TRUTH 78 TR U TH

t hr oughout t he society s existen ce alt hough i ts scope ’

,
t rib ut i onof li terature t o the in mates of W orkhouses
h as from t i me t o t im e been enlarged as necessity has and hosp i tals part of i ts work ; t he Catholi c Soci al
d i ctated F rom t hem i t wi ll b e seen that the aim of the
. G uild took i t s r i se in conn exi on w it h on e of the
society is not controversial as is someti mes supposed , . soc iety s conf eren ces ; and the Catholi c N ee d lewor k
’

The p osi ti on of Catholics in E ngland i s such that con G ui ld was i ni ti ated by one of i ts secretaries The .

tr over sy is unavoidable and a certain proport ion of ,

reali z ation of its i mportan ce is a lready growing an d
“

t he society s p ub li cat ions have been devoted t o the

’
t he society i s doing e ffecti ve work for t he Catholi c
Church in E ngland
‘
consi derat ion of t he A ng li can claims and to the e x p o .

sure of the fi cti ons assid uously promoted by t he less J AM E S B R I TTE N .

I RE L A N D —The Catho li c Truth Society of

i ntelligen t and b igoted class of Protestants B ut the .

c h ief ai m of the society has been t he in str uct ion of ‘

IN .

Catholics b y placing in t he ir hands , at n om inal prices ,

Irelan d was organi z ed at the m eet in g of the M ay
educational and devot ion al works The sale of some . n ooth Uni on i n 1 89 9 wi th t he stated p urpose of ,

of t hese has been p henomen al : t he “ S imp le Prayer

'

di ffusin g “ b y m eans of cheap p ubli cat ions sound

”
b ook for examp le has reached a c i r culation of
, ,
Catholi c li teratur e i n pop ular form so as to g ive i h
th e l ittle penny books of daily m ed itat ion structi on and edi fi cati on i n a manner most li kely to
have reached an d nearl y p enn y i nterest and attract t he general reader ” an d wh i ch ,

cop ies of the G ospels have been sold A n account of '

. would “ create a t aste for a p ur e and wholesome lit
the literary outp ut of t h e soei ety can b e ascertai ned e r a tur e and wi ll a lso serve as an antidote again st
,

from th e list of p ub li cation s to b e obt ained fr om t he ,

the p oison of dangerous or im moral wri t in gs ” The .

depot 69 Sout h wark Bridge Road London SE

, , ,
. society has received the earnest and practical supp ort
Almost every subj ect of i mportance to Catholi cs is of t he hierarchy an d laity of Ireland and has devoted ,
’
taken up i n one or other of t he soc iety s works ; an d its pub li cati ons to sound n ational h istorical an d , ,

the number is in creasing every m ont h Alr eady there . b iograp hical as well as reli gi ous subj ects in order to
,

is an e x tensive list of book s and pamphlets d ir ected to o ffset t h e dem ora li z ati on of the output of the sensa
meet and answer rationali st obj ect ion s ; am on g t hem t i on a l press I n t he fir st ten years of i ts exi sten ce
.

may be m ent ioned a series of p enn y l ives of Catholi c 4 24 penny p ub li cat ions wi t h a c irculati on of over ,

men of scien ce an d th ir ty ni n e p apers deali ng wi th five m i l li o n cop ies were issued It has also printed
a pray er—
-
.
, ,
“
The H istory of Religi ons ” ; of t hese last an a ggr e book an d other work s i n Gaeli c The
“

gate of about cop ies have been issued For . annual con feren ces have brought toget her dist i n
younger Catho li cs a la rge number of tales dealing , g ui sh ed gatherings and t h e a d d 1 esse s made and ,

wi th t h e sacrament s and other religious subj ects has ,

papers read at these meetin gs printed i n The ,

been provided at t he lowest possible pri ce . Cat h o li c Trut h A nn ual ” mak e a valuab le comp i la ,

The soci ety is m ain ly supp orted by subscrip tions , t ion in t he i nterest of t h e obj ect for whi ch the society
ten shil li ngs per ann um ent itling t o members h ip ,
was started The soc iety has its mai n offi ce i n Dub
.

whi le ten pounds is a li fe sub scr ipt ion W i thout

I N A U STR A L I A —The A ustrali an Catho li c Trut h
. li n and h as over 800 members .

t hese the work could not be carr ied on as alt hough the , ,
.

offi ce r s h ave always taken t heir p art grat ui tously the ,

Soci ety was star ted in 1 9 04 an d has its head quarters ,

necessary e x penses of ren t pr int i ng and stori ng could , , i n M e lbo urne I ts offi cer s have been active i n t he
.

n ot be defrayed out of the often i n fin i te si ma l p r ofits di ssem inati on of sound Catho li c li terat ure and in
accruin g from the sale of p ubli cat ions From the . t he spreading of p ubli cati on s that were an ant idot e
first t here has been the heart iest co operation between -
t o works subversive of faith and m orals On 1 .

c lergy and laity i n every bran ch of the soci ety s work ; ’

N ov 1 9 1 0 the society had 4 23 annual and 1 64 li fe
, ,

and th e d i fficulti es often ar is i n g from p ol it i cal d i ff er members d ist 1 ibut ed over the Commonwealt h an d
e n ce s have never i n any way in terfered wi th t he N e w Zealand a n d had p ubli shed 67 9 37 5 pampblets
Of i ts prayer —
, .

work of t he soci ety The society has the cordial . book 4 2 0 1 6 cop 1 es were sold In 1 9 1 0, .

approval and sup port of the hi gh est ecclesiast i cal i t sent the Rev Dr Cleary on a mission aroun d the .

aut h orit ies and 1 s i nd ulgen ced by t he H oly

, y See The . world t o estab li sh a chai n of agents for an i n ternat ional
movemen t has Spread to Ireland Scot la n d the Un ited n ews servi ce
I N TH E U N I TE D S TA TE S —The Internati on al Cath
,
.

States , and Australi a I n add ition t o i ts li terary . .

work for seventeen years t he soc iety held an ann ual

,
oli c Tr uth Soci ety was i n co1 p or a t e d i n N ew Y ork on
Catholi c conferen ce wh i ch formed an i mp or tant , 2 4 Apr i l 1 9 00 the part i cular obj ec ts for whi ch it was
, ,

even t in E nglish Cath oli c li fe These gat h erings

. .
,
formed being : to answer in qu i r i es of persons seek in g
always largely attended by represen tat i ve clergy and in formation con cern i ng t h e d octrines of the Cat h oli c
laity were t he occasion of imp ortan t pronoun cements
,
Ch ur ch ; to supp l y Cat ho li c lit erature gratis to Cath
b y the archb ishop or b y other b ish ops and a fi or d e d an , o li cs and n on Catholi cs who make req uest for the
-

opp ortuni ty for the elucidati on an d d iscussion of sa me ; t o correct erroneous and m i sleading st ate
'

matters a ffect in g t he work and we lfare of t he Church men ts in referen ce t o Catholi c d octrine and morals ;
i n E n g land T heir success p aved t he way for a
. t o refute calumnies again st t h e Catholi c reli gion ; to
developmen t b y wh i c h from 1 9 1 0 the soc i et y ’ s con , ,
sec ur e the p ub li cat ion of art icles promot in g a kn owl
feren ce has been merged i n t he N at ional Catholi c edge of Catholi c aff airs ; t o s t i mulate a desire for
Congress The i mportant work of prov id ing reading
.

hi g her education among the Cat h o li c laity by prin t ,

for b lind Catholi cs has been taken up by the soc i ety , i n g and distributin g li sts of Cat h oli c books and other ,

wh ich has established a circulat ing l ibrary of books of wise to en cou1 a ge t he c i rculat ion and read in g of
instru cti on devotion and ficti on prin ted i n Braille
, , , standard Catholi c li terature ; to generall y assist in
type . I t has a lso prov ided a n umber of lect ures on t he dissem in at i on of Catho li c trut h ; ari d to perform
m atters connected w ith history and art i llustrated by ,
other educat ion al and m issionary work The te rri .

su i t ab le lan tern sli des A Special com m it tee was . t ory in whi ch its operat ions are prin cipall y conducted
formed i n 1 89 1 to work for th e spi rit ual welfare of i s i n the Un i ted States of Ameri ca and in Canada .

Catholi c seam en of a ll classes t hrough the i n str u , The o th ee of the society i s in Brook lyn the bishop ,

men tali ty of whi ch Catho li c seamen s cl ubs and homes ’

of whi ch d iocese is its honor ar y p residen t an d the ,

were opened The soc iety has also been the starting Rev W N M cGi nn i s S I D its president
‘
. . .
,
. . . . .

p oin t for other organ i z at ions w h ich n ow have an

—
i nd e p enden t e x i sten ce e g t h e Catholi c G uardian s . .
’
A ccordin g to the annual 1 epo 1 t f o1 the year from
M arch 1 9 1 0 t o M arch 1 9 1 1 th e soc iety h ad 1 005
, , , ,

A ssociat ion wh i ch has become a cen tre of usefulness

, members 61 8 subscribe 1 s and 1 1 8 a ffi li a t e d societ ies
, ,
.

throughout the country is t h e ult imate development , I t had d 1 st1 1 b ut e d during the yea1 pamphlets .

of a local bran ch of the societ y whi ch made t he d is , A part of i ts work found to be of spec ial b en e fit i s
 TUA M 80 TUA M

or canals The country e ast of these lak es is a great

. have the n ames of some twelve ch urches wh ich he es
“

undulating p lain , mostly of arable land interspersed t a blis h e d i n th is distri ct ; it is expressly stated that he
p laced bis hops over several of these ch ur ches—a t
,

here and there w ith bogs an d smaller la kes The .

