve the appearance of objects
Alloys and their Uses
Alloy Properties Uses
Brass Stronger than Musical instruments,
( Copper + Zinc) copper but still ornaments
malleable
Bronze Very hard Some moving parts of
( Copper+ Tin) machines, statues,
bells
Stainless steel Does not rust like Car parts, cutlery,
( Nickel + Iron+ iron and is very parts of chemical
Chromium+ Carbon) hard factories, surgical
instruments
Mild steel Soft and Cars, fridges , white
( Iron+ Carbon) malleabe steel goods, construction
Nitinol Nickel +titanium Spectacle frames and
dental braces
---------------------------------------------------------------
Mild steel is harder than pure iron:
This is because mild steel is an alloy and an alloy contains atoms of
different sizes which prevent movement of rows.[ The different layers
cannot slide past over each other]
Note:Alloy is also said to be a mixture of metals includeing other elements]
---------------------------------------------------------------
[The tick marks indicate that thes uses of these alloys are needed as per
2023-2025 syllabus ]
www.smartexamresources.com
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In general:
• Alloys are more expensive than the metals they are made from.
• Alloys are mixtures of different metals
• Alloys conduct electricity well
• Alloys are as strong as the metals they are made from
• Carbon makes the alloy harder than iron
--------------------------------------------------------------
IDENTIFYIG ALLOYS FROM DIAGRAMS

Structure of an alloy:
When a metal is alloyed with another metal, the
different sized metal atoms make the arrangement of
the lattice less regular. This stops the layers from
sliding over each other when a force is applied. This is
why an alloy is stronger and harder than a pure metal.
---------------------------------------------------------------
www.smartexamresources.com
REACTIVITY SERIES
REACTIVITY SERIES:
Mnemonic Elements Symbols

People Potassium K
Should Sodium Na
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Carefully Calcium Ca
Make Magnesium Mg
co
All Aluminium Al
Comedy Carbon C
Zoo Zinc Zn
.
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Insects Iron Fe
Tall Tin Sn
Like Lead Pb
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How Hydrogen H
Camel Copper Cu
Should
Get
Pepsi
Silver
Gold
Platinum
Ag
Au
Pt
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[Note: In the above series, knowledge of the position of tin , lead and platinum is
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not needed as per the 2023-2025 syllabus]

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Displacement reactions:
• Certain metals have the capacity to displace some metals from the aqueous
solutions of their salts.
• Only a metal placed higher in the reactivity series can displace the metal that
occupies a lower position in the reactivity series from the aqueous solution of
its salt.
• Metals have a tendency to form positive ions
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Examples:
Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq)→ MgSO4 (aq)+Cu(s)
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Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq)→ FeSO4 (aq)+Cu(s)
Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq)→ ZnSO4 (aq)+Cu(s)
Cu(s) + AgNO3 (aq)→CuNO3(aq) +Ag(s)
.
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EXPLAINING DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS WITH RESPECT TO THE TENDENCY OF
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METALS TO FORM POSITIVE IONS
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REACTION:
Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq)→ MgSO4 (aq)+Cu(s)
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A strip of Magnesium metal (Mg) is placed in a copper sulfate solution. Two things
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happen.
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OBSERVATION:
• The blue colour of the copper sulfate disappears.

• Magnesium metal starts to turn reddish brown
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EXPLANATION:
• This is because the copper sulfate is blue in colour due to the presence of
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copper (II) ions. The disappearing blue colour indicates that copper is getting
displaced from copper sulfate solution.
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• The reddish-brown coating on the top of the magnesium metal strip indicates
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that copper that has got displaced is coating the magnesium metal strip
EXPLANATION OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESS :
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• The atoms of the reactive magnesium give away electrons.

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Mg(s) - 2e- →Mg2+(aq)

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The less reactive copper (II) ions( aqueous blue ions) are forced to accept the
electrons lost by the Mg atoms and the copper ions change to (reddish-brown solid)
copper atoms
Cu2++2e- →Cu
The overall reaction is:
Mg (s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)

REACTIONS OF METALS WITH COLD WATER :
General reaction Metal + water:
When a metal reacts with water, a metal hydroxide and hydrogen are formed.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2

2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2
Ca+ 2H2O → Ca(OH)2+ H2
[All group 1 elements react with cold water water]
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General reaction Metal + steam:
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Magnesium burns in steam to produce white magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas
.
Mg(s) + H2O (g) → MgO (s) + H2(g)
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[ Note: Magnesium does react with cold water, but it seems unreactive. Here is the
actual reaction:
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Mg (s) + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2
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Insoluble
A very clean magnesium ribbon does react slightly with cold water, where hydrogen
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bubbles are formed on its surface. The reaction too soon because the magnesium
hydroxide formed being insoluble in water , forms a barrier on the magnesium
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preventing further reaction. So the assumption by many , that magnesium does not
react with cold water is false]
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General reaction Metal + Dilute HCl:

Metal + dilute Hydrochloric acid → Metal salt + Hydrogen
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Mg(s) + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2

Zn(s) + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
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Fe(s) + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2

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Reaction of Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag)and Gold (Au) with dilute hydrochloric acid:
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Cu(s) + HCl
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Ag(s) + HCl
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Au(s) + HCl
•
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Copper (Cu), Silver (Ag)and Gold (Au) will not react with hydrochloric acid because
copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series.
• So, for example: Copper cannot replace the hydrogen in HCl to form CuCl2 and the
same is true for the others

Unreactivity of aluminium:
• Aluminium is a highly reactive metal.

• Its position is above carbon in the reactivity series.
• Aluminium corrodes but does not rust because aluminium reacts with oxygen
in the air and forms a thin layer of aluminium oxide (Al2O3).The oxide layer
covers the surface of the aluminium metal and prevents any further reaction.
[Note: Rust is a type of corrosion (the wearing-away of metal), and to put it simply,
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aluminium does not rust, but it does corrode [Note: Corrosion is the process by which
certain materials, metals and non-metals, deteriorate as a result of oxidation. So
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rusting is a type of corrosion. Rusting specifically refers to the oxidation of iron in
the presence of air and moisture and it happens on the surface of iron and its alloys]
.
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CORROSION OF METALS
Corrosion: Chemicals in the air attack the metals causing the surface to get eaten
away. This eating away of metal surfaces is called corrosion.
Rusting: The corrosion of iron is called rusting.

Formula for rust:
• Rust is hydrated iron oxide.
• Rust has many different formulae based on the amount of water present in it.
• General formula for rust is: Fe 2 O 3 .nH 2 O
•
Conditions for rusting:
Both oxygen and water must be present.
Equation for rusting:

4Fe(s) + 3O 2 (g) + 2H 2 O ----> 2Fe 2 O 3. H 2 O(s)
Iron Oxygen Water Hydrated iron oxide
Rusting is speeded up by: Electrolytes such as a salt. When salt is added to water,
the water becomes a good conductor and increases the rate of rusting.
---------------------------------------------------------------------
AW-6:Methods
of rust
prevention
Greasing and Sacrificial Cathodic Coating

Galvanising
Painting
oiling protection protection with plastic
Painting: It is usually preferred for objects like bridges, gates etc.

