Ohms Law 5.

In a resistance, if the loop direction is

the same as the current direction,
Ohm’s law states the relationship
negative resistance voltage drop.
between electric current and potential
difference. The current that flows Maxwells Mesh Equations
through most conductors is directly
This method was first proposed by
proportional to the voltage applied to it.
Maxwell using the voltage law only. The
Georg Simon Ohm, a German physicist
method involves a set of independent
was the first to verify Ohm’s law. V= IR
loop currents assigned to as many
KIRCHHOFFS LAW meshes as exist in the circuit, and these
currents are employed in connection
Kirchhoff's Law was named after the
with appropriate resistances when the
German physicist, Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff voltage law equations are
Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
written. The arbitrarily assumed loop
1. Current Law (KCL)- the algebraic sum currents may or may not exist in the
of the currents at any junction of an various resistors but when determined
electric circuit is zero. will readily yield the desired values by
simple algebraic additions. The
2. Voltage Law (KVL) - the algebraic
scheme offers the advantage that
sum of the emf's and the resistance
fewer equations need to be written to
voltage drops in any closed loop of an
solve a given problem.
electric circuit is zero.
Steps to determine mesh currents
Sign Conventions for Kirchhoff's Laws:
1. Assign mesh currents to the meshes.
1. Current towards the node, positive
A mesh is a loop which does not contain
current.
any other loops within it.
2. Current away from the node,
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes.
negative current.
Use Ohm's law to express the voltages
3. In a voltage source, if the loop enters in terms of the mesh currents.
on minus and goes out on plus, positive
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous
emf.
equations to get the mesh currents.
4. In a voltage source, if loop enters on
Superposition Theorem
plus and goes out on minus, negative
emf. The Superposition Theorem states that
"the voltage across or current through
an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across or
currents through that element due to
each independent source acting
alone". The idea of the theorem lies on
the linearity property. The independent
voltage sources are represented by
their internal resistance if given or
simply with zero resistance, i.e., short
circuits if internal resistances are not
mentioned. The independent current
sources are represented by infinite
resistance, i.e., open circuits. The
dependent sources are not sources but
dissipative components - hence they
are active at all the times. A dependent
source has zero value only when its
control voltage or current is zero. A
linear network is one whose parameters
are constant, i.e., they do not change
with voltage and current.
The three steps to apply the
Superposition Theorem.
1. Turn off all independent sources
except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to the active
source using conventional techniques
like Ohm's Law and voltage and current
division theorems.
2. Repeat step for each of the other
independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding
algebraically all contributions due to
the inde- pendent sources.
Network-defined as the
interconnection of components such as
resistors and batteries forming a
complicated circuit.
Branch (b) - represents a single
element such as a voltage source or a
resistor.
Ground- a point in a circuit as a
reference point. This reference point is
known as Ground (GND) and carries a
voltage of 0V. Voltage measurements
are relative measurements.
Node (n) - the point of connection
between two or more branches. A node
is a point of intersection/connection
within a data communication network.
In an environment where all devices are
accessible through the network, these
devices are all considered nodes. The
individual definition of each node
depends on the type of network it refers
to.
Junction- points where three or more
wires connect. Label each junction with
the currents and directions into and out
of it. Make sure at least one current
points into the junction and at least one
current points out of the junction.
Loop (l) - any closed path in a circuit.
Mesh - a loop which does not contain
any other loops within it.
Characteristic of Real Current Source Characteristic of Real Voltage Source

a real current source has a limited a real voltage source has a limited
range of output current and may vary range of output voltage and Real-
with changes in the load or world sources of electrical energy, such
temperature. as batteries and generators, can be
modeled for analysis purposes as a
Characteristic of Ideal Current Source
combination of an ideal voltage source
An ideal current source is a component and additional combinations
that generates a constant current that of impedance elements.
remains unchanged regardless of the
Characteristic of Ideal Voltage Source
load connected to it. This means that
an ideal current source will provide a an ideal voltage source produces a
consistent current output even if the fixed voltage output that does not vary
load resistance changes. An ideal with changes in the current flowing
current source is an idealized concept through the circuit.
that does not exist in reality but serves
An ideal voltage source is a two-
as a fundamental building block for
terminal device that maintains a
many electronic circuits.
fixed voltage drop across its terminals.
An ideal current source is primarily used It is often used as a mathematical
in circuits where a constant current abstraction that simplifies the analysis
output is required, regardless of the of real electric circuits. If the voltage
load resistance. This includes across an ideal voltage source can be
applications such as LED drivers, specified independently of any other
battery chargers, and motor controllers, variable in a circuit, it is called
among others. an independent voltage source.