'

count ry west of the g reat lakes is of entirely difi er e n t Ce lla Sen es near B a llyha uni s ; at Ki lbe nin where he ,

c haracter I t is nearly all rugged and heathery , wi th

. placed St Ben i gn us at D on a g h p at r i ek wh ic h he gave
.
,

ranges of h i lls rising steep ly fro m the lakes esp ec ially , to B ishop Fe la r t us ; at Aghagower where h e p laced ,

from the shores of Lough M ask on one side and from St Sc h ach whom h e called “ A g nus Dei ” on accoun t

—
,
.
,

the shores of the Atlant ic O cean on the o ther form ing , of his meekness H is soj our n for forty days on t he
.

many lofty peaks with lon g d rawn valleys where the summ it of Croa gh p a tr i ck has been described in the
streams rush ing down widen into deep and fish ful article C R O A GH P A TR I CK Dur i ng the subsequen t .

lakes wh ic h especia lly in Conn emara attract fish er

, , , centuries the successors of P atri ck often visited the
m en from all p arts of the Un ited K ingdom The .
P atrician churches i n Conn ach t an d received both
pop ula t ion of this h om age an d tribute from t he c lergy an d the p eop le .

rugged lakelan d is They claimed a speci al j ur isdict ion over the twelve or
sp arse and p oor , fourteen Patrici an ch urches in Tuam even over t he ,
but the scenery oratory on the summ i t of the holy mo un ta i n Later .

very p ict uresque , t hes e claims became e x orbi tan t an d were resisted by
esp ecially towards the archbis h ops of Tuam especially after the Syn od ,

the west where , of K e lls an d the con troversy was carr ied t o
the bays of the Rome an d fin a lly dec ided in their favo ur The pri .

o c e a n p enetrate mates however were allowed t he ren ts of certain

, ,

far in between the ch urch lands in Tuam , but these claims they after
m ounta i ns as at , wards remi tted in exchange for lan ds in t he n orth of
the beaut iful K il Ireland .

lary Bay This . The Ar chdi ocese of Tuam n ow comprises the terri
western coast is tories of five of those anc ient dioceses wh ich at di fi e r
bordered by many en t periods were un ited to t he original Di oces e of
w i n d s w e p t isl -
Tu a m This original diocese wh ich may be taken as
.
,

an ds a ff ording a , correspon d ing roughly w it h the modern deane r y of

precarious suste Tuam compr ised the an c ient territo ry kn own as the
,

nance to the inbah C on ma i e ne of D unm ore an d also the C i arr a i gi of ,

i t a n ts O i these . Loch n a n A i r n e a dh as well as a p ort ion of CO T

-
,
?

the c hief are the ca mog h a an d t he S e dan territo r y W hen the O Con or
’
.

Isles of A ran i n k in gs of the twelfth centu r y came to be the chief r ulers

G alway B ay and , of Connacht an d for a t ime of a ll Irelan d they r e
, ,

N E W C A TH O LI C C A TH E DR A L TU A M farther 0 3 on the , » sided mostly at Tuam an d sough t to con trol the

north western -
sp i r i tual as they di d the temp oral rulers of the ir p rin
c oast I n i sh a r k I n i sb ofli n and I ni st ur k Clare Island
an d A ch i ll Island—all of wh ich are inh ab ited an d
, , , ,
c i p a li ty There ca n be n o doub t that i t was the i nfl u
.

ence of Tur lo ugh M or then K i n g of Irelan d wh ich , ,

have schools and ch urches There are three p riests . i nduced the prelates and p ap al legate at K ells i n 1 1 5 2
on the Ar an Islands one on I n i sboffin one on C lare to m ake h is own D i ocese oi Tuam the arch iep iscop al
'
‘

, ,

Island , and three on Ach ill , wh ich h as a p op ulat ion of an d metropoli tan see of the p rov i n ce Th is origin al .

about 6000 so uls . See of Tuam w as foun ded abou t A D 5 20 by St Jar . . .

The archd iocese comprises seven rural deaneries lath son of Loga the disc ip le of St Ben in of K i l
, ,
.

Tuam D un more C laremorris Ball inr obe C as t lebar

, , , , ,
bannon and the precep tor for a time at C loonf ush
,

W estport and C lifden , There are three v icars gen .

-
near Tuam of St B ren dan the N avigator The orig . .

eral who preside over three d ivisions of the a r ch d io inal cathedr al kno wn as Te mp ull J a r la t h stood on the
c ese wh ich from t ime i mmemorial have been h i s tor i s ite of t he p resen t P rotestan t cathe d ral A fter Jar .

c ally distinct that is G alway east of the Corr i b ; W est

, lath s death h is rem a i ns were enshr i ned an d pre
’

G alway , or the K in gdom of Connemara and the ,

served in a ch urc h b u ilt for the p u r pose an d ca lled
M ayo p ort ion There are 1 4 3 secular pr iests of
.
, Te mp ull n a Serin e c lose to the sp ot on whi ch the ,

w hom eight are us ually emp loyed in the sem i nary . C atho li c cathedr al now stan ds Aroun d th is cath e .

There are on ly two regu lars prop erly so call ed , wh o ,

dr al which w as begun by Dr O liver K elly in 1 826 ar e
,
.
,

reside in the August in ian m on astery of Ballyhaun is ; grouped i n a c ircle a ll th e other ecclesias tical bui ld
two priests of the Order of St Cam illus have charge of . in gs—the college t he P resentat ion conven t and ,

the h O Sp i ce for i n fir m c lerg y M oy ne P ark Bally , ,

schools the M ercy con ven t an d schools of the
,

g luni n G alway and four sec ular clergy of a prepara

, ,
-
r Sisters of M ercy the Christian Brothers ’ House ,

tory college for the Af rican M issions in the Co M ayo .

,
and schools an d the recen tly erected arc hiep iscop al
,
-

generously given for the p urp ose by Coun t B lake of residence .

C loug h b a lly mor e There are fo ur houses of the

. The an cient See of A n n a ghd own grew out of the
Chr ist ian Brothers an d one of the Brothers of the ,
monas te ry foun ded by St Brendan for his sister .

’ ’
C h r 1 s t 1 a n schools There are eleven mon asteries of
. St Briga I ts j urisdiction extended over O Fla h e r ty s
. .

the Th i rd Order Regular of St Fran c is who were .

,
coun try around Lough Corr i b an d com prised in all
founded by Archbishop M acH a le to counteract th e some seven teen p arishes The see was 1 nd ep e n d en t .

down to the death of Thom as O M ella i g h in 1 25 0 ’

'

e fi or ts of proselyt i z ing inst i tutions and to teach agri ,

c ulture to the 1 r p up i ls O i these schools the most . when Archbish op M a cFli on n sei z ed and held i t w ith
successful h as been the A gricultural College of M oun t the consen t of the k in g For the next 25 0 years a pro .

B ellew wh i c h is work ing under the Agric ultural D e

, longed an d unseem ly con fli ct was earn ed on between
p a r t me n t There are three Presentat ion conven ts
.
,
the archb ishops and abbots the for mer dec laring that ,

an d ten conven ts of the Sisters of M ercy wi th schools . Annaghdown had been reduced by th e p op e and the
St J ar la th s D iocesan Sem inary has more than a hun
‘

.
’
k ing to the rank of a parish church w h 1 ls t the abbots ,

dred residen t st uden t s

Sr P A TR I CK I N T U A M
'
.
St P atrick came in to the
.

.
— .
stoutly maintained their indep enden ce I n 1 484 the
wardenship of G alway was establi shed an d all the
.

D 1 oeese of Tuam from A i r tee h in north west R oscom parishes on the south and west aroun d the la ke were
.

mon most l ikel y in A D 4 4 0, and then ce travelled . . p laced under the warden s quas 1 e p 1 s cop a l j ur 1 sd 1 e ’
-

a lmost d ue wes t from A ghamore where he founded .

t ion Tuam st ill reta in ing eigh t parishes to the eas t of
.

h i s fir st ch urch , on th e summ i t of Croa g h p a tr i ck W e .

the lak e In 1 830 the wardensh ip was abolished and
.
,
 TUAM 81 TU A M

the See of Galway estab lished as a regular ep iscopal ample p ossessi on s I t usually con tained th irty fri ars . .

see suflr a g a n to Tuam The “ main ” building was erected by M ey le r ; K in g

'

Fe li m O Conor bui lt the refectory ; F lan n O Fly nn

.
,

The D i oce se of Con g in cluded all the parishes sub ’ ’

“ ”
j ect to the Abbey of Cong which was founded by , built the Scholar house for the friars kep t a noted ,

St Fechin i n 626 The abbots seem to have exerc ised school ; Owen O H ey ne bui lt the dorm i tory ; Con ’
. .

q uasi ep iscopal j urisdiction over n ineteen parishes in

-
O K e lly b uilt the
’
chapter house ” and so on w ith ,

the Baronies of Ballynah i n ch Ross and K i lmaine , , , the guest chamber and the i nfir ma r y In Queen .

which for the most part were served by the monks as ’

M ary s reign this convent was selected to be a un i
vicars under the abbot In the Synod of Rath Brea . versity college for Connacht but the proj ect was never ,

sail Cong was coun ted as one of the fi ve dioceses of reali z ed B uried there are man y of the early B urkes
.

Connac h t but there is n o men tion of i t at the Synod

,
of Cla nr i ek a r d who i n li fe were benefactors an d pro
,
’
of Kells in 1 1 5 2 K i ng Rory O c onor ret ired to the . teete rs of t he conven t .

abbe y for several years and di ed there . Th e Benedict ine N uns h ad a convent at K ilcr ee
The D i oces e of M a y o li k e that of Cong had its v a n ty , sit uated on the Dalg i n River four m iles from ,

origin in M ayo A bbey fo un ded by St Colm an about ,

.