Greasing: Machinery is usually greased to prevent it from rusting.
Sacrificial protection:
• Sacrificial protection is a cell , it does not need electricity.
• Sacrificial protection is the protection of iron or steel against corrosion by using
a more reactive metal.
• Pieces of zinc or magnesium alloy are attached to steel and iron objects.
• The protected metal becomes the cathode ( undergoes reduction-accepts
electrons ) and does not corrode.
• The more reactive metal donates its electrons to any iron ions that might have
formed thus stopping it from corroding.
• In sacrificial coating the metal corrodes instead of steel.
Example:
Steel does not rust because:
• Mg is more reactive than
Fe.
• Mg loses electrons ( and
gets oxidised)
• Mg(s)- 2e--->Mg2+(aq)
Mg reacts with air and water and gets corroded ( or oxidised) and becomes
anodic.
• Electrons move from Mg to Fe.
• Electrons in the water from the Mg react with hydrogen ions in the water and
form hydrogen gas.
2H+(aq)+ 2e----> H 2 (g)
• Thus the iron stays protected as electrons are accepted on its surface so it gets
reduced.
CATHODIC PROTECTION IS NOT FOR THE 2023-2025 SYLLABUS
Cathodic protection:
• Cathodic protection is electrolysis.
• It needs electricity.
• It needs an inert electrode ( unreactive/less reactive)
Example:
Equation for the gas evolved
in cathodic protection:
Cathode:
2H+ + 2e- ---> H 2
( All details of the process

are not needed)
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Difference between sacrificial and cathodic protection:
Sacrificial protection Cathodic protection

It is a cell It is not a cell ( It is electrolysis)
It does not need power supply It needs a power supply
Electrons are lost by the more reactive Electrons are lost by the battery.
metal.
It needs a more reactive metal It needs an inert metal/ unreactive /less
reactive electrode. ( Or it does not need
a more reactive metal)
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Galvanising (Metal plating):
The plating of one metal like chromium /tin etc.on the top of another metal like iron is
known as galvanising.
Base metal Coating metal Purpose of coating
Iron Chromium Enhance the appearance
Steel Tin Enhance the appearance
Iron zinc Rust prevention
IRON EXTRACTION
• Ore: Hematite( Limestone): Contains more that 60 % iron.
• Hematite contains mostly iron (III) oxide.
• Limestone is a mineral that largely contains calcium carbonate
• Container: Blast furnace
• Temperature: Bottom of furnace:15000C
Top of the furnace:2500C
• Temperature of hot air: 550-8500C
• Raw materials: Coke (C)/iron ore/limestone
• Two functions of coke in the blast furnace are
1. To provide heat ( to burn)
2. To form carbon monoxide.
Diagram:
Formation of reducing
u agent:
At the bottom of the furnace
the coke ( C) burns in hot blast
of air and forms carbon dioxide.
The reaction is exothermic and
the temperature rises to
20000C.
C(s) +O 2 (g)--------> CO 2 (g)
This CO 2 is reduced to carbon

monoxide as it reacts with coke .
CO 2 (g) +C(s) -----> 2CO(g)
Reduction of Fe 2 O 3:
• By CO
Fe 2 O 3 (s) + 3CO(g)-----<> 2Fe(l) + 3CO 2 (g)

Most iron is produced in this way.
The hot gases that escape are used to heat the air going into the furnace.
thus energy costs are reduced.
Removal of impurities(Silica):
SiO 2 - Sand is the major impurity in the hematite ore. This impurity is
removed by adding Limestone-CaCO 3.
Decomposition of limestone:
heat
CaCO 3 (s)---------->CaO(s) + CO 2 (g)
Decomposition of limestone:
CaO(s) + SiO 2 (s)-----> CaSiO 3 (l)
The liquid slag runs down and forms a layer on the top of the liquid iron
because its density is less than that of iron. The slag is run off.
-----------------------------------------------
Use of slag(waste product):
h
Solid slag is used as a building material and to build
roads.
--------------------------------------------------------------
te
Impurities present in the iron:

• Mainly Carbon
• Sulfur, silicon and phosphorous
a
-------------------------------------------------------------
Effect of impurities on iron:
m
• Impurities make the iron very brittle.

Pure iron facts:
• Pure iron with no impurities in it is very soft. Hence molding this pure
iron is very easy.
• As pure iron is very soft, so it does not have many uses.
• Pure iron rusts easily.
---------------------------------------------------------------
The equations taking place in the blast furnace can be categorised
as:
• Redox equations
m
co
• Acid -base equations
b.
-------------------------------------------------------------
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ALUMINIUM EXTRACTION
Main ore of aluminium: Bauxite
Percentage of Al2O3 (alumina)=50-65%
Impurities in Bauxite are : oxides of Silicon, Iron and Titanium (SIT)
The anode and the cathode are made up of carbon (graphite)
Process of removing the impurities:
• Crush the ore and mix it with NaOH.
• Aluminium oxide reacts with sodium hydroxide and dissolves in it.
• The impurities are insoluble and hence they are removed by filtration.
Reaction:
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH (aq)---> 2 NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
aluminium sodium
oxide aluminate
The sodium aluminate undergoes further treatment and is finally heated to
make pure aluminium oxide.
Dimensions of the electrolytic cell: 8m long x 1 m deep
Melting point of pure aluminium oxide is 20400C. To provide this high

temperature for too long is very difficult. Also a lot of energy is needed to
melt it and energy is expensive. Also pure Al2O3 is a poor conductor. To
overcome all these difficulties, cryolite ( Na3AlF6 ) is added to pure aluminium
oxide. This reduces the melting point to 10000C. Adding calcium fluoride
further reduces the temperature to 9000C,
[Purification process is not for 2023-2025 exam]
Half reactions :
Anode (+ve electrode):
𝟐𝟐𝑶𝑶𝟐𝟐− - 4e- ----> O 2 -------------------------------------- Oxidation
Cathode (-ve electrode):
Al3+ + 3e- ----> Al --------------------------- Reduction
Overall reaction:
2Al2O3 -----> 4Al + 3O2
The carbon anodes need to be replaced from time to time , this is because
the hot carbon anodes burn away as they react with the oxygen gas and form
carbon dioxide.
Thus there are 2 gases released during the experiment: oxygen and
carbon dioxide
Aluminium has wide applications. Use of aluminium depends on its properties.
Use of Aluminium Property of Aluminium

Used in the manufacture of Low density/light/resistant to
aircraft corrosion/
Used to make food containers Not attacked or corroded
/unreactive as it covered by the
oxide layer. /It can be easily
shaped/It is malleable and ductile.
Also aluminium electricity cables have a steel core: This is because steel gives
it the strength and prevents it from sagging. Hence the pylons can be made
further apart.
---------------------------------------------------------------
WATER
CHEMICAL TESTS FOR THE PRESENCE OF WATER:
Two tests for testing for the presence of water:
• Copper sulfate test

