CALCULUS

SCE4103/SEV4103/SBS4111
Chapter 3
DERIVATIVES

1
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Measuring Change
1.1 Average Rate of Change
1.2 Geometric Interpretation of Average Rate of Change
1.3 Shrinking the Interval

2. Limits
2.1 Introduction to Limits
2.2 Evaluating Limits
2.3 Continuity
2.4 One-Sided Limits

2
.1 1.1 Measuring Change

3
 Measuring Change

One of the major themes of calculus is analyzing how quantities change; most importantly, we
are interested in the rates at which quantities change.

4
 Average Rate of Change
❖Suppose 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, in which case we can write 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥). If 𝑥 changes from 𝑥1 to
𝑥2, then the change in 𝒙 (also called the increment of 𝑥) is 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙𝟏 and the
corresponding change in 𝒚 is 𝒚 = 𝒇 (𝒙𝟐) – 𝒇 (𝒙𝟏)

❖We then compute the ratio of change in output to change in input.

The average rate of change of 𝒚 with respect to 𝒙 over the interval

𝑥1 , 𝑥2 is the difference quotient
∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥2 − 𝑓 𝑥1
=
∆𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥1

❖The units of the average rate of change are always output units per input unit. 5
 Average Rate of Change
Example: Finding an Average Rate of Change of a Function
Compute the average rate of change of the function 𝑔 (𝑡) = 4𝑡2 – 3𝑡 over the interval [2, 5].
Solution:
We have 𝑔 (2) = 10 and 𝑔(5) = 85, so the average rate of change is

∆𝑔 𝑔 𝑡2 − 𝑔 𝑡1
=
∆𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝑔 5 −𝑔 2
=
5−2

85 − 10
= = 25
5−2 6
 Geometric Interpretation of Average Rate of
Change
Let’s consider the graph of a function 𝑓. A secant line is a line passing through two points on a
curve.
Figure 1 shows the secant line through the points (𝑥1, 𝑓(𝑥1)) and (𝑥2, 𝑓(𝑥2)).
𝑦
𝑄 𝑥2 , 𝑓 𝑥2

𝑃 𝑥1 , 𝑓 𝑥1 ∆𝑦

∆𝑥
0 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥

Figure 1 average rate of change = slope of secant line through 𝑃, 𝑄

7
 Geometric Interpretation of Average Rate of
Change

The slope of this line is

∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥2 − 𝑓 𝑥1
=
∆𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1

The average rate of change of a function 𝑓 over the interval 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 is the slope
of the secant line through the points 𝑥1 , 𝑓 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 , 𝑓 𝑥2

which is precisely the average rate of change on the interval [𝑥1, 𝑥2].

8
 Geometric Interpretation of Average Rate of Change
Example: Estimating an Average Rate of Change from a Graph

The graph in Figure 2 shows an example of how driving speed affects gas mileage, as
published by the US Department of Energy.

30

Fuel economy 20
(mi/gal) 10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed (mi/h)

Figure 2
Estimate the average rate of change of fuel economy when driving speed increases from 45
mi/h to 70 mi/h. 9
 Geometric Interpretation of Average Rate of Change
Solution
We mark points on the graph corresponding to speeds of 45 mi/h and 70 mi/h.
The average rate of change is the slope of the secant line through these points. (See Figure 3.)

∆𝑦 = −5
∆𝑦 𝑓 𝑥2 −𝑓 𝑥1 −5
30 ❖The slope is = = = – 0.2
Fuel ∆𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1 25
economy 20
(mi/gal) ∆𝑥 = 25
10 ❖The units are mi/gal per mi/h, and because
the slope is negative, we know that the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed output is decreasing (as the input increases).
(mi/h) ❖Thus the fuel economy decreases at an
average rate of 0.2 mi/gal for each mi/h
Figure 3 increase in driving speed between 45 and 70
mi/h. 10
 Shrinking the Interval

❖The average rate of change can be computed over any finite interval, large or small.
However, smaller intervals give a better idea of how a quantity is changing near a particular
input value.

❖In the next example, we look at the distance where a dropped ball has fallen after 𝑡 seconds.

❖By comparing average rates of change as the time interval shrinks, we can predict the exact
speed at which the ball is traveling at a particular moment in time.