667 for Sa x on monks who had followed h i m from

L in disfarne In 1 1 5 2 i t was recogn i z ed by the Synod
.

of Kells as one of the Connacht sees and mention is ,

made of the death of G illa Isu O M a ili n B ishop of ’

,

M ayo in 1 1 8 4 but on the death of B ishop Cele

, ,

O D ufly i n 1 209 no successor was app ointed and the

'
’

see was merged in that of Tuam p ro ba b ly t h r ough the ,

'
i n flue n ce of K ing Cathal O c onor an d h is relative
Archbis h op F elix O Rua d a n of Tuam But bishops of ’
.

M ayo reappear from t ime to t ime in the ann als down

to 1 5 7 9 when B ishop Patrick O H ea ly com ing home to ’

take possession of h is See of M ay o was sei z ed w ith h is

compan ion Friar O Rour ke and han ged at K ilm allock ’

by Drury the E ng lis h President of M unster A t one

,
.

time M ayo had no fewer then twen ty eight parishes -

under its j urisdi ction wh ich e x tended from the Dalgin ,

River at K i lv ine to Ach i ll Head A t p resen t this is a .

”
s mall rural parish an d the City of M ayo comprises ,

not more than half a do z en houses .

O i the D i oc es e of A gha gower we need say little It .

Cmmcm
A R CH R U I NS o r To m CA TH E DR A L
. ,

w as foun ded in 44 1 by St Patrick who p laced over i t .

Tuam It w as founded in 1 200 by the same K ing
.

B ishop Se n a ch ; the “ Book of Armagh ” te lls us that C athal O Conor for the royal ladies of h is family and
’
,
bishops dwelt there in the time of the wr iter ( early of other h igh Chieftains by whom i t w as richly e n
part of the n in th cen t ury ) The j uris d i ction of Agha .
dowed I t held estates not on ly in G alway but also
.

“ ”
gower e x tended over the Ow les the terri to ry , in Roscommon M ay o Sligo and W estmeath and the, , , ,
around Clew Bay comprising the modern deane r y of , rectories of a score of di fferen t p arishes Its i nmates .

W estport But at an early date these ch urches were

.
at one t i me secured at Rome a curtailmen t of the
absorbed first into the Diocese of M ayo an d after ’
arc hbish op s rights of visi tat ions and p rocurations b ut ,
wards into that of Tuam
M O N A STE R I E S —Bes ides the great mon a steries of
.
after a short e x perience the p op e found i t necessary ,
.
to restore h is full rights to the arc hb ishop I t was .

Annaghdown Cong and M ayo there were others in
the arch diocese that deserve ment ion The monas
t ery of St E nda at K illeany in Aran became famous
.
, , , however the greatest and wealthiest conven t in the
.
W est . There were many sm aller re li gious ho uses in
the archdiocese The August i n i ans h ad ten ; the Do
.

i n the fir st quarter of the si x th centu ry N ear i t was .

m in ica ms three ; the Franc iscans three or four ; the
t he oratory Te mp ull B en a i n wh ich B enan or Benig , , C isterc ians two ; the Temp lars one and there were also ,
n us of K i lb a n n on the disc ip le of St Patrick had three or fo ur n unneries
A RC H B I S H O p s —
.
, , , .

built I t is ve ry small but strik ingly beaut iful , an d

.
I n the l ong li st of the Archbishops
.

i ts cyc lopean walls have not lost a stone for the las t of Tuam there are many i llustrious names wh ich can
fo ur teen hundr ed y ears There are in addition to the .
be refe r red to here only br i e fly H ugh O H essi on was .
’

A r an Islands many other h oly islands around th is present at the Synod of Kells in 1 1 5 2 where he r e ,
w i ld wes te r n coast as Island M ae Dara which all th e , , ce i ve d t he p alli u m from t h e p ap al legate and so b e ,
fish e r me n salute b y di pp i ng their sai ls C r uac h of St , .
came the fir st A rchb ishop of Tuam H e di ed in 1 1 61 .

C a e la i n n A r di la un of St Fechin St Co lman s In is
’ ’
an d was succeeded by Ca tha l or Ca tholi cu s O D ufiy
'
. .
, ,
, , ,

b o tfi n Caher of St Patrick
,
The C isterc ian A bbey . .
who rei gned for fo r ty years I n 1 1 7 2 he w as p resen t .

of K n oekmoy (d e Colle Vi c tori a ) six mi les from Tuam , , with his sufi r a g a n s at t he Coun cil of Cashel whic h
'

,
foun ded in 1 1 8 9 by K in g Crove d e a r g w as one o f the , gave fo r m al recogn ition to the c laims of H enr y 1 1 .

largest and t h e wealth ies t in the W es t of Irelan d .

Later in 1 1 7 5 he w as dep uted to si 11 the Treaty of
, ,
M ent ion too is made of a B ishop of K nockmo y
, , . W i n dsor on behalf of K ing Rory O onor by w h i ch
’
i
, .

The ruins are full of interes t for some of its walls were , Ro r y consented to hold h i s K ingdom of Conn acht in
frescoed and the sculp tured tomb of K ing Fe li m subj ection to th e E n glis h monarch O D ufly w as als o .
’ '

O Conor is we ll pr e served
’
A t its suppressi on in 1 5 4 2 .
p resen t at the Lateran Counc il in 1 1 7 9 an d in 1 201 ,
i t was found to be in the possession of the rectories of h eld a provin cial s y nod at Tuam under the presiden cy
several c h urc h es and large estat es in G alway Ros , , of the Rom an cardinal H e then retired to the Abbey .

common an d M ayo Th e same K ing Cath al of the

, .
of Cong where he died the followin g summer H is .

Red H an d founded in 1 2 1 5 the A bbey of B allintubber successor Feli x O Ruad a i n who previously had been a
,
’
,

close to St Patrick s holy well I t was adm irably.

’
.
Cistercian p robably a t K n ockmoy fille d the see for
, ,

built and h a s been p artly restored as the p aroc h ial thirty s i x years H e w as a near relat ive of Rory
-
.

ch urch of t h e distri ct I t contains the tomb and .

O c onor which strengthened his great i n flue nce in the
’
,
mon umen t of the firs t V iscount M ayo the son of Si r , province N e x t year he con voked a great synod of
.

R ic h ard B urke and G ran ia U a i le Queen of Clew Ba y , . the province a t Tuam in wh ich i t w a s decreed to uni te
The Domin ican A bbey of A t h enry was es tablished i n the term on lands of th e mon a s teri e s to their r es p ec t i y e
1 24 1 by M oyler De Berm ingha m who endowed i t with
XV —6
bishoprics T uam the reby ac qu ired v as t estates i n
.

.
 TUA M 82 TUA M

Galway M ayo and even Roscom mon The arch

, , . to go to the church an d to t he sc h ool t hey got n oth
bishop a ls o comp lained that Armagh clai med j ur isd i c ing ; an d to their honour it m ust be said that most of ,

tion over the D iocese of K i lmore an d Ardagh which , them but not all preferred starvat ion to apostasy
, , .

rightfully belon ged to h is prov i nce an d als o over sev , The proselyt i z ers have now completely disappeared ,
eral parishes in the Archd iocese of Tuam to wh ich the , and have qu ite enough t o do to take care of them
p rimate had no c lai m A composition was e ffected . selves .

later i n 1 24 1
, . The presen t archb ishop M ost Rev John Healy a , .
,

In 1 25 8 died W a lter D e S a lern o an E ngli sh man , , nat ive of the D iocese of E lp hi n was b orn on 1 4 N ov , .
,
who was app o i nted by the pop e bu t never got p osses 1 84 1 at B alli n afad Co Sli go
,
H is earl y educat ion ,
.
-
.

s 1 on of h is see In 1 28 6 S tep h en d e Fuln um who had

.
, was rece ived at an e x ce llent classical school in t he t own
been j ust ic i ary w as app o i n ted to the See of Tuam
, , of S ligo when ce at about fif teen years of age he pro , ,

b ut he resided mostly at Athlone There is e x t an t an . ceed ed to the d iocesan coll ege in t hose days si tuated ,

inven tory of h is e fi e cts wh ich goes to sh ow that he ’

at S ummerhill near A thl one On 26 A u g ust 1 860 he .
, ,

li ved in much state and sp lendour W i lli a m d e B er . entered t he class of rhetoric at M ayn ooth and j ust ,

mi n gha m son of M e y ler de Berm in gham Lord of Car

, , before the comp let ion of h is course was called out by
bery D un more an d Athenry app oin ted in 1 289
, ,
He ,
. h is b ishop to be a professor in the college at Su mmer
w as a p owerful h igh han ded prelate but the monk s of -
, h ill Here he was ordained i n Sep t 1 867 and con
. .
, ,

Athenry an d Ann aghdown resisted h i m successfull y . t i n ue d to teach for over two years H is m ission ary .