• Cobalt chloride test
Copper sulfate test:
When water is added to white anhydrous copper sulfate, it turns blue.
CuSO 4 (s) + 5H 2 O(l) ------->Cu SO 4 .5H 2 O(s)
anhydrous water hydrated
white blue
Cobalt chloride test:
When water is added to blue anhydrous cobalt chloride, it turns pink.
CoCl 2 (s) + 6H 2 O(l) -------> CoCl 2 .6H 2 O(s)
anhydrous water hydrated
blue pink
PURITY
Characteristics of pure substances:
• Pure substances have sharp melting and boiling points.
Example: Boiling point of pure water is 1000C while melting point of pure
ice is 0oC.
------------------------------------------------------------
Effect of impurities on "pure substances":
• Due to the presence of impurities, the melting and the boiling points
will not be sharp any more. Substances will melt and boil over a range
of temperatures.
• The boiling point will be increased further due to the presence of
impurities. Example: Impure water will boil above 1000C.
• The greater the impurity, the greater will be the increase in the boiling
point.
• The melting point is decreased by impurities. So impure ice will not melt
at 00C but will melt at a lower temperature
----------------------------------------------------------
Graphs of pure and impure substances
1. Graphs of pure substances show horizontal regions which represent the
melting points and boiling points of substances.
2. These temperatures are described as sharp/ fixed / specific
temperatures.[2m]
Graphs of pure substances :
Have Regions[1]m
• Region where the solids melts(Example
region BC)
Region where the liquid boils ( Example: Region
DE) And
• The solid melts and the liquids boils at a
fixed or a specific temperature [1m]
------------------------------------------------------------
Define:
• Melting point: It is the temperature at which a solid changes into a
liquid.
• Boiling point: It is the temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Naming the test for purity of substances:

-----------------------------
The following are the tests to check the purity of substances:
• Testing for the melting points and boiling points of substances.
• Performing chromatography and checking the purity of substances
---------------------------------------------------------------
Application based questions: Extended Theory
---------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2015-V-62-Q3]
Look at the marking scheme below: It tells you that you need to be able to
mention the melting and boiling points of pure water.
---------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2009-v32-Q1 a (ii)]
-------------------------------------------------------------
Application based questions: Extended MCQ
Skill 1:Identify methods of testing purity of substances
[M/J/2003-Q3]
---------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2003-Q4]
---------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2009-V11-Q3]
---------------------------------------------------------------
Extended theory: Testing Purity-Graphical questions

---------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/2005-P3- Q2a(ii)]
---------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/2012-V32-Q2]
---------------------------------------------------------------
TREATMENT OF WATER
Sand
and Addition
Alumin- of
Sedimen ium
gravel
Screens or Chlorine Reservoir
-tation sulfate Homes
crushed and
added
tanks coal Carbon
filter
 Metal Screens: These screens collect large objects such as leaves and
twigs.
 Settlement tank:[Sedimentation tanks] Solid particles such as soil

particles settle to the bottom the tank.
 Aluminium sulfate: This makes the finer soil particles stick to each
other and fall to the bottom of the tank.
 Sand and gravel filter: Small insoluble particles that were not removed
in the other tanks get removed here.
 Addition of Carbon:Powdered activated carbon is added to the filtered
water to remove the odour and taste from it
 Chlorine: Chlorine is added to kill the bacteria.

 Reservoir and Homes: pH of the water is adjusted and water is stored
in reservoirs or is sent to homes directly.
Note: The above treated water contains dissolved salts.
---------------------------------------------------------------
FERTILISERS
• Fertiliser: A fertiliser is a substance added to the soil to replace the

elements taken up by the soil.
• Fertilisers are also added to increase the yield of the crops.
• Amonium salts and nitrates are used as fertilisers.
• NPK are the fertilisers containing nitrogen , phophorous and potassium for
improved plant growth.
• Many fertilisers contain ammonium salts.
• Ammonia + Acids ------>Ammonium fertilisers
• Ammonium phosphate gives the essential element phosphate to the soil.
• It is important to control soil acidity because plant growth depends on
the soil acidity.
Equation for formation of fertilisers:
Ammonia + Nitric acid -------> Ammonium nitrate
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) --------> NH4 NO3(aq)
3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) --------> (NH4)3 PO4(aq)
Ammonia Phosphoric acid Ammonium phosphate
STRATEGIES TO REDUCE THE EFFECT OF CLIMATIC ISSUES
• Following are the strategies to reduce the effects of these environmental
issues:
ISSUE CLIMATE CHANGE
climate change: planting trees, reduction in livestock farming,
decreasing use of fossil fuels, increasing use of
hydrogen and renewable energy, e.g. wind, solar
m
acid rain use of catalytic converters in vehicles, reducing
emissions of sulfur dioxide by using low-sulfur
co
fuels and flue gas desulfurisation with calcium
oxide
.
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COMPOSITION OF CLEAN AIR
Clean air contains:
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• 78%-Nitrogen
• 21%-Oxygen
• 1%-Carbon dioxide, water vapour and
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very small amounts of noble gases such as
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helium, neon, krypton and xenon.
• Unpolluted air contains compounds like
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CO 2 and H 2 O.
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis:
It is the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen
in the presence of chlorophyll and using energy from light.
Word equation for photosynthesis:
m
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
co
Symbol equation for photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
.
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SOURCE OF POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANT SOURCE
carbon -From the complete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
dioxide
carbon - From the Incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels
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monoxide
and
co
particulates
methane -From the decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from
digestion in animals
.
oxides of -From car engines
es
nitrogen
sulfur -From the combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur
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dioxide compounds
POLLUTANT
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS
ADVERSE EFFECTS
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carbon dioxide -higher levels of carbon dioxide can lead to increased global
warming, which leads to climate change
am
carbon monoxide - toxic gas

particulates - increased risk of respiratory problems and cancer
methane higher levels of methane leading to increased global
x
warming, which leads to climate change

oxides of nitrogen - acid rain, photochemical smog and respiratory problems
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sulfur dioxide acid rain

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FORMATION AND REMOVAL OF OXIDES OF
NITROGEN BY CATALYTIC CONVERTORS
FORMATION:
-->Burning of fuels in the car engines, result in
high temperatures.
-->At these high temperatures, nitrogen and
oxygen from the air combine to produce nitrogen
monoxide.
-->This nitrogen monoxide which is released from
the vehicle's exhaust systems, reacts with
oxygen in the air to form nitrogen dioxide
REMOVAL:
A catalytic convertor is used emove these poisonous gases.
Catalytic converters use a transition metal cataylst like platinum , palladium or
rhodium catalyst with a high surface area. This increases the rate of
reaction.
Most catalytic convertors have 2 compartments. In the first compartment, the metals
to r
mainly catalyse the conversion of nitrogen oxides to nitrogen.
Compartment (A):-Reduction
2NO(g) -----------> N 2 (g) + O 2 (g)
2NO 2 (g) -----------> N 2 (g) + 2O 2 (g)
The nitrogen and oxygen from this reaction then flow into compartment B
Compartment (B):-Oxidation
2CO(g) + O 2 (g) -----------> 2CO 2 (g)
The reactions in the catalytic convertors are redox reactions. The following reactions
might also occur.
2NO(g) + 2CO(g) -----------> N 2 (g) + 2CO 2 (g)
2NO 2 (g) + 4CO(g) -----------> N 2 (g) + 4CO 2 (g)
The gases leaving the car exhaust are non poisonous but CO 2 contributes to global
warming.
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Identifying apparatus
• Volume is measured using a burette, measuring cylinder and pipette.
m
• Burette can measure volumes upto 50ml.
• Volumetric pipettes generally come in 10cm3 and 25cm3 sizes.
• Note 1ml=1cm3
co
b.
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Simple distillation unit