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 Shrinking the Interval
Example : Estimating a Speed at One Moment in Time
Suppose that a ball is dropped from the upper observation deck of the CN Tower in Toronto,
450 m above the ground. Estimate the speed of the ball after 5 seconds.

Solution:

Through experiments carried out four centuries ago, Galileo discovered that the distance
fallen by any freely falling body is proportional to the square of the time it has been falling.

(This model for free fall neglects air resistance.)

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 Shrinking the Interval cont’d

Solution (cont.)

If the distance fallen after 𝑡 seconds is denoted by 𝑠 (𝑡) and measured in meters, then Galileo’s
law is expressed by the equation
𝑠(𝑡) = 4.9𝑡2

If we compute an average rate of change, we are finding an average speed (the units are
meters per second).

The difficulty in finding the speed at precisely 5 seconds is that we are dealing with a single
instant of time (𝑡 = 5), so no time interval is involved.

13
 Shrinking the Interval
cont’d
Solution (cont.)
However, we can approximate the desired speed by computing the average speed over the
brief time interval of a tenth of a second from 𝑡 = 5 to 𝑡 = 5.1:

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 Shrinking the Interval
cont’d
Solution (cont.)
We could make our approximation more accurate by looking at even smaller time intervals.
The following table shows the results of similar calculations of the average rate of change over
successively smaller time periods.

Time interval Average speed (m/s)

5≤𝑡≤6 53.9
5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.1 49.49
5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.05 49.245
5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.01 49.049
5 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5.001 49.0049

It appears that as we shorten the time period, the average speed is becoming closer to 49 m/s.
It would be reasonable to say that the speed of the ball after 5 seconds is 49 m/s. 15
 Shrinking the Interval
❖We estimated that the speed of the falling ball was 49 m/s because the average speeds
appeared to be approaching 49 m/s as we shortened the time interval. But how do we know
49 is the correct value?

❖We could continue to shrink the time interval smaller and smaller, but this is a never-ending
process.

❖If there is in fact a value that the average speeds are approaching as the time interval
shrinks, it is called the limit of the average speeds.

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 Introduction to Limits
❖Consider the function 𝑓 defined by
𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 −1
❖If we use inputs that are closer and closer to the value 1, do the outputs approach any
particular value?
❖Note that we are not asking about the output of the function at 𝑥 = 1, just near 𝑥 = 1. (In
fact, this function is not defined at 𝑥 = 1.)
❖The following table gives values of 𝑓(𝑥) for values of 𝑥 close to 1.

𝑥 𝒇(𝑥) 𝑥 𝒇(𝑥) 𝑥 𝒇(𝑥) 𝑥 𝒇(𝑥)

0.8 0.55556 0.99 0.50251 1.1 0.47619 1.005 0.49875

0.9 0.52632 0.995 0.50125 1.05 0.47619 1.001 0.49975
0.95 0.51282 0.999 0.50025 1.02 0.4878
0.98 0.50251 1.2 0.45455 1.01 0.49505 17
 Introduction to Limits

❖Regardless whether we start with values of 𝑥 smaller than 1 or larger than 1, it appears
that the values of 𝑓(𝑥) are getting closer and closer to the number 0.5 as 𝑥 gets closer and
closer to 1.

𝒙–𝟏
❖We express this by saying “the limit of the function 𝒇 𝒙 = as 𝒙 approaches 1 is
𝒙𝟐 – 𝟏
0.5” and we write

𝒙−𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝒙→𝟏 𝒙 − 𝟏

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 Introduction to Limits

Definition
We write
𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇 𝒙 = 𝑳
𝒙→𝒂

And say “ the limit of 𝒇(𝒙), as 𝒙 approaches 𝒂, equals 𝑳” if the values of 𝑓(𝑥) approach 𝐿
as the values of 𝑥 approach 𝑎 (but are not equal to a)

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 Introduction to Limits
Example: Estimating a Limit of a Function
3+𝑟 2 −9
Estimate the value of lim
𝑟→0 𝑟
Solution:
The tables list values of the function for several values of r near 0.