M a ur i c e O Ft h ely called i n h is own t i me “ F los

’
e x p eriences were gain ed in the p arish of B allygar
'

, ,
”
M und i on accoun t of h is prodigious learnin g w as , near Roscommon w here he was c urate for two y ears , ,

consecrated Archb ishop of Tuam by Ju li us I I in 1 5 06 , and t hen at Grange Co Sli go where he spen t seven , .
,

bu t lik e Floren ce Conry i n later tim es he never beheld , years H e was then for one year in charge of a
.

his see In 1 5 37 Ch ri stop h er B odki n then B ishop of deanery school in t he town of E lp h i n I n 1 87 9 he

comp eted simultaneously for two vacant chair s—one
,
. .
,

K i lma cd ua gh was app o i n ted Archbishop of Tuam by

of theolog y and the other of classics—i h the national
,

Hen ry V I I I and it is said took the Oath of Su

,

p r e ma cy H e managed to hold h is g roun d i n Tuam coll ege of M ayn ooth and had the un i que honour con
for th irty—
.
,

five years un der Henr y V I I I E dward , , ferred on h im of being appo in ted to both and all owed
M ary an d E li z abeth Bodk in tho ugh a tempori z in g
,
.
,
t o m ake h is own choice between them H e n at urally .

prelate was always a Catho li c an d zealo us in t he ser

,
selected the chair of theology wh ich he fille d t i ll 1 88 3 , ,

vi ce of h is flock In 1 5 5 8 he held a visitat ion of h is . when he succeeded Dr M urray as prefect of the Dun .
,

diocese the acco un t of wh ich h as been preserved an d

,
b oyn e E stabl ishmen t Dur ing his ten ur e of t his .

gives invaluable inf ormation reg a rding the state of the ofii ce , Dr H ealy acted as editor of the . Iri sh E cclesi
”
archdiocese at that t i me . ast i ca l Record b ut th is was only for a single y ear , ,

M a la ch y O Queely was one of t he greatest Ir i sh for i n 1 88 4 he was app o i nted t itular B ishop of M acra
’

p relates of the seventeent h century—a p atriot a r e ,

and Coadj utor B ishop of Clonf ert Here it m ay be .

former and a scholar ; bu t he was not a general and

, ,
interest ing t o n ote that no less than five memb ers of
— Dr Healy s class in M ayn ooth wear the ep iscopal ’
unw isely undertook to com mand the Confederate .

troops in Conn acht dur ing the wars of 1 642 45 H is . p urple in Irish sees In 1 89 6 on the death of the .
,

forces were attacked une x pectedl y dur in g t he n ight sain tly Dr D uggan he succeeded to the see of Clon .
,

b y S ir F Ham il ton near Sligo and the archb ishop was

. fert Seven years after b y p ap al Brief dated 1 3 F eb
.
, ,
.
,

slai n on the field M ent ion m ust be m ade too of .

, ,
1 9 03 he became Ar chb ish op of Tuam an d on t he fol
, ,
’
Flor en c e Con r y t hough he never took p ossess ion of
,
lowing St Patr ick s Day took p ossession of his a n .

h is see H e rendered si gn al service to Ireland by t he

. c ien t see On 3 1 A ugust 1 9 09 , he celebrated the sil
.
,

foundat ion of St An t hony s Conven t of Louvain ’

ver j ub il ee of h is ep iscop ate
whose scholars —M ichael O Cler y , W a rd , Flem in g ,
—
.
.
,
’
The archb ishop is a memb er of m any Irish p ub li c
Colgan and man y ot hers d id so m uch for t he pres
,
bodies notably of t he A gri cultur al B oard the Senate
, ,

er va t i on of the li teratur e and the lan guage and t he of the N at ional Un iversity t he B oard of Governors ,

history of Ireland b ot h sacred an d profane J oh n . of University College G alway H e is presiden t of ,

.

Ma cH a le has a special art i cle in t h is EN CY C L O P E D I A ; the Catholi c Truth Society of Ireland and a Commis ,

h is i m mediate successor , J ohn M a cE vi lly was an i n , si on er for t he p ub li cation of the Brehon Laws He .

defat igab le and z ealous prelate ; he found t ime to acted on the Royal Com m ission of 1 9 0 1 to in qu ire i n to
write commentaries i n E ngli sh on practically the and rep ort on cond it ion of Un iversity E ducation in
“
whole of t he N ew Testame nt H e was born in 1 8 1 8 .
,
Ireland H is prin cip al publis hed wor k s are :
. Ire
d ied i n 1 9 02 and li es b uried before the h igh altar of
,
land s Anc ient Schools and Scholars
’
wh ic h h as
“
Tuam cat hedral bes ide John M a cH a le reached a fif th e d i t ion ; The Centen ary H istory of
M O R A L A N D S O C I AL C O N D I TI ON —The moral state of
.

.
M ayn ooth College ” ; “ The Record of t he M aynooth
the archd iocese is very good Temperance is m aki ng .
Centenary Celebrations ” “ The L ife and W ritin gs of
”
rap id strides amongst a ll classes of the p op ulat ion . St Patrick ; Irish E ssays : L iterary a n d H istorical
.

Grave p u b lic crimes of every k ind have almost d i sa p

' '

P apers and Addresses ” a j ub il ee coll ect ion of f ugi ,

p ea r ed Primary educat ion is now un iversally d if

. t 1 v s p er i od l ca l art i cles and r ev1 e ws .

fused even in the remotest mountain valleys The C O L G A N A cta sa n ctor u m H i ber n i a ; K N O X N ote s on th e D i o
, ,

ces es of Tua m e t c I D E M H i st of th e Coun ty M a y o; H EA L Y I r e

.

Chr ist ian Brothers schools are remarkab ly e ffici e nt ’ , . .

,

la nd s A n ci ent S ch oo ls a n d Sch ola r s; A n na ls of th e F ou r Al a sl er s

'

e d O D O N O VA N ; B R A D Y E p i scop a l S uccessi on ; D A L T O N H i stor y

,
.
,

St J a r la th s Coll ege 1\ 1 a m, n ow holds a prem ier

’ ’ ’ '
,
,
. ,

I r ela n d ; HA R D I M A N H i st of Ga l way ; O C O N O R D O N Th e
.
'

of
p lace amongst the d iocesan colleges of Ireland The .
, . .

O Con or s of Con n a ch t
'

social c ond it ion of the peop le also has been greatly

.

J osN H EA L Y .

i mproved mainly through t he eff orts of t he Con

gested D istricts Board They are better housed and . Tuam , S C H OO L o r ( Irish , Tua i m da Ghua lh nn or ,

better fed ; the land is better t i ll ed and muc h more is ,

t he “ M o und of the two was fo unded b y
derived from the harvest of the se a s around the coast . St Jarlat h ( q
.
and even dur ing his li fe (d e 5 40) .
. .

N o part of Ireland su ffered m ore during t he fam i ne became a reno wned school of p iety and sacred learn
years from starvation and proselyt ism t han Conne ing , whi le in t he elevent h century i t rivalled Clon
mara an d the Island of Achill The starvin g p eople . ma cno i se as a centre of Celti c art St Jarlat h was . .

were bribed during these years by food an d money to trained for his work by St B en ign e s the successon a nd .
,
’

g o to the Protestant churches and send the i r c hil d ren coadj utor of St Patr ick and under t his gentle sam t s .
,

to the proselyt i z ing schools If they went t hey got .

guidan ce he founded his fir st monastery at Cluain
food and m one y Silver M onday ” as t hey called .
,
foi s now Cloon f ush , about t wo miles west from Tuam
,
,

i t , was the day fix ed for these ( 19 193 If they refused .

and a st ill shorter d istan ce across t he fertile field s
 TU BU NB 84 TU C SO N

—
m ineralogico geologi cal and z oological insti tute ( 1 9 02) sion is exp lained by t he fact t h at it was located at the
t h e institute for chem istry ( 1 9 03 the new op h ,
boundary of t he two provin ces Bé eki ng i n his .
,

t h a lmolog i ca l cli ni c ( 1 9 07 A new bui lding for n otes to t he N ot it ia di g ni t a t um ( Bo nn

“
,
“
5 23 and Toulotte ( G eog de l A fr i que ehr et M aur e
’
t h e library housed ti ll now i n the castle i s in course
, , , . .
,
”
of construct ion ; the l ibrary contain s 4 1 4 5 m anuscrip ts t a n i es M ontreuil 1 89 4 p
, speak of two dist inct , ,

and volumes The re g ular professors n um .

“
c it i es while M uller ( N otes to Ptolemy
,
”
IV 1 2 , , ,

bered 5 6 in the summer term of 1 9 1 1 ; honorary and ed . Didot , I , 61 1 ) adm its only one , and hi s opi n ion
adj un ct professors D ozen ts 7 1 ; m atric ul ated students , , , seems the more plausible It was a mun i ci pi u m and .

2 1 1 8 , and non m atriculated p ersons p erm itted to - also an i mportan t front ier post in comman d of a
attend the lectures 1 45 m ak in g a total of 2263 p r a p osi tus li mi li s Tubumen si s St A ugust in e an d
’

. . .
, ,

Since t he rei gn of Ki ng Frederi ck I the un iversity h as St A ly p i us soj our ned t here as guests of Count
.

become more and more a state insti tut ion ; i ts i n B on iface ( E p com ) In 4 7 9 H une r i c e x i led t hi t her
. .

come for 1 9 1 1 w as m arks wh ile a large number of Cat ho li cs Its ru ins kn own as .
,

t he grant from the State for the year was Tob n a are in t he Depart men t of Constan tine ,
,

marks Algeria at t he gates of t he Sahara west of t he Chot t

, ,
“ ”
I n the Protestan t theological faculty the crit i cal e l H od a
-
n t he Salin a; Tub un e n ses of t he Romans
,
.

v iew of theological history held by Ferd inand Chris T hey are very e x tensive for t hr ee su ccessive to wn s ,

ti an B aur led to the founding of the later Tii b i n ge n

'

occup ied difi ere nt sites under t he Romans t he , ,

School to which belong besides the founder A lbert

, , , B y z antines and t he A rabs Besides t he remains of , .

Sch we g ler K arl Christian Planck A lbert R i tsch l

, , , t he fortress t he most remarkable mon ument is a ,

Ju li us K ostli n Karl Christian Johan nes Holsten , , church now used as a m osque .

Adolf H i lg e nfe ld Karl W ei z sa cker and E dward ,

Three b ishops of Tub u nm are known St N emes . .

Zeller O t h er dist in g uishe d theologians, who were

. ianus assisted at t he Coun cil of Cart hage i n 25 6 .

somewhat m ore p ositi ve i n the ir views were Johann ,

St Cypr ian often speaks of him in h is letters and we
.
,

Tobi as Beck and Christian David Frederi ck Pa lmer,

. have a letter w hi ch he wrote to St Cyprian in hi s own .