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Apparatus and related experiments
Obtain crystals from a solution.
m
co
b.
hu
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Separate a mixture of coloured dyes.
du
te
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Apparatus for fractional distillation:
.s
w
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Thermal decomposition set up:
m
co
b.
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Pestle and mortar for grinding:
hu
du
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Filtration apparatus:
ar
m
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Measuring the volume of a gas in a reaction
w
w
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Apparatus needed to test for measure the rate of reaction where a
precipitate is being formed.
m
co
b.
hu
---------------------------------------------------------------
Read the scale on a measuring cylinder:
du
te
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Apparatus for measuring the rate of reaction of an acid with marble chips:
ar
m
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A retort stand:
w
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A spirit burner:
m
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b.
Extract colours from a given substance:
hu
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Preparing a hydroxide from a metal:
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Making a salt from a metal oxide and an acid:
m
co
b.
hu
---------------------------------------------------------------
du
Read a chromatogram:
te
ar
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Reading scales and recording readings:
m
co
b.
---------------------------------------------------------------
hu
Extracting colours present in a leaf:
du
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Setup for a diffusion experiment:

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---------------------------------------------------------------
Experimental techniques
TITRATION
Making soluble
salts from acids
and alkalis by
titration
A titration involves
finding the unknown
concentration of one
solution by reacting it with
a solution of known concentration. The solution of unknown concentration (the analyte) is usually
placed in a flask, while the solution of known concentration (titrant) is placed in a burette. The titrant
is added to the analyte until the endpoint is reached usually determined by a color change.
Calculations are then performed to find the unknown concentration of the analyte. Titrations are
typically performed on acid/base reactions but are not limited to them.
Macid x Vacid = Mbase x Vbase
Macid = Molarity of the acid
Vacid = Volume of the acid
Mbase = Molarity of the base
Vbase = Volume of the base
Steps:
• Measure known volume of alkali/acid in a titration flask using a pipette. Clean this
pipette with a few drops of alkali/acid that you will be using in the flask.
• Add a few drops of indicator solution to the alkali/acid in the flask.
Clean the burette with the acid/alkali that you would want to use for titration.
• Record the burette reading.( V1)
• Open the burette tap and let the acid/alkali flow into the flask. Keep swirling to let
the acid and alkali in the flask mix properly.
• Keep adding the alkali/acid slowly till the indicator changes colour. This is the end
point.A salt has been formed.
• Record the reading on the burette( V2).
• V2-V1 is the rough titre or the ' range finder ' titre.
• Repeat the experiment 4-5 times and get the accurate titre by taking the average of
the tires. Ignore the inconsistent titre.
Note: Titre: It is the minimum volume of a solution needed to reach the end point in a titration.
Experimental technique
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY
1. Define
1. Paper chromatography:
The method of separating pigments(colored substances) using filter paper
is paper chromatography.
Key points about chromatography:

1. The colours separate if:
• The pigments have different solubilities in the solvent.
• The pigments have different degrees of attraction to the filter paper.
---------------------------------------------------------------
[O/N/08-P1-Q2]-Ans b
m
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b.
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2. If a mixture of solvents is not soluble in water then other solvents such
as ethanol , alcohol ,acetone or propanone can be used.
--------------------------------------------------------------
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3. You must know to

extract colours from given
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substances using suitable

methods and label the
apparatus used
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[O/N/2008-P6-Q1]
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---------------------------------------------------------------
[M/J/2006-P6-Q2]
m
co
Note: Step 1 was done to extract the colour.
---------------------------------------------------------------
b.
4. You must be able to identify the base line (origin) and the solvent
front.
---------------------------------------------------------------
hu
5. You must be able to name a locating agent while identifying colourless
substances like amino acids.
---------------------------------------------------------------
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Note: the locating agent reacts with the chemicals in the colourless spot and a
coloured compound is formed.
To detect amino acids a locating agent called as ninhydrin is used.
te
6. You must be able to calculate the Rf values and explain the meaning of
Rf values.
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---------------------------------------------------------------
7. You must be able to identify the number of dyes ( substances ) in
a mixture by
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looking at the
chromatogram.
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( 2 in this case)
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---------------------------------------------------------------
8. The reliability of the results of a chromatogram can be checked by:
either repeating the experiment/measuring the Rf values.
---------------------------------------------------------------
9. You must know that the base line must be always drawn with a pencil.
m
As the pencil line does
not interfere with the
chromatography
co
results since it does
not dissolve in the
solvent.
b.
[O/N/2008-P1]
hu
du
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10. You must be able to look
at the apparatus and identify
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the name of the experiment
[O/N/2007-P1]
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11.You must know that the number of spots that the sample breaks into tells
us the number of substances present in
the mixture being tested.
m
This the following chromatogram shows 2
amino acids being present in a protein
sample being tested.
co
b.
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12.You must know that the level of the solvent should be below the base line.
The reason is that if the
solvent is above the base line,
the dyes would get washed off
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in the solvent( or in other
words, they would dissolve in
the solvent)
co
b.
---------------------------------------------------------------
13.Sometimes a cover may be placed on the beaker to prevent the loss of
solvent.
hu
---------------------------------------------------------------
14.The chromatography paper must only be removed when the solvent is near
the top of the paper.
du
---------------------------------------------------------------
15.Once the process of chromatography is over, the products can be verified
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in 2 ways.
• By calculating the Rf values.
• By comparing the results with known samples.
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---------------------------------------------------------------
16.Measuring Rf value: ( no units)-Calculation
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APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS-NEW
ANSWER: D
ANSWER:B
ANSWER: A
MARKING SCHEME:B
MARKING SCHEME:A
ANSWER: D
ANSWER:C
ANSWER:A
ANSWER:C
ANSWER:D
ANSWER: B
APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS:-THEORY-NEW
MARKING SCHEME:
MARKING SCHEME:
MARKING SCHEME:
Experimental techniques
Crystallisation
1. Definition:
Crystallisation is a separation technique that is used to separate a solid that

has dissolved in a liquid and made a solution
2. To obtain pure crystals of hydrated salt from a metal carbonate or