an ideal current source can be used to Conversely, if the voltage across an

power multiple loads in parallel, and ideal voltage source is determined by
each load will receive the same some other voltage or current in a
constant current output. However, care circuit, it is called
must be taken to ensure that the total a dependent or controlled voltage
current output of the current source is source. A mathematical model of an
sufficient to power all the loads amplifier will include dependent
simultaneously. voltage sources whose magnitude is
governed by some fixed relation to an
input signal, for example.[2] In the
analysis of faults on electrical power
systems, the whole network
interconnected sources
transmission lines can be usefully
replaced by an ideal (AC) voltage
source and a single equivalent
impedance.
The internal resistance of an
voltage source is zero; it is able to
supply or absorb any amount of
current. The current through an ideal
voltage source is completely
determined by the external circuit.
When connected to an open circuit,
there is zero current and thus zero
power. When connected to a load
resistance, the current through the
source approaches infinity as the load
resistance approaches zero (a short
circuit). Thus, an ideal voltage source
can supply unlimited power.
Note: The primary limitation of using
ideal current and voltage sources in
real-world circuits is that they are
idealized concepts that do not exist in
reality. Real sources have limitations
such as finite output current and
voltage range, internal resistance, and
noise that can affect
performance. Additionally, the cost of
implementing ideal sources in real
circuits may be prohibitive,
compromises may need to be made to
achieve the desired performance.
Voltage Divider
of
A voltage divider is a fundamental
and
circuit in the field of electronics which
can produce a portion of its input
voltage as an output. It is formed using
two resistors (or any passive
components) and a voltage source.
The resistors are connected in series
ideal
here and the voltage is given across
these two resistors.
This circuit is also termed as a potential
divider.
The input voltage is distributed among
the resistors (components) of the
voltage divider circuit. As a result, the
voltage division takes place. If you’re
looking for help on the calculation for
voltage division, you can use our
voltage divider calculator.
Current Divider
A current divider is defined as a linear
circuit that produces an output current
that is a fraction of its input current. This
is achieved through the connection of
two or more circuit elements connected
in parallel, the current in each branch
will always divide in such a way that the
total energy expended in a circuit is
minimum.
circuit In other words, in a parallel circuit, the
supply current splits into a number of
parallel paths. It is also known as the
and “current divider rule” or “current divider
law”.
A parallel circuit is often called current
divider in which terminals of all the
components are connected in such a
way that they share the same two end externally disconnected, which is
nodes. These result in different parallel equivalent to a resistance R=∞ . This
paths and branches for the current to means that zero current can flow
flow through it. between the two terminals, regardless
of any voltage difference. (Note that
Voltage Selector
very high voltages can cause arcs of
A voltage selector provides a means to current to flow even over large air or
select the internal circuit that will match vacuum gaps!)
the incoming voltage level (either 110 or
Circuit (Active & Passive)
230V). For companies that design
equipment for both domestic and Active circuits are circuits with energy
overseas markets, this allows them to supplying components in them,
whereas passive circuits can only
design the internal wiring for specific
consume (or preserve) energy.
voltages for different markets, when the
equipment is not capable of accepting Common examples of active
a wide range of voltages (e.g. 90V to components include:
264V).
• Voltage sources
With the voltage selector switch, the • Current sources
end user can tell the equipment which • Generators (such as
wiring system to use based on where alternators and DC
the switch is set. The switch directs the generators)
current to the correct components to • All different types of
handle the voltage required. transistors (such as
bipolar junction
Short Circuit transistors, MOSFETS,
A short circuit implies that the two FETs, and JFET)
• Diodes (such as Zener
terminals are externally connected with
diodes, photodiodes,
resistance R=0 , the same as an ideal
Schottky diodes, and
wire. This means there is zero voltage
LEDs)
difference for any current value. (Note
Components incapable of controlling
that real wires have non-zero current by means of another electrical
resistance!) signal are called passive devices.

Open Circuit
As the name ‘passive’ suggests –
An open circuit implies that the two passive devices do not provide gain or
terminals are points are amplification. Passive components
cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate
an electrical signal.

Common examples of passive

components include:

• Resistors
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Transformers

Resistive Network

is an interconnection of resistors,
arranged in a particular pattern,
designed to perform a specific function
within an electronic circuit. These
networks are fundamental building
blocks in electronic devices and are
used to control voltages and currents.

They are used in the design of voltage

dividers, where they divide the input
voltage into smaller voltages.
They also play a crucial role in creating
RC (Resistor-Capacitor) circuits, used
in filters and timers.
Moreover, in analog electronics, these
networks are used in biasing circuits,
feedback networks, and impedance
matching.