David Frederick Strauss a fo llower of Hegel , ,

n ame and in t he n ame of t hose w ho were condemned
wrote his “ Life of Jesus ” wh ile a tutor at Tub ingen . wit h him to t he mines A h inscript ion t e st ifies to hi s .

T he distin gu ished teachers and scholars of the Cath c ult at Ti x ter i n 360 an d t he Roman M ar t y r olo gy ,

o li c t h eological faculty are often called the Catholi c ment ions hi m on 1 0 September Anot her b ishop was .

T ubin gen School The characteristic of th is school . Cre scon i us who usurped t he see af ter qu itt ing Bu lla
,

i s pos i t i ve and historical rather t h an speculative or Regia an d assisted at t he Counci l of Cart hage in 4 1 1
p hilosoph i cal A b ove all should be m
, ,

. entioned the where his r ival was t he Don at ist Pr o ta si us A t h ir d ,

great Catholi c t heologian of the n ineteenth cen tu ry , R a r a tus was e x i led by H un e r i c in 4 84
epO U L O TI E Géog d e l A f r i que eh et Nu mi d i e ( P ari s
.
,

J oh a n n A d a m M ohler ; further : J oh a n n Se b as ti a n Dr ey ,
'
’ ‘
31 8
. r .
.

2 1 ; D 1 £ H L L A f r i qu e by za n ti n e ( P a ri s p a ssi m
'

Johan n Bap tist H i r s ch e r Bened ict W elte Johann , ,

,

S Pfizr a miss
. .

E vangelist Kuhn K a rl Josep h H efe le M or i t z A berle ,

.

, ,

Felix H i mp e l Fran z Quirin Kober Fran z Xaver L in Tu cson , D I OCE SE O F ( T U CSO N E N S I S ) su ffragan ot
'

, , ,

se n ma nn Fran z Xaver F unk Paul Schan z and Paul

, , , the Archdiocese of Santa Fe It compr ises t he State .

V etter Distinguished professors of law were : K arl

. of Ar i z ona an d t he sout hern most coun ties of N ew
Georg W achter Karl Fr 1 e dr 1 ch W i lhe lm Gerber A loi s , , M e x ico an e x t en t of
,
sq m iles most of which .
,

B r i n z G ustav M andry and H ugo M eyer

,
A m ong the , . is deser t lan d T he Cat holi c populat ion is a p p r ox i .

n oted members of the faculty of po li ti cal science were : mately mostly M e x i cans There are 4 3 pri ests .
,

Robert M ohl A lbert E berhard Friedri ch Sch afii e , , 27 parishes 4 3 m ission s 1 00 stat ions 7 academ ies 1 0
, , , ,

G ustav R i i meli n Gust av Friedr ich Schonberg and paroc hial schools 3 I n dian sc hools 1 orp hanage , 5
’

, , , ,

Fri edri ch Julius N eum ann Among the noted mem hosp it als
bers of the medical faculty were : V i ctor Bruns , F elix
. .

U p to 1 8 5 3 date of t he Gadsden purchase Ar i z ona , ,

N iemeyer Karl Liebermeister and Johannes sax

, , was p art of t he M e x ican Diocese of D ur ango In .

mger I n n at ural sc i ence should be men tioned : H ugo

. 1 85 9 it was anne x ed by the H oly See to t he Diocese of
M o h l Theodore E i mer and Lothar M eye r Oi the
, , . Santa Fe made a V icariat e A postol ic in 1 8 68 and
, ,

p hi losop h ical facult y should be mentioned Friedr ic h erected a diocese by Leo X II I in 1 89 7 The fir st .

Theodor V ischer wr i ter on ae sthetics ; the p h ilosopher vi car Apostoli c was t he most Rev J B Sa lp oi n t e
w
,
. .
,

C h r i stop her Si g art ; the cl assical p hilolo gi sts C h ris followed by t he M ost Re v P Bo urgade who bot h . .
,

t i an W al z and W il h e lm Sig gi smund T eufi e l the Orien died archb ishops of Santa F e t he former in 1 89 8 t he
'

, ,

t a li s ts Juhus M oh1 , Geor g H e in r i ch E wald and W alter ,

latter in 1 9 08 T hey were succeeded by B ishop .

R udolf Roth ; the Germanist s Lud wi g Uhland and Henry G ran j on born in 1 863 , con secrated in t he ,

H einr ich Adalbert Keller ; the hi storians J uli us W ei z cat hedral of Balt imore 1 7 June 1 9 00 T he mi ssion , ,
.

s acker and Hermann A lfred Gutschmi d ; and the founded by Fren ch mission aries has remained in
'

geologist Friedri ch August Quensted t . c harge of priests mostly of t he same n at ionalit y ,

K L ii P FE L A N D E I FE RT Gesch i chte u n d B es ch r ei bun g d er S ta dt . assisted b y Fran c iscan Fat hers of t he St Louis and .

un d Un i ver si td t Ta bi n g en ( Tti b i ng en K L ti P r E L D i e
’

Un i ver s i td t Tab i n g en i n i hr er Ver ga n nen h ei t un d Geg e n wa r t

, .
C in c innat i provin ces w ho attend prin cipally to t he ,

( Le i p zi g Ur kun den zur Geschi chte d er Un i ver si td t Tab i n g e n Ind ian mi ssion s an d by the Sisters of St Joseph of
'

. ,
.
,

a u s d en Ja h r en 1 47 5 1 660 ( Tii bi ng e n s ex cx s n
‘

M ercy of Lorett o of t he Blessed Sacrament of St

L eh er un d Un terr i cht e u der eva n g eli sch th eoloqi schen Fa kultd t
-
. , .
, ,
“ ,

d er
r

Un i ver si td t Tfi bi n g m von d er Ref orma ti on bi s zu r Genen wa r t

-
Dom in i c and of the Precious B loo d T he full blood
,
.
-

( Ti b i ng e n FUN K
D i e ka th ol i sch e L a n d esun i ver si th t i n
‘
Indians in the di ocese n umber Apac he ,

E llu a n g en un d i h r e Ver leg un g n a ch Tabi n aen ( Tub i n ge n Ch i me h ui v i H ualpai M aricopa M ohave M oqui , , ,
SP R O LL Fr e i bu mer D i h zesa n a r chi v ( 1 9 0 2) , 1 05 sq ; R fiM E L l N
, ,
,

Red en u n d A uf s d tze 1 1 1 ( Tub i n g e n 3 7 sq ; H E R M E U N K ,

. .
N avaj o Papa g o Pima Y ava Su ai
,
About 4 000 are ,
.
.

, .
Cat holics T hey were visited y t he Span ish mis
.

D J 6 th eolog i s r h e Fa ku ltrl t i n Tfl bi n oen cor d er Ref or ma ti on 1 4 7 7

‘
.

1 5 3 4 ( Til b i n ze n I D E M D i e M a tr i ke l n d er Un i ver si t/it si on a r i e s as early as 1 5 39 ( fl a y M arcos de N i z a )

.

Tubi n g e n : v o l I D i e hl a tr i ke ln 110 1 1 1 4 7 7 1 600 ( Stuttg a rt

.
.
,

— ,
and evan geli z ed i n t he seven teent h and eighteenth
,

Fo r furt h er b i b li o z r a p h y cf E R M A N A N D H O R N B i bli og ra p h i c d er
L cen turies b y t he Fran ciscans an d t he J esu i t s O f t he
.
,

d eutsch en Un i ver si td ten I I ( e i p zi g 9 9 6 sq . . .

.

J O H A N N E S B A PTI S T SXG M U LLE R . churches t hen built two remain : Tuma e a cur i ( now
partly in ru ins ) an d San Xavier del Bac n ine m iles , ,

Tub u n aa t itular see in M auret an ia Cae sa r i e n

,
sou t h of Tucson founded b y Father Ki no S J in , ,
. .
,

sis accord in g to t he “ Gerarchia cattol ica ” or in N u

, ,
1 69 9 and kept in a perfect state of preservation by t he
.

“ constant atten tion an d liberal care of the clergy o f

m id ia accord ing to a tta d i r Ann uaire p ont ifica l
B n e ,
”
cat hol ique ( Paris 34 5 The o ffi ci a l l ist of ,
.
T ucson I t is considered the best e x ample of the
.

t h e Roman Curia does n ot men tion i t T he con fu .

Span ish Renaissance m ission style nort h of M exico ,
 TU CUM AN 85 TU G UE GAR A O

a nd the best preserved of all th e old m ission churches C ordoba con t ai ns 8 000 inhab i ta n ts I t was founded
, .

in A meri ca The bui ld ings have been completely i n 1 68 0 b y Fe rnando de hd e n d o z a Th e li a fi o n a l

restored ( 1 9 06—
'
. .

1 0 ) b y t he B ishop of Tucson The . College whi ch h as a chair of m i neralogy is located in

, ,

Papago Indians i n whose m idst stands t he San , the old M erced Convent M ost of the in habi tants of .

Xavier mi ssion have received uni n terrupted care , the Province of Cat amarca are mesti z os descendan ts ,

fro m t he clergy of T ucson In 1 866 t he Rev J B . . . . of t he Qui le ne , Gi li an , Andagala and G uatare I n ,

Sa lp oi n t e founded t here a school , w hic h has since d ians Cholla ( a suburb of Catamarca ) is inhabi ted
.

been maintained wit h t he Sisters of St Josep h i n , . by Calchaqu i Indians b ut Span ish is now the on ly ,

charge , by t he clergy of Tucson at t he e x pense of , language sp oken .

t he par ish That sc hool was t he fir st established i n

.
U sss s n Guta ecles i d sti ca d e la Rep zi bli ca A r gen ti na ( B ue no s
. .