metal oxide.
Example: To make crystals of hydrated Cobalt(II) chloride( CoCl2.6H2O)
Step1: Pour the acid into the beaker and warm it gently. [Remember that
warming the acid speeds up the reaction.]
Step2:Add a measured amount of the carbonate to the acid with a spatula
and stir it with a glass rod. [It is stirred with a glass rod and not the spatula
because spatula which is made of metal might react whereas the glass does
not react.]
Step3:The step 2 is repeated till no more cobalt carbonate reacted.{The
student knows when no more cobalt carbonate will react when solid cobalt
chloride is visible or when there is no more fizzing or no more gas formed
[Note you cannot mention colour change as a reason]}
Step4:The mixture is then filtered or decanted to remove the (unreacted)
excess cobalt carbonate.
Step5:The filtrate is then heated(evaporated) until the crystallisation point
is reached. [You come to know when the crystallisation point has reached
when crystals start forming on the edge of the glass rod].It is then
left to cool in an evaporating dish.
Step 6: When crystals form , filter off the crystals. Dry the crystals by
pressing them between filter papers or drying them in oven at low
temperatures.
Note
1. If cobalt chloride crystals are heated then the water is lost (crystals get
dehydrated) and cobalt chloride becomes anhydrous and turns blue.[ Rejected
answer: To write that the crystals will break or a powder will form if
crystals are heated]
2.If instead of cobalt carbonate, magnesium carbonate would have been used,
then warming the acid is not needed as magnesium carbonate reacts quickly at
room temperature and no heat is needed.
3. Note that the acid should never be in excess as this will make the solution
acidic and not neutral and thus the salt will be impure.
m
4.Excess oxide/carbonate is added to ensure that all the acid is neutralised
( used up)
5.When a metal carbonate is formed, water + carbon dioxide are the
co
byproducts.Carbon dioxide causes bubbling during the reaction, and can be
detected using limewater.
6.Crystals are dried using filter paper (and not heat) to prevent the
b.
breakdown of the crystals.
--------------------------------------------------------------
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a. If you are asked in general how to obtain salt crystals quickly, then
the obvious answer will be to heat/evaporate till
the crystallisation point is reached or till it is
saturated.
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Saturated solution: It is a solution in which no more of the solute dissolves.
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Filtration
•
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Solution: A solution contains a solid
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dissolved in a solvent.
• Solute: The dissolved solid is called as
the solute.
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• Solvent: The liquid that dissolves the
solid is the solvent.
• Filtration: Filtration is a method for
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separating an insoluble solid from a liquid.
• Residue: The solid that stays on the
filter paper is the residue.
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• If a substance does not dissolve in a
solvent, we say that it is insoluble. For
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example, sand does not dissolve in water – it
is insoluble.
dr
When a mixture of sand and water is filtered:
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• the sand stays behind in the filter paper (it becomes the residue)
• the water passes through the filter paper (it becomes the filtrate)
axra
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APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS
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ANSWER:C
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ANSWER:D
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u rc
ANSWER:D
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ANSWER:D
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es
u rc
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ANSWER:C
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om
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u rc
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ANSWER:A
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ANSWER:B
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Fractional distillation
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--------------------------------------------------------------
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Fractional distillation : It is a method of separating two miscible liquids with
a difference in their boiling points.
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Fraction: Each distillate that is collected is called as fraction.
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--------------------------------------------------------------
Experimental setup:
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The apparatus consists of:

A-Thermometer
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B- Beaker
C- Tripod
D-Condenser
E- Round bottom flask
F-Fractionating Column
--------------------------------------------------------------
Principle of operation:Two miscible liquids can be separated if they have a
difference in their boiling points
--------------------------------------------------------------
Use of fractional distillation:
a) To separate ethanol from fermented mixture
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b) To separate a mixture of two liquids with a difference in their boiling
points.
--------------------------------------------------------------
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Purpose of the:
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a. Condenser: The condenser condenses the vapour coming out of the
fractionating column.
b. Fractionating column containing beads: The glass beads provide a large
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surface area for the vaporisation and condensation of the liquid mixture.
Small glass beads are preferred over large glass beads as they provide
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a large surface area
c. Thermometer: To check if the complete separation of the substances
dr
tem
has occured or no.
--------------------------------------------------------------
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Procedure:
Example:
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If you have to
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separate ethanol
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( Boiling point 780C)

and butanol ( boiling
point 1180C).
w.s
As temperature
ww
increases and till it is

below 780C, ethanol
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and butanol both

evaporate and
condense.
There is a range of temperatures in the fractionating column. The
greatest temperature is lower down while the temperature decreases as you
go up it.
oom
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When temperature reaches 780C, the ethanol starts evaporating and at
this temperature it boils off and passes to the condenser as ethanol
vapour.The ethanol vapour condenses and changes into liquid ethanol. This
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liquid ethanol then gets colled as the distillate.
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The butanol which has evaporated condenses upon reaching the glass beads
and falls back in the flask. Thus it is prevented from reaching the condenser
The temperature stays constant till all the ethanol has evaporated. The
hou
temperature will only begin to rise when all the ethanol has evaporated.
eus
A possible hazard in this experiment is that the alcohols are flammable due
to the heat of the bunsen burner.
dr
tem
--------------------------------------------------------------
Method to check the purity of the liquid obtained:
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We may measure the boiling point of the liquid obtained to check its purity.
--------------------------------------------------------------
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APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS:
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ANSWER:A
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ANSWER:D
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ANSWER:C
Simple distilaltion
Use : Used to separate a dissolved solid ( solute) from a solution.
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Method:
Simple distillation is a method for separating the solvent from a solution. For
.c
example, water can be separated from salt solution by simple distillation. This
method works because water has a much lower boiling point than salt. When
es
the solution is heated, the water evaporates. It is then cooled and condensed
into a separate container. The salt does not evaporate and so it stays behind
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
Every pure substance has its own particular melting point and boiling point.
w
One way to check the purity of the separated liquid is to measure its boiling
w
point. For example, pure water boils at 100°C. If it contains any dissolved
solids, its boiling point will be higher than this.
Application based questions-extended theory-new
om
.c
es
rc
u
MARKING SCHEME: so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
om
.c
es
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
ANSWER:B
m
.s
w
w
w
ANSWER:B
om
ANSWER:B
.c
es
u rc
so
re
ANSWER:B
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
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Identifying gases
1. Identifying hydrogen:
Put a lighted splint at the mouth of a test tube . If hydrogen is present
then it will burn with a squeaky pop sound. This is because hydrogen burns
with the oxygen in the air with a squeaky pop sound.
------------------------------------
2. Identifying oxygen:
Put a glowing splint at the mouth of a test tube . If oxygen is present
then it will burn even much better than before and it will relight. This is
because the test tube filled with oxygen has no nitrogen to dilute it.
------------------------------------
3. Identifying ammonia:
Put a damp red litmus paper at the mouth of a test tube containg the gas to
be tested . If ammonia is present then it will turn the red litmus blue and
give out a sharp pungent smell.
------------------------------------
4. Identifying carbon dioxide gas:
Bubble the gas given out in a reaction into a test tube containing lime water
(which is Ca(OH)2 ). If carbondioxide [CO2 ] is present then it will turn the
lime water cloudy( milky).
Lime water [ Ca(OH)2 ] ; is a colourless base that reacts with
carbondioxide CO2 which is an acidic oxide to form a white solid salt
( precipitate) of calcium carbonate ; CaCO3 .
Reaction: Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) ---> CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
calcium hydroxide carbondioxide calcium carbonate water
------------------------------------
-----------------------------------
5. Identifying chlorine
Put a damp litmus paper or universal indicator paper at the mouth of a
test tube containing the gas to be tested . If chlorine is present then it
will appear as a green gas and turn the litmus red and eventually bleach
it. The universal indicator paper will turn white and give out a sharp
pungent smell will be given out. It is a poisonous gas so it should be
-te-st-ed-i-
n a fume cupboard only.
----------- -------------------
6. Identifying sulfur dioxide gas
Sulfur dioxide gas is a colourless poisonous gas . So it should be tested
in a fume cupboard. When the gas is bubbled through an acidified
solution of purple coloured potassium manganate (Vll) , the solution
turns colourless.
-----------------------------------
Identifying cations
There are two ways of testing for cations:

A. By using sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia solution.
m
B. Flame test
co
A: By using sodium hydroxide or aqueous ammonia solution.
Procedure:
• 1.Put a small amount of solution you want to identify into a test tube.
b.
• 2.Add a few drops of aqueous sodium hydroxide.
• Observe the colour of the precipitate formed.
hu
• Add excess sodium hydroxide and shake the test tube.
• Record whether or not the precipitate dissolves and any colour change.
du
Note :
te
• Sodium hydroxide and ammonia react in a similar way with some of the ions.
However we use these two alkalis to distinguish between the colourless
ar
solutions containing the aluminum and zinc ions.