𝒓 𝟑+𝒓 𝟐−𝟗 𝒓 𝟑+𝒓 𝟐−𝟗

𝒓 𝒓
0.2 6.2 −0.2 5.8 Both tables suggest that as 𝑟
approaches 0, the output
0.1 6.1 −0.1 5.9 values approach 6. So we
0.001 6.01 -0.001 5.99 make the guess that
3+𝑟 2−9
0.001 6.001 -0.001 5.999 lim =6
𝑟→0 𝑟
0.0001 6.0001 −0.0001 5.9999 20
 Evaluating Limits
The following properties of limits, called the Limit Laws, will enable us to evaluate many limits
with certainty.
Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim 𝑔(𝑥) exist. Then
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

1. lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 + lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 − lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

3. lim 𝑐𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑐 lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

4. lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑓 𝑥 . lim 𝑔 𝑥

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

𝑓 𝑥 lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
5. lim = if lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
21
 Evaluating Limits
These five laws can be stated verbally as follows:

Sum Law 1.The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.

Difference Law 2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.

Constant Multiple Law 3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the
limit of the function.
Product Law 4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits.
Quotient Law 5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided
that the limit of the denominator is not 0).
22
 Evaluating Limits

In addition, if we use the Product Law repeatedly, we obtain the following law.

Power Law
𝒏
𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒏 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒇(𝒙) when 𝒏 is a positive integer
𝒙→𝒂 𝒙→𝒂

23
 Evaluating Limits
cont’d
Given the functions 𝑓 𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) suppose we have,

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = ∞ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝐿 , for some numbers 𝑐 and 𝐿. Then,

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

1. lim 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→𝑐

2. If 𝐿 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = ∞

𝑥→𝑐

3. If 𝐿 < 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim 𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = − ∞

𝑥→𝑐

𝑔 𝑥
4. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑐

24
 Evaluating Limits
Example: Using the Limit Laws to Evaluate a Limit
Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥2 – 3𝑥 + 4
𝑥→5
Solution
Let’s first look at the limit of each term of 𝑓 individually.

❖The last term is a constant, and 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4 = 4 because as the inputs approach 5, the outputs
𝑥→5
are always 4 (and so they approach 4).

❖The middle term is a product of the constant 3 and 𝑥. We have 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 = 5 because the
𝑥→5
output is the same as the input, so if 𝑥 approaches 5, the output also approaches 5.

Limit Law 3 says that the limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of
the function, so
𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 = 3 × 5 = 15 25
𝑥→5
 Evaluating Limits
cont’d
Solution (cont.)
The first term of 𝑓 is the product of 2 and 𝑥2. From Limit Law 6 we know that

2
2
𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = 52 = 25
𝑥→5 𝑥→5

and then, from Law 3,

𝑙𝑖𝑚2𝑥 2 = 2 × 25 = 50
𝑥→5

Finally, using Limit Laws 1 and 2 we have

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥2 – 𝑙𝑖𝑚 3𝑥 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚4

𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5 𝑥→5

= 50 − 15 + 4

= 39 26
 Continuity
When the value of a function at 𝑥 = 𝑎 is the same as the limit when 𝑥 approaches 𝑎, the
function is called continuous at 𝒂.

Defintion
A function 𝑓 is continuous at a number 𝑎 if
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑥→𝑎

A function is called continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every value in the interval.

27
 Continuity
❖Geometrically, you can think of a function that is continuous on an interval as a function
whose graph has no break in it (on the interval).

❖The graph can be drawn without removing your pen from the paper.

The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their domains:

Linear function polynomials rational functions

power function Root functions
Exponential functions logarithmic functions

❖When we know a function is continuous, we can evaluate its limit using direct substitution:
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑎) 28
𝑥→𝑎
 Continuity
Example: Using Continuity to Evaluate a Limit
Let 𝑓 be the function defined by
𝑥−1
𝑓 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 −1
a) State the domain of 𝑓.
b) Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→4
c) Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1
Solution:
a) The domain of 𝑓 consists of all values except those that result in division by 0. This occurs
when
𝑥2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±1
Thus the domain is all real numbers except 1 and –1.
29
 Continuity
Solution (cont.)
b) The function 𝑓 is a rational function, so it is continuous on its domain.

The number 4 is in the domain of 𝑓, so we know 𝑓 is continuous there and we are justified in
computing the limit by direct substitution:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓(4)
𝑥→4
4−1 1
= =
4 2 −1 5
c) Because 1 is not in the domain of 𝑓 [𝑓(1) is not defined], we can’t use direct substitution
to evaluate the limit. Instead, we need to do some preliminary algebra.
First we factor the denominator as a difference of squares:
𝑥−1 𝑥−1 𝟐 𝟐
2
= 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂+𝒃 𝒂−𝒃
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
30
 Continuity
cont’d
Solution (cont.)
The numerator and denominator have a common factor of 𝑥– 1. We can cancel the common
factor as long as it is not equal to 0.