A i res
Ar i z ona for t he I n d 1 a ns ,

A A M A CE R L E A N
.

O RTE G A H i stori c d el Na y a ri t Son or a Si na loa y a mba s Ca l i

, , . ,
. . .

f or n ic a ( M e x i co Rud e E n sa y o t r G U I TE R A S i n A m Ca th
H i st Soc V ( P h i l a d e l p h i a Jun e
.
.

no H i stoi r e d e la
, ,
, .

.
, . .

Tu d el a , D i oca sn O F ( T U TE L /E TU TE L E N SI S ) in , ,

comp a g n i e d e Jé s us V ( P a ri s i i ; A R R l C I V I TA C r é m ca
, , .
’

Spain T he ep iscopal c ity has a populat ion of 9 2 1 3

. .

s er dfica d el a p os té h co co leg i o d e Q u er eta r o ; SA L PO I N TE S o ld i er s of

’

the C ross ( B a nn i n g
A ri zon a ( H a rb or Sp ri n g s
.
.
Tudela was taken from t he M oors by A lfonso s l
E N G E L H A R D T Th e Fra n ci sca n s i n
,

D ia y of F ra n ci sco Ga r ces t r . r
,

. .
B atallador ( the Fighter ) in M arc h , 1 1 1 5 an d in 1 1 1 7 ,

C o n e s ( N e w Y ork he obtained t he Fuero de Sobrarbe I n 1 1 2 1 t he k ing

H E N R Y G RAN J O N
.
.

. gave t he mosque an d t he t it hes of several to wns to t he

prior and ecclesiast ical chapter of Tudela and built
Tucu mé n , D i o cs ss or ( TU CU M A N E N S I S) sufi r a g a n
'

, t he Church of Santa M ari a where a community of ,

to B uenos A ires ere cted from t h e Diocese of Salt a on ,

Canons Regular of St August ine was established t he .
,

1 5 February , 1 89 7 com prises the Province of Tucu ,

ecclesiast ical au thority of Tudela being vest ed in i ts
man ( area 8 9 26 sq m i les ; p op ulation i n the . abbot and prior I n 1 23 8 t he priory was raised to t he
.

n ort h west of t he A rgentine Rep ubli c The firs t and

- . d ignity of a deanery , t he fir st dean being D Pedro .

present b ish op , M gr Pablo Padilla y B aran a ( b at . . J i mén e z and t he second D Lope A rce z de Al co z T he . .

Juj uy , 25 Jan was consecrated t itular B ishop

.
,
latter obtained from Ale x ander I V i n 1 25 8 t he ring
of Pe n t a eomi a ( 1 7 Dec , transferred to Salt a , . an d mitre In t he si xteent h century t he deans of
.

( 1 9 Jan , and t o Tucum an ( 1 6 Jan ,

. . Tudela obtained t he use o f “ p o n t ifica li a ” a favour ,
.

The episcop al ci ty Tucum an or San M iguel de Tucu , , granted by Julius I I to t he dean D Pedr o V illalon de .

man ( p opulation i s situated on the R io Calcena w ho had been his c hamberlain an d w ho held
Dulce 7 80 mi les north west of Buenos Aires , and was
,
-
the deanship for twen ty seven years The rivalry -
.

founded in 1 5 65 by Diego de V i lla r ue l ; a Jesu it co llege between t he deans of Tudela and t he b ishops of
was opened there in 1 5 86 In 1 680 Tucum an r e . Taraz ona and t he dissat isfact ion of t he k ings owing
placed Sant iago del E stero as cap ital of the prov in ce . to the fact t hat un til 1 7 49 t he appoint ment of t he
,

Th e Sp anis h forces were utterly defeated at Tucu dean was not subj ec t to the ro y al patronage a fac t ,

man in 1 8 1 2 by the Argent inos under Belgran o , whose fina lly accomplished in 1 7 49 induced t he Counc il and ,

statue h as been erected in th e city to com memorate t he Royal Chamber to pet it ion for t he erect ion of
t he vi ct ory One of the m ost i nterestin g monumen ts
. Tudela into a diocese whic h was done by Pi us V I ,

i n Tucum an i s Independence H all where the Argen , in the B ull of 27 M arch , 1 7 83 T he fir st bishop was .

t ine delegates proclaimed ( 9 July, 1 8 1 6) the R io de la D Francisco Ram on de Larumbe

. H e was
Plat a p rovin ces free from Sp a msh dom in at ion Oi . su cceeded ( 1 7 9 7 ) by D Sim on de Ca sa vi e lla Lopez .

the twen ty seven members form ing this N a ti on a l Con

-
del Cast i ll o , who during t he war of independen ce saved
gress fif te e n were priests ( as were two other delegat es Tudela fro m severe meas ures of retaliat ion ordered b y
w ho W ere un avo idably absent , and the secretary of t he Fren ch general Lefevre T he t hird bishop was .

the assembl y José Agust in M olin a later B ishop of , , D Juan Ramon Santos de Larumbe y L a r r a y o z
.

C a ma co i n p a r ti bus and V icar A postoli c of Salta ) ; an d t he fourt h an d last D R a mé n M ari a .

two of the fif te e n were afterwards raised to ep iscop al A zp e t i t i a Saen z de Santa M ar i a w ho founded

—
r a nk José Colombres ( Salta ) and Justo Sant a M aria t he Sem inary of Santa Ana i n a former house of t he
de Oro ( C uyo ) I t i s t o be not ed that the See of
. Jesuits T he sem inary was r e established in 1 8 4 6 i n
.
-

C ordoba founded i n 1 5 7 0, was generally referred to

,
a former Ca r m elite con vent T he last b ishop died at .

in t h e seventeenth century as that of Tucum an V ian a on 30 June 1 844 ,

.

( C ordoba de Tucum an ) . T he Concordat of 1 85 1 suppressed t his diocese ,

On 21 January 1 9 1 0, the Province of Catamarc a , since whi ch ti me it has been adm inistered by t he bish
( ar ea s q m iles ; pop ulat ion which ti ll
. ops of Tara z on a on whom t he t itle of Admin istrator
then h a d been a V icariate forane of T ucum an was , Apostoli c of Tudela has been con ferred T he cat he .

erected into a sep arate see under M gr Bernabé Piedra . dral dedicated to N uest ra Senora de la Blanca dates
buen a ( b at Tucum an 1 0 N ov , 1 8 63 ; consecrated
.
,
. from t he end of t he twelft h and t he beginn i n g of t he
t itular B ishop of Oestrus and coadj utor to M gr . t hi r teent h century It has a very notable facade . .

Pad ill o , 3 1 M ay 1 9 08 ; transferred to Catamarca , , There are in Tudela a college of t he Jesui ts , chari
8 N ov .
,
Before the separation , Tucum an had table institut ions condu cted by t he Sisters of Charity :
1 5 parishes 67 churches and chapels , and Catamarca
, t he hospital of N uestra Se nora de Gra ia founded ,

1 5 parishes 9 6 churches and chapels ; t here were

, in the si x t eent h century by D M i g uel e E z a ; t he .

60 secular p riests assisted b y Dom in icans Francis Real Casa de M isericordia founded by Dona M ari a
c ans and F a th er s of Our Lad y of Lo urdes ; t here was a
. .
, ,
“ ”
, H ug a rt e in 1 7 7 1 and the Hospitalil lo for orp han
conci liar sem inary wi th 3 st uden t s of ph ilosophy and chi ldren founded in 1 5 9 6 by D Pedro O rt i z
Z
. .

60 rhetori cians ; 7 theological students were studying MA DRA O. Na va rre y L og r ofl o i n E s p a fl a , s us mon u men tos y
at B uenos A ires and the Co llegi o Pi o Lat ino R ome ; -
I I I ( B a rc lo na
a r te s : e , DE LA F U E N TE i n E sp a h a sa or a da ,
, I ( M a d ri d
R U I Z A mmo
.

i n a dd i tion there were two Cat holi c colleges at Tucu R AM é N .

man and one at Ca t am arca ; t here were comm un it ies

of the Herm anas E sclavas Dom ini can , Fran ciscan , , Tu g u e g ar ao , D 1 ocs s n or (TU G UE G A R A O NE N S I S ) ,
G ood Shep h erd and Josep h ine Sisters A Catho li c ,
. i n the P h ilipp ines , is situated in t h e n orth eastern -

daily p a er is published a t Tucum an and two Ca t h o , section of the Island of Lu z on and embraces the three ,

li e wee i ce at Catamarca A large number of t h e . c ivi l Provinces of Cagayan Isa bela and Nucva Vi s , ,

p arishes have the usual Catholi c sodali ties and con caya and the two groups of the Bat anes and Babuy
,

W or ki n gme n s circles are establi shed in

’
tr a ter n i t i es
’

. anes Islands I t was erected on 1 0 A pri l 1 9 1 0 bein g

.
, ,

the two episcop al c it ies Catamarca ( San Fernando . se parated from the ancient Diocese of N ue va Segovia ,

de C at am arca ) lying 230 m iles north north west of ,

- -
erected in 1 5 9 5 For two hundred years the seat .
 TULA NC I N GO TU LLE

of the Diocese of N uey a Segovia was located at vesti ga t i on of the small parasi t ic f ung i r ese ar ch es which ,

La ll oe on the Cagayan River a c i t y wh ic h lies wi th in , t hrew m uc h light on the obscure and compl icated his
t h e present li m i ts of t h e new Diocese of Tuguegarao . tory of thei r evolut ion I n this sc ience he worked in .