• If the alkalis are not in excess, the precipitates formed are metal hydroxides.
m
.s
w
w
w
Identifying Cations
Metal cation Result with aqueous NaOH Result with aqueous ammonia
Al3+ White precipitate White precipitate
m
Soluble in excess Insoluble in excess
( Colourless solution)
co
Ca2+ White precipitate om
No precipitate or very slight
white precipitate
b.
Insoluble in excess
( Colourless solution)
hu
Cu2+ Light blue precipitate Light blue precipitate
Insoluble in excess Soluble in excess
(Dark blue solution)
Cr3+ Grey-green precipitate
du Grey-green precipitate
Soluble in excess , green solution Soluble in excess , green
te
solution, partly dissolves on
standing to form a violet
solution
ar
Fe2+ Grey-green precipitate Grey-green precipitate

Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess
m
Fe3+ Reddish brown precipitate Reddish brown precipitate

.s
Insoluble in excess Insoluble in excess

w
Zn2+ White precipitate White precipitate

w
Soluble in excess Soluble in excess

( Colourless solution) ( Colourless solution)
w
---------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------
Test for ammonium ions:
Heat the solution with sodium hydroxide solution. If the solution contains ammonium
ions, then ammonia gas will be given off which will turn damp red litmus paper blue.
m
NH4+ + OH- NH3 + H2O
co
ammonium hydroxide ammonia water
ions ions gas
b.
---------------------------------------------------------------
hu
Flame tests for cations:
A flame test can be used to identify some cations especially those in compounds
containing elements from Group1 and 2. du
Procedure:
• Clean a platinum or a nichrome wire by dipping it in concentrated hydrochloric
acid.
te
• Place a sample of a compound on the end of the wire.
ar
• Hold the wire on the edge of a non-luminous( blue) Bunsen flame.

• Note any change in the colour of the flame.
m
Metal ion Flame colour

Li+
.s
Red/Bright red
Na+ Golden yellow/orange
w
K+ Purple/lilac
Cu2+ Blue-green
w
Ba2+ Apple green

Ca2+ Brick red
w
---------------------------------------------------------------
Test for anions
-
Test for halides:(Cl ,Br-,I-)
Procedure
• Take the solution to be tested.
m
• Take an equal volume of dilute nitric acid.
• Add a few drops of aqueous silver nitrate solution.
• Observe the colour of the precipitate.
co
Note: The ppt obtained are all silver halides
Results:
 Cl- gives a white ppt
 Br- gives a cream ppt
b.
 I- gives a yellow ppt
Identifying carbonate ions
hu
Procedure:
• Add dilute acid to a solution which can either be a solid or a solution.
Result:
If a carbonate is present then we will see effervescence( bubbles of the gas). Lime water test can be used
du
to check for the presence of carbon dioxide gas.
Identifying nitrates
Nitrate ions can be tested by reducing them to ammonia. If ammonia is given off then the compound is likely to
te
be a nitrate.
Procedure:
• Put an aqueous solution of an unknown compound into a test tube.
ar
• Add sodium hydroxide then aluminium foil and warm gently.

Result:
If ammonia is given off it will turn damp red litmus paper blue.
m
Identifying sulfates
Barium chloride solution or barium nitrate solution is used to test for sulfates.
Procedure:
.s
• Add equal volume of dilute hydrochloric acid an d then add an aqueous barium salt.
Result:
 If a white ppt is formed , then the compound is a sulfate.
w
Note: HCl is added so that the carbonate ions are removed. so that they would not interfere with the
results of this test.
w
Identifying sulfites Most

sulfites are insoluble except Gr-2 sulphites and ammonium sulfites.
Procedure:
w

• Add dilute hydrochloric acid and then warm it gently.
• Test the gas that is given off with a paper soaked in acidified potassium manganate (V11)
Result:
 If sulfur dioxide is given off then sulfite is present the paper turns from purple to colourless.
FORMULAE-FUNCTIONALGROUP-AND-TERMINOLOGY
GENERAL FORMULAE OF COMPOUNDS:
Here n refers to the number of carbon atoms.

FUNCTIONAL GROUP: It is an atom or a group of atoms that determine the
chemical properties of a homologous series.
STRUCTURAL FORMULA:
Structural formula is an unambiguous description of the way the atoms in a molecule are
arranged, including CH2=CH2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOCH3
STRUCTURAL ISOMERS:
These are compounds with the same molecular formula, but different
structural formulae.
STRUCTURAL ISOMER OF ALKANE
Example:
The structural isomers of C4H10 [or CH3CH2CH2CH3] is CH3CH(CH3)CH3
The structural isomers of C4H8 are CH3CH2CH=CH2 and CH3CH=CHCH

HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
• A homologous series is a family of similar compounds with similar chemical
properties due to the presence of the same functional group.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES:
• They have the same general formula
• They have the same functional group
• One member differs from the next by a -CH2 unit
• They display a trend in the physical properties
• They share similar chemical properties
SATURATED AND UNSATURATED COMPOUNDS:

NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
ALKANES:
• All alkanes end in -ane.
• All alkanes are saturated.
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
ALKENES:
• All alkenes end in -ene.
• All alkenes have a double bond in their structure
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
m
• All alcohols end in -ol.
co
s.
• An alcohol is an organic compound with a hydroxyl (OH) functional

ce
ur
group.
so
re
• The longest continuous chain of carbon atoms containing the OH group

m
xa
is taken as the parent compound

te
ar
• The chain is numbered from the end nearest the OH group.

m
.s
• The number that indicates the position of the OH group is prefixed to

w
w
the name of the parent hydrocarbon, and the -e ending of the parent
w
alkane is replaced by the suffix -ol.

• If more than one OH group appears in the same molecule, suffixes such
as -diol and -triol are used. In these cases, the -e ending of the parent
alkane is retained.
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS:
• In general, carboxylic acids are named based on the number of

carbons in the longest continuous chain, including the carboxyl
group (-COOH).
• The suffix of this carbon chain is then replaced, as carboxylic
acids always end in "-oic acid
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
NAMING PRODCUTS IN VARIOUS REACTIONS
HALOGENOALKANES:
• Halogenoalkanes are also known as haloalkanes or alkyl halides.
• These compounds have one or more hydrogen atoms in an alkane
replaced by halogen atoms (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or iodine).
EXAMPLE:1
The parent alkane has two carbon
atoms in the longest continuous chain; it is
ethane. An iodo (I) group is attached one of
the carbon atoms of the chain. Hence, the IUPAC name is
iodoethane
EXAMPLE:2
The parent alkane has five

carbon atoms in the longest
continuous chain; it is pentane. A
m
bromo (Br) group is attached to
co
s.
the second carbon atom of the

ce
ur
chain. The IUPAC name is 2-bromopentane.