When we take the limit as 𝑥 approaches 1, however, we do not consider 𝑥 = 1 itself. Thus
𝑥  1 and 𝑥 −1  0 , so the limit becomes

𝑥−1 𝑥−1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→1 𝑥 − 1 𝑥→1 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1
1
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→1 𝑥+1
We are left with a simplified function, and because 1(𝑥 + 1) is continuous at 𝑥 = 1 (it is a
rational function and 1 is in its domain), we can evaluate the limit by direct substitution:
31
 Continuity
cont’d

Solution (cont.)

1 1 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =
𝑥→1 𝑥 + 1 1+1 2

Thus

1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓 𝑥 =
2
.
𝑥→1

32
 Continuity
Example 5: Rationalizing a Numerator

𝑡 2 +9 −3
Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑡→0 𝑡2

Solution:
Here 0 is not in the domain of the function, so we can’t evaluate the limit by direct substitution.

To rewrite the function in a different form, we rationalize the numerator.

This procedure results in a fraction without a root in the numerator.

33
 Continuity
𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 =
cont’d
𝒂+𝒃 𝒂−𝒃
Solution (Cont.)

We are able to cancel the 𝑡2 in the numerator and denominator because we assume
𝑡  0 when computing the limit as 𝑡 → 0.
34
 Continuity
cont’d

Solution (Cont.)
The resulting function is continuous at 0 (0 is in its domain), so we evaluate the limit by direct
substitution:

35
 Continuity
Example: A Limit that Does Not Exist
1
Find 𝑙𝑖𝑚 if it exists.
𝑥→0 𝑥 2

Solution:
As 𝑥 becomes close to 0, 𝑥2 also becomes close to 0, 𝒙 𝟏
𝒙𝟐
and 1 𝑥2 becomes very large.
±1 1
±0.5 4
±0.2 25
±0.1 100
±0.05 400
±0.01 10,000
±0.001 1,000,000 36
 Continuity
cont’d

Solution:
1
In fact, it appears from the graph of the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 shown in Figure 3 that as 𝑥
𝑥
approaches 0, the values of 𝑓(𝑥) get larger and larger.
𝑦

1
𝑦= 2
𝑥

0 𝑥
Figure 3
1
Thus the values of 𝑓(𝑥) do not approach a number, so 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 does not exist.
𝑥→0 𝑥

37
 One-Sided Limits
Sometimes we need to consider the limit of 𝑓 (𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches a number 𝑎 from the right
or from the left. The right-hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 is written

𝑙𝑖𝑚+ 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎

The symbol “𝑥 → 𝑎+ ” means that we consider only values of 𝑥 that are larger than 𝑎. On a
graph, we approach the value 𝑎 from the right.

Similarly, the symbol “𝑥 → 𝑎− ” indicates a left-hand limit and it means that we consider only
values of 𝑥 that are smaller than 𝑎; on a graph, we approach 𝑎 from the left.

38
 One-Sided Limits
Example: Finding One-Sided Limits
The Heaviside function H is defined by

0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
𝐻 𝑡 =ቊ
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≥ 0
[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850 –1925) and can be
used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time t = 0.]
y
Its graph is shown in Figure 4.

0 t

Figure 4 The Heaviside function 39

 One-Sided Limits cont’d

Solution

❖As t approaches 0 from the left, H (t) approaches 0, so

lim− 𝐻(𝑡) = 0
𝑡→0

❖As t approaches 0 from the right, H (t) approaches 1. Thus

lim+ 𝐻(𝑡) = 1
𝑡→0

40
 One-Sided Limits
Notice in the Example that there is a jump in the graph at 𝑡 = 0. The function is not
continuous at 0, and there is no single number that 𝐻(𝑡) approaches as t approaches 0.

Therefore, although the one-sided limits exist as t approaches 0, lim 𝐻(𝑡) does not exist.
𝑡→0
In general, if the one-sided limits do not agree, then the limit does not exist:

lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if and only if lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿

𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎

41