The history of t h e Cat h oli c C h urc h i n t he Cagay an co llaboration w ith h is brother Charles ( b 5 Sep t . .
,
V alley for the t hree h undr ed y ears preceding the 1 8 1 6; from 1 84 3 a p hysic ian at Paris ; ( 1 at Hy eres .
,
Spa n i sh A m eri can W a r is practi cally t he hi story of
- 2 1 Aug , . The ch ief p ubli cat ions issued by
t he Spanish Dom in i can Fathers i n t h is terri tory . the two brothers are : “ Fungi h y p ogze i ” (f ol Paris , ,
“
The d iocese coun ts ( 1 9 1 2) 23 native secular priests , and Selecta f ungor um carpologia ( 3 vols fol . .
,

t wo Spani sh seculars 1 7 Sp an ish Dom in i cans and , Pan s 1 8 61

, a work of t he greatest importance for
7 Be lg i a n mi ss i ona r i e s
'

There is a boys college in .

’
mycology p arti cularly on accoun t of the splendid
,

1 llus tr a t i ons in the s i x ty one p lates Tula sn e wrote

’
charge of the Dom in ican Fat hers and a g irls academy ,
-
.

under t he d irect ion of t he Sisters of St Paul of . numerous mycological treatises for various periodi
Chartres The p opulat ion whi ch is entirely nat ive
.
, , cals such as t he A nn ales des sc iences nat A rch ives .

numbers about W it h the except ion of a d u muséum ” ; “ Comp tes rendus ” ; “ B otan ische Zei
”
few t housand A glipayan s t hey are all Catholics Th e .
tung . H e left his botan ical library to the Ca th o
fir st b is h op the R t Rev M auri ce Patr ick Foley ,
. .
,
h c Inst i tute of Paris Tulasn e O penl y ackn owle dged
.

was appoin ted on 1 0 September 1 9 1 0 ,

. h 1 s desir e to glor i fy G od by h is sci e n t i fic lab ours Sev .

M A U R I CE F O LE Y . eral genuses of fungi as well as several spec ies are , ,

named after Tulasn e , as Tu la snei ma Tu la s nella

’

Tul a n ci n g o , D 1 0 0 E S E o r (D E T UL A N C I N G O ) i n the
.
,
, Sa c H s Gesch d er B ot n i k ( M u ni c h
. . M A G N U B N ekr o log
a , ,

M e x i can Rep ubl ic sufi r a g a n o f M e x ico Its area is ,

.
1n B e r uh te d er d eutsch en bota n i sch e n Gesellsch a /t I V ( B erl i n , ,

about 8000 sq uare m iles t hat is to say almost that o f

J S R OM P E L
, ,

t he State of H idalgo i n whi ch t he diocese i s sit uated , .

. .

It comprises t he great er part of t he State of H idalgo , Tu l le , D rocs s s O F (TU TE LE N SI S ) , comprises the

w it h t he e x cep t ion of a few p arishes situat ed i n t he Dep artment of Corr ez e It was supp ressed by t h e .

western p art and wh ich belong to t he A r c hbishopri c,

of M e x i co ; b ut in ret ur n it has a few par ishes i n t he

Con cordat of 1 8 02 whi ch j oined i t to t he See of ,

—
State of V era Cru z It s pop ulat ion is
The bishop l ives i n t he to wn of Tulan ci ngo ( p e p ula
.
L1 mog e s bu t w as t heoreti cally r e est ab li shed by the
,

Concordat of 1 8 1 7 and d e f a cto r e erected by B u lls

,
—
dated 6 an d 3 1 October 1 822 It i s sufi r a ga n of , .

t ion,
alt houg h t he cap ital of t he state is t he B ourges Accord i n g to legen ds whic h grew up in
.

i mportant m in ing town of Pach uca situated 7 9 62 feet , later years aroun d the St M art i al cycle th at saint .
, ,
above t he level of t he sea w it h a populat ion of about ,
who h ad been sen t by St Peter to p reach is sai d t o .
,
in hab itants T he Gospel was fir st have restored to li fe at Tulle the son of the governor ,
preac hed in thi s t err itory i n th e fir st half of t he si x N erva and to have covered the ne ighbouring coun
t ee n t h cent ury by t he F r a n ci sca n F a t h er s shortly
\
,

t ry wi th churches By some of the legends St M ar . .

after t he ir arrival i n M e x i co ; t hey t hen foun ded a t in of Tour s is m ade foun der of the Abbey of Tu lle ; by
con ven t at T ula nci n g o whose fir st guardian was t he , others St Ca lmi n ; Coun t of Auvergne ( seventh cen
, .

venerable Fat her Juan Padi lla who died from t he r e , tury ) . Robbed of i ts possessions by a powerful
sult s of an assault made b y t he unfait hful In di ans o f
“
fam ily i t reco vered them i n 9 30 t hrough the e fforts of
,
N ew M e x i co The A ugust in i an F athers also worked
.
a member o f the same fam i ly V isco un t A d hem ar who , ,
in thi s region .
left a rep ut at ion for sanct ity St Odo Abbot of . .
,
Oh 1 6 M arch , 1 8 63 P ius I X made t his see sufi’r a g a n , Clun y refo rmed it i n the tenth cent ury John XX I I
,
o f t he Archbishop ri c o f M e x i co W hen created m any
.

.
, by a B ull dated 1 3 Au g ust 1 3 1 7 , raised i t to ep iscop al ,
asked that t he ep iscop al see be in the ci ty of Hue ra nk ; but the chapter remained subj ec t to mon as ti c
j u t la ; p reference was given , however , to t he c ity o f ru le an d was no t seculari z ed unt il 1 5 1 4 A mong t he .

Tulanc in go Thi s new see w as formed from t h irty

.
bishops of Tulle were : H ugu es Roger k no wn as Car ,
eig h t p arishes of t he Arc hbishop ri c of M e x i co an d , d inal de Tulle ( 1 34 2 who was never consecrated ,
from sixt een t aken from t he B ishop ri c of Puebla It .
and li ve d with his brother Clement V I ; Jean Fabri
h as 1 sem inary wi t h 4 0 students ; 39 p arochi al schools ; ( 1 37 0 who became cardinal i n 1 3 7 1 ; Jules M as
5 Cathol ic colleges an d about 235 2 stu dents ; t here are , caron , the preacher ( 1 67 1 who w as afterwards
6 Protestan t coll eges wi t h 25 5 students and 6 Prot es , B ishop of A gen ; Léon ard Ber tea u d , p reacher and
t ant churches Th e town o f Tulan cingo e x i sted lon g .
theo logi an ( 1 842 St Rodo lphe of I\ 1 ren ne .
'

,
before the conquest ; i t is sai d to h ave been founded A r chb ishop of Bourges , who d ied i n 866 founded , ,
by t he Toltec as i n A D 69 7 and bore t he n ame o f . .
-

about 8 5 5 the Abbey of B eaulieu in th e D iocese of

,
Tolla n t z i n co Its most noted bu i ldin g i s the cat he
.
Tu lle The Charterhouse of G la n di e r dates from
dral bu ilt in the b e g i n mn g of the n me t een th cen tury
.

,
.
1 2 1 9 ; t he Benedi ct in e Abbey of U z erche was fou nded
V E RA , Ca teci s mo g e og r d fi co h i st é ri co e s ta d tsti co d e la i g l . méz .

between 9 5 8 and 9 9 1 ; M eymac Priory wh i ch bec a m e

( A meca me ca ,

C A M I LL U S C R I VE L L I an abbey in 1 1 46 was founded by Ar ch a mb a ud II I

,

. , ,

V iscoun t de Conb or n .

Tu l a sn e , L o m s R E N E a n oted b otan ist b at -

Urban I I on h is way to L imoges from C lermont
A z a y lo R ideau Dept of Indre e t Loire F rance
.
, ,

( 1 09 5 ) p assed near I\1 lle St An thony of Padua

'
- - - -
. . .
, , ,

1 2 Sep t 1 8 1 5 ; d at H y eres in sout hern France 22

.
,
. dwelt for a t ime at Brive towards t he en d of October , ,

Dec 1 88 5
.
,
H e stud ied law at Poit iers b u t later
.
, 1 226; an d the p ilgrimage t o t he Grott o of B rive is the
t urned h is attent ion to b otany and work ed un ti l only e x isting one i n France in h onour of that saint .

1 842 i n compan y w ith A uguste de Saint H ilaire on -

Pierre Roger who be cam e p ope under the n ame of
,

the flor a of Bra z il H e was an assistan t n atural ist at Clement V I , was a n at ive of M aumont i n t he diocese
the M useum of N atural H istory at Paris 1 842—
. .

7 2; In 1 35 2 the t iara was disp uted between Jean B irel ,

after th is he retired from a ct ive work I n 1 84 5 he was . general of the C arthusians , who had been p rior of
elected a member of the Academy to succeed A drien de G la nd i er and E t ienn e Aubert who becam e pope un
, ,

J uss i e u Tula sne was a very industrious sk i lful and

.
, ,
der the n ame Inn ocen t V I and was a n at ive of ,

successful invest igator H e p ublished at Paris n u . Ch ateau des M onts in t he Diocese of Tulle In 1 362
- -
.

me r ous botan ical works the fi rst appearing in 1 84 5 ; ,

Hugues Roger , Cardinal of Tu lle brother of Clement ,

h e firs t wrote on the p hanerogam ia as for instance on , ,

V I refused t he t iara ; in 1 37 0 Pierre Roger his
, ,

t he leg u mi n osze of Sout h America t hen on t he crypto ,

n ephew becam e pope under the n ame of G rego ry X I
,
.

gam ia and especially on the fungi H e gained a

,
. A t Tulle an d in B as ( Lower ) Li mousin , eve r y year on ,

world w ide repu tation b y h is m icroscop ic st ud y of

-
the vigi l of St John the Bap tist a feas t is kep t w hich
.
,

fung i ( the sc ience of mycology ) , espec ia lly by h is i h is kno wn as [6 tou r d e la li ma d e ( the change of the
 TU N I S 88 TU N I S

k ingdom at the beginni ng of the n inth century both , entire side up to the sleeve Finally outside of Italy .
, ,
from the testi mony of A ma lar of M etz and fro m va the sleeves were also sli t j ust as in the dalmatic , ,

r i o u s i n ven tories A bo ut the close of the year one

. whi ch a lready in the later M i ddle Ages was hardly to
, ,

thousan d the tuni c was so uni versally wo rn by sub be d istin gui shed fro m the tun i c es peci ally as i n the ,

deacons as a li turgi cal upper vestment that it was mean ti me t he red cla m: of the dalm atic had been re
b r i e fly called ves ti s su bdi a cona li s or s ubdi acona le As . placed by an other form of ornamentation whi ch was ,
early as the fir st Roman Ordo the t uni c is foun d as also adop ted for t he tuni c W hen in the cour se of the .

one of the p apal p on t ifica l vestments un der the n ame twelf th century a canon was developed respecti ng the
of d a lma ti ca mi n or d a lma ti ca li n ea
,
The Roman . liturgical colours the canon w as n aturally a ut h ori
,

deaco n s also we r e i t un der the dalmatic W hi le onl y , t a ti ve for the tuni c as well as for the chasuble an d
the tuni c and not the dalm ati c was part of t he li tur gi dalmatic .

cal dress of the Roman cardi nal priests and heb -

In t he M i ddle Ages the use of the tuni c at M ass
d oma d a l bishops O utside of Rome a lso the p on tifie a l
. corresponded throughout to that of the dalmati c ,

vestments freq uently included only the tun i c , not consequently di scussion of i t here is unn ecessary The .

tuni c an d dalmatic together , or as was more often , ceremony i n whi ch the bishop after the ordi nat ion , ,

the c ase the dalmati c wi thout the tuni c N ot until

,
. places the t u n i c upon the newly o rd ai ned subdeacon -

the twelf t h century di d i t become general for t h e had its o ri gi n i n the twelf th centur y but even i n the ,

bishop to wear both vestments at the same ti me that , thirteen t h cent ur y i t was only customar y i n isolated
cases I t was not un til the fourteenth an d fif tee n t h
.

centuries t hat the usage was u ni versally adopted i n

the r i te of ordi n ation of subdeacons A s to t he .

origin of the subdi aconal tuni c it w a s without doubt , ,

a copy of the dalmat ic in whi ch the vertical t rim ,

ming of the dalmati c was omitted an d th e sleeves ,

were made narrower .

The tuni c ( a fl x ci d uov) worn by t he subdeacon in the

O rien tal Rites does not correspond to the sub diaconal
tuni c of W este r n E urope w hich from the be g inni n g ,

had the fix e d character of an outer tun ic but resem ,

bled the alb even though accordi ng to present c us

, ,

to m i t i s no longer e x clusively whi te , but often

,

coloured .

B o e t Ges ch d er li tur g Gewd n d er I I ( B o n n R O B A U LT

m: F L E U R Y La me sse V I I ( P a ri s B R A U N D i e li tur g i s ch e
. . .
. .

. , . .

Gewa nd u n g { m Occi dent u n d Or i ent ( F re i b u r g

J O SE PH B R A U N
.

Tun i s , Fren ch protect orate on the northern coast

of Afri ca Ab out the twe lfth cen tury before Christ
.

Ph oen i cians settled on the coast of wh at is now Tuni s

and founded colonies there , whi ch soon attained great
econom i c i m p ortance Am ong them were H ipp o Zary .

B LU E S I L K TU N I C L E X I V C E NTU R Y
,
t us U ti ca , C arthage H ad rumetum and Tunes
, , , .

C a ste l S E l i a . I ta ly
.
Ul tim ately a ll these cities were ob li ged t o a ckn owl
edge the suzerainty of C arthage which ruled a terr i ,
is the tuni c as well as the dalmati c The granting to
,
.
tory almost as ext ensive as the presen t Tun is The .

abbots of t he pri vilege of wearing the tunic as well fall of Carthage , 1 46 m ade t h e Romans m asters ,

as the d a lmatic is very seldo m mentioned and even

, , of the count ry , wh ich as t he Provin ce of Africa b e
t hen not until the second half of the twelft h centu ry . came one of the gran a ries of I taly N umer ous ru i ns .

Before this era abbots never received more than the of palaces , temp les , Chri st ian churches a mp h i th ea ,

p rivilege of wearing the dalm ati c The acolyt es at . tres aquedu cts et c , wh ich are st i ll to b e found , g ive
, , .

Rome wore the tuni c as early as the ni nth century ; proof of t he high c iv il i z ation e x i sti n g u nder Roman
i n the Fra nk ish ki ngdom i t was probably customar y sway Christ iani ty also flour i sh e d at an early era
. .

i n some places i n the tenth century for acolyt es to '

I n 4 39 the country w as conq uered by the V andals ,

wear the t uni c ; i t was worn by acol y tes a t Farta and in 5 33 Belisarius retook i t and made i t a p art of
towards the close of the tenth cent ury In the . the E astern E m p ire The supremac y of Constant i .

late M iddle Ages the wea r i ng of the tuni c by acolytes n e p le was not of long durati on F i rst the Patri .

w as a wi despread custom In the medi eval period

. c i a n Gregorius , G overnor of N orth Africa for the
the tun ic was called by various names Besi des . E mperor H eracli us , procla imed h is independence .

tu n i ca , i t also bore the name of tun i ce lla ; d a lma ti ca H owever , on t he in cursion of t he Arabs from the
mi n or ; d a lma ti ca li me or si mply li nea ; tu n i ca
, E ast , Gregorius was overt h rown i n 648 by t h e Ara
s tri c ta or merely s tri cta ; su bd i a cona le; roccus ; a lba ;
,
b i an com man der Abdallah , who ret urn ed to E gyp t
and especi ally i n Germany s u bti le
, ,
. wi th enormous b ooty In 67 0 the Ar abs again e h .

As to the origi nal form of the v es tment i t was at , t ored the coun try con quered B isert a and founded the
, ,

first a tuni c i n the shape of a gown wi th narrow sleeves City of Kai rw an in the region beyond Susa I n 69 7 .

and wi thout the vertical ornamental stri ps (cla m) . they also took the C ity of Car thage , up to then suc
The materi al of whi ch i t was made was li nen ce ssfully defended by t he E astern E mp ire an d re ,

for ordi nary occ asio ns b ut as early as the ni nth

, d u ce d i t to a heap of ru i n s Tuni s a town formerly of .
,

century inventories si lk tunics are mentioned The . small imp ortance , now took the p lace of Cart hage in
development that the vestment h as undergone fro m commerce and t ra ffi c W hen the Omma y y a d d y .

the Carolingian perio d up to the present time has nasty was overthro wn by t he Abbassids almost all ,

been in all poin ts simi lar to that of t he dalmatic ; Afri ca regained independen ce , and it was no t unt il 7 7 2
during the course of this developmen t t he distinction that t h e caliphs again acq u ir ed control over i t .

between the dalmatic an d t he tuni c steadi ly de Calip h Haroun a l Rasch id made the v igorous Ibrah im
creased . Silk gradually became the material from ibn e l A g hla b G overnor of A fri ca bu t in 800 I b ra h im ,

which the tuni c was regularly made ; i t grew con tinually t h rew off the supremacy of the calipha t e I( a i r wan .

shorter an d sli ts were made in the sides which by

, ,
remained the cap ital of the Aghlab ite K ingd om wh ic h ,

the end of the M iddle Ages wen t the length of the ,

embraced Tripo li , Algiers , the greater part of Tunis an d ,
 TU NI S TU NI S

i an galleys sailed along a ll the coasts of the M edi ter

r a ne a n devas tating and p lundering
,
They stopp ed .

forei gn ships on the open sea and dragged t hem as ,

pri zes t o Tuni s where the c argo wo uld be d ischarged

,

and the crew and p assengers sold as slaves For a .

long t i me Christian W est ern E ur op e did not h ing to

p ut an end to thi s imp ud e n t p ir acy A lthoug h the
E ng lish A d m ir al Blake i n 1 665 b ur ned ni n e large
Tun i si an p i rate ship s in the h arbour of Porto F ar 1 na
yet , as the struggle against t h e p ir ates was not con
t i n ue d n o perm anent improvemen t of cond it ions w as
,

attai ned A t a later date treaties were made between

.

Tuni s and the powers i n terested in commerce in the

M edi terranean V en ice Sp ain Portugal E n gland
.
, , , ,

H o lland Denm a rk , and even the Uni ted St ates p aid

,

an ann ual tribut e to Tuni s I n retur n Tuni s bound .

i tse lf not to attack t he s h i ps that sai led under t he fla g

of t he treaty m aki n g powers For two hundr ed
-
.

y e ars E urope end ured thi s nest of p irates For Tunis .

1 t w as a br i ll iant p eriod i n whi ch en ormous treasures

accumulat ed i n t he coun try and d uring whi ch the ,

supremacy of t he Porte w as almost nom inal .

The ni neteenth cent ury comp letely altered the situ

ation Sharp resol utions agai nst p iracy 1 n the M e d i te r
.

r a n e a n were p as sed by the Congres s of V ienna and

E ngland was authori zed by the p owers to enforce
t h ese res olutions b y sending a flee t against the p irat i
cal coun tries I n 1 8 1 6 Lord E xm outh by the bom
.
,

b a r d me n t and p arti al dest ruction of t he City of Al

g i e rs forced t he r uler of Al gi ers t o p u t an end to
,

C hr isti an slavery The terr i fied Bey of Tun i s also .

prom ised t o do t he same yet in sp ite of thi s , Chr istian , ,

’
s h ips were repe atedly attacked by 1\1 ni s i a n vessels