so
ESTERS:
re
m
EXAMPLE:1
xa
te
 The alkyl group is identified. This is the group always bonded to the single bonded
ar
oxygen atom of the ester functional group [COO}For example, here the alkyl group
m
.s
is ethyl.
w
w
 The acid part is identified by looking at the number of carbon atoms attached to
w
the carbon atom of the

ester functional group. In
this case there are two
carbon atoms attached
and hence the acid is the
propanoic acid. [ In all
there are 3 carbon atoms,
of which one carbon
atom is a part of the ester
functional group and the
other two carbon atoms
are attached to this
carbon atom]. Hence the
ester is ethyl propanoate.
HYDROCARBONS
Definition:
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing only[1] carbon and hydrogen[1m]
Note: You will score a " ZERO" if you do not mention the word: ONLY"
om
.
es
u rc
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
FUELS
Fuels
Definition:
Fuels are substances (mixtures/compounds/elements)that are burnt to
produce (release) energy ( heat).
---------------------------------------------------------------
Fossil fuels
Definition:
Fossil fuels take a long time to form and are made from organic substances
and burn to produce ( release) energy ( heat).
---------------------------------------------------------------
Examples of fossil fuels:
Coal/Coke/peat/petroleum( crude oil), refinery gas(LPG)/
gasoline(petrol), naphtha, kerosene ( paraffin). diesel oil ( gas oil), fuel
oil, natural gas, propane and butane.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Examples of gaseous fossil fuels:
Natural gas (-methane is the main constituent of the natural
gas),propane , butane, petroleum gases , calor gas, refinery gas.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Examples of solid fuels that are not fossil fuels:

Wood , charcoal, animal dung, biomass, uranium and plutonium
---------------------------------------------------------------
Main disadvantages in the widespread use of fossil fuels:
• Fossil fuels will run out ( get depleted) as they are non renewable fuels.
• They cause greenhouse effect/ global warming and climate change.
• They cause acid rain.
• They produce poisonous or toxic gases.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Note: Methane is the main constituent of natural gas
---------------------------------------------------------------
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
• Petroleum contains hydrocarbons that can be separated by fractional
distillation.
• Hydrocarbons are compounds containing hydrogen and carbon only.
• Fractional distillation definition:
Fractional distillation is the separation[1] of hydrocarbons into useful
fractions using the difference in their boiling points[1]
• Fraction: Fraction is the distillate collected in the stated range of
temperature.
Method of fractional distillation:
• Petroleum is heated so that all the hydrocarbons are in the gaseous
form
• The gaseous petroleum is fed into the fractionating column.
• The fractionating column has a range of temperature
The column is hot at the bottom and cooler upwards. The temperature
ranges from 5500C to 500C.
• At the bottom of the fractionating column, only the long chained
hydrocarbons with high boiling points condense.
• Short chained hydrocarbons with low boiling points keep rising up and
come out as refinery gases. These refinery gases are ; methane,
ethane, propane and butane.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Combustion of hydrocarbons:
In sufficient supply of oxygen , all hydrocarbons undergo complete combustion
to produce carbon dioxide and water.
---------------------------------------------------------------
ALKANES
Definition:
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing carbon-carbon single covalent
bonds.Their general formula is C n H 2n+2
-------------------------------------------------------------
Alkanes-Saturated hydrocarbons:
Alkanes are called saturated hydrocarbons because no more atoms can be
added to them.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Alkanes Molecular Formula Structural formula
Methane-1C CH 4 H
m
l
co
s.
H- C - H
ce
ur
l
so
re
H
m
xa
Ethane-2C C2H6 H H
te
ar
l l
m
H- C - C -H
.s
w
w
l l
w
H H
Propane-3C C3H8 H H H
l l l
H- C - C - C - H
l l l
H H H
Butane-4C C 4 H 10 H H H H
l l l l
H- C - C - C - C- H
l l l l
H H H H
1
Pentane-5C C 5 H 12 H H H H H
l l l l l
H- C - C - C - C- C-H
l l l l l
H H H H H
Hexane-6C C 6 H 14 H H H H H H
l l l l l l
H- C - C - C - C- C- C-H
l l l l l l
H H H H H H
Heptane-7C C7H16
m
Octane-8C C 8 H 18 co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
Nonane-9C C 9 H 20
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Decane-10C C 10 H 22
You may try completing the above table:

---------------------------------------------------------------
2
Physical properties of alkanes
• All alkanes are colourless solids, liquids or gases
Alkanes having 1 to 4 carbon atoms in their chains are-gases;
Alkanes having 5 to 17 carbon atoms in their chains are-liquids
Alkanes having 18+ carbon atoms in their chains are- solids.
• The boiling points of the alkanes vary in a regular way.
• The boiling points

of alkanes increases but
the difference between
the boiling points
decreases.
• As the number of
carbon atoms increases,
the boiling points of the
alkanes also increases.
m
co • Such graphs help
s.
ce
to predict the boiling
ur
so
points of other alkanes.

re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
---------------------------------------------------------------
w
w
w
3
REACTIONS OF ALKANES
Alkanes are generally unreactive except that they undergo combustion and substitution by
chlorine
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
Combustion:
m
.s
w
w
Complete combustion Incomplete combustion

w
Definition When alkanes burn in sufficient When alkanes burn in insufficient

supply of oxygen then the supply of oxygen , it is termed as
combustion is called as complete incomplete combustion
combustion
Colour of Alkanes burn with a clear blue
Alkanes burn with a red-orange
flame flame flame
Products The products of complete
The products of incomplete
combustion are carbon dioxide and
combustion are carbon monoxide and
water water or carbon and water
Chemical Example: Example:
equation C 3 H 8 (g)+ 5O 2 (g)--> 2C 3 H 8 (g) +7O 2 (g)-->
3CO 2 (g)+4H 2 O(l) 6CO(g) + 8H 2 O(l)
Or
C 3 H 8 (g)+2O 2 (g)-->3C(s)+ 4H 2 O(l)
C-is called as soot
---------------------------------------------------------------
4
Photochemical reactions/Substitution reactions
Photochemical reaction:
Definition: A photochemical reaction is a reaction whose rate is influenced by
light or it is a reaction which occurs in the presence of light.
->In a substitution reaction one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another

atom or group of atoms
Alkanes do not react with the halogens in the dark. However if we mix an
alkane with a halogen in a sealed tube in bright sunlight, then the green
colour of the chlorine disappears. This is called as a photochemical reacton
because it take place in the presence of ultra violet light. Also, since, a
halogen atom replaces one hydrogen atom each time, this reaction is also
called as a substitution reaction. Also note, the ultraviolet light providing the
activation energy (Ea)
m
Example:
co
s.
ce
CH 4 (g) + Cl 2 (g) ------------> CH 3 Cl(g) + HCl (g)

ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Note: Acidic HCl ( hydrogen chloride) gas that is produced, turns the damp blue
litmus paper red.
---------------------------------------------------------------
ALCOHOLS
Ethanol can be manufactured by:
(a) Fermentation of aqueous glucose at 25–35°C in the presence of yeast
and in the absence of oxygen
The fermentation reaction is the anaerobic respiration of yeast. The above

reaction of manufacture of ethanol continues till about 14% ethanol is made.
If the ethanol concentration gets much higher than this, then the yeast gets
killed. The ethanol obtained through this method is then purified via fractional
distillation
m
co
(b) Catalytic addition of steam to ethene at 300°C and 6000kPa /60 atm in the
s.
ce
presence of an acid catalyst

ur
so
re
Reaction:
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
The advantages and disadvantages of the manufacture of ethanol by:
(a) fermentation
(b) catalytic addition of steam to ethene
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
The combustion of ethanol
USES OF ETHANOL:
(a) a solvent: It is used to make other chemicals such as esters. It is also used
in food flavourings and some cosmetics.
(b) a fuel: It is less polluting than petrol .
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
ADDITION REACTIONS OF ALKENES
DEFINITION: Addition reactions are the reactions in which the reactants combine to
form a single product.
TYPES OF ADDITION REACTIONS OF ALKENES
1. Reaction of alkene with aqueous bromine
2. Reaction of alkene with hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst
3. Reaction of alkene with steam in the presence of an acid catalyst
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Note: Bonding in alkenes contains a carbopn-carbon double bond. Alkenes are unsaturated
hydrocarbons.
ALKENES
The bonding in alkenes includes a double carbon–carbon covalent bond and
that alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
The alkenes and hydrogen can be formed by the cracking of larger alkane
molecules using two methods:
1. a high temperature and
2. a catalyst
Cracking is the breaking of large hydrocarbons into small
more useful hydrocarbons with or without a catalyst.
Cracking
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
Catalytic Non-catalytic
re
m
cracking cracking
xa
te
ar
m
.s
Catalytic cracking Non-catalytic cracking

w
w
It makes use of a catalyst like It does not make use of a catalyst

w
silicon(IV) oxide and aluminium oxide

Temperature is around 400-5000C Temperature around-450-8000C
This type of cracking produces alkanes This type of cracking produces a
alknes , and hydrogen greater percentage of alkenes
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Process: The vapour from the gas-oil fractions is passed through a

catalyst of Silicon (IV) oxide and aluminium oxide (Al2O3). at 400-5000C.
The catalyst is a fine powder which is continuously passed through a
regenerator tank. This is because during the course of the reaction
the catalyst becomes covered with carbon hence becomes less effective.
In the regenerator tank, the catalyst gets freed from the carbon deposits.
---------------------------------------------------------------
Hydrogen can also be produced by cracking ethane.
C 2 H 6 -----------------> C 2 H 4 + H2
Ethane Ethene + Hydrogen
---------------------------------------------------------------
CHEMICAL TEST TO DISTINGUISH AN ALKANE FROM AN ALKENE
Name of the test: Bromine water test

Original colour of Bromine water is orange-brown
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
Bromine water
test
If Bromine water If Bromine water

hu
gets decolourised does not get

then an alkene is decolourised then an
present alkane is present
The above reaction , which is an addition reaction can be taken as an example
of the bromine-water-test-reaction-equation.
m
BOARD EXAM QUESTIONS: co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
O/N/15/P31-Q5b(i)
m
xa
te
Bromine water changes from brown to colourless when added to X.

ar
m
.s
w
What does this tell you about the structure of X?

w
w
....................................................................................................................................... [1]
MARKSCHEME:
unsaturated/C=C double bond/ alkene; [1]
M/J/07/P3-Q7c(ii)
MARKSCHEME:
double bond becomes single and 4 bonds per carbon atom [1]
COND a bromine atom on each carbon [1]
C2H4Br2 ONLY [1]
accept a structural formula with hydrogen atoms
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Reaction of ethanoic acid with:
• Metals
• Bases
• Carbonates
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
FORMATION OF ETHANOIC ACID BY OXIDATION OF ETHANOL
(a) With acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII)
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
(b) By bacterial oxidation during vinegar production

xa
te
ar
m
There are a group of bacteria that cause the wine to go sour. They are called as Acetobacter.
.s
These bacteria are found naturally in the air around us .When we leave a solution of ethanol
w
w
exposed to the air, the enzymes in the bacteria’s body speed up the conversion of ethanol
w
to ethanoic acid. Note that this reaction requires oxygen. This is the reaction that makes
vinegar. Vinegar is the aqueous solution of acetic acid
REACTION OF CARBOXYLIC ACID:
• with an alcohol using an acid catalyst to form an ester
When carboxylic acids react with alcohols, esters are formed. Look at the following
reaction.
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
POLYMERS
DEFINITION:
• POLYMERS: These are large molecules built up from many smaller molecules called
monomers
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ADDITION AND CONDENSATION POLYMER:
m
co
s.
• ADDITION POLYMERISATION:
ce
Example: Poly(ethene) is formed using the monomer ethene as shown below

ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
DEDUCING THE REPEAT UNIT OF ADDITION POLYMERS:
m
co
s.
ce
ur
so
re
CONDENSATION POLYMER:
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
PET can be converted back into monomers and then re-polymerised.
PROTEINS: m
co
s.
Proteins are natural polyamides and are formed of amino acid monomers with the general
ce
structure as shown below:

ur
so
re
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS:
m
xa
Structure of proteins is as shown below:

te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w
PLASTICS
NOTE:
• Plastics are made from polymers.

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS HAVE IMPLICATIONS ON THEIR DISPOSAL:
• NON-BIODEGRADABLE: Plastics are not broken down by the microorganisms

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES CAUSED BY PLASTICS ARE:
• Disposal in landfill sites: The disposal of plastics in the landfill sites causes the
plastic to accumulate. The land that could have been used for agriculture,
housing or other purposes now gets used up for accumulating the waste.
• Accumulation in oceans: When the plastic is disposed off in the oceans, the
marine species might ingest it or the marine creatures might get entangled
by plastic debris, thereby causing severe injuries and deaths in certain cases.
• Formation of toxic gases from burning: Many plastics produce toxic gases
upon burning. For example: PVC’s produce acidic hydrogen chloride. Plastics
containing nitrogen may produce toxic hydrogen cyanide. At high temperatures,
m
co
many plastics produce toxic dioxins.

s.
ce
ur
so
re
m
xa
te
ar
m
.s
w
w
w

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EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

ON THE VOLUME OF A GAS

• Since the temperature is held constant, the kinetic energy of

Increasing the volume of a gas will decrease its pressure. When

molecules collide, they create pressure. When the molecules are

volume causes lesser frequent collisions and hence lesser pressure.

• Alternatively, if the volume of a given mass of a gas is doubled at

constant temperature, same number of molecules will have double space

• Here the volume is directly proportional to the temperature.

maintains the rate of collision and keeps the pressure constant.

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• Between A -B:The temperature of

melting and the boiling points.

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Comparing elements/compounds and mixtures

Element Compound Mixture

Or made up of only one type form a compound together are termed as a

shells or energy levels. so

(+vely charged) are equal to the number of electrons (-vely

• Position of elements in the periodic table is based on their

Subatomic Symbol Relative mass Relative charge

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• Proton number ( Atomic number): It is the number of protons

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Beryllium 2,2 Be2+ so

Boron 2,3 B3+

Carbon 2,4 No ion It has a tendency

Group-4 formation to share electrons

Nitrogen 2,5 N3-

Oxygen 2,6 O2-

Neon 2,8 No ion It has a completely

Group-8 formation filled outer shell

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Phosphorous 2,8,5 P3-

Sulfur 2,8,6 S2-

Argon 2,8,8 No ion It has a completely

Group-8 formation filled outer shell

Calcium 2,8,8,2 Ca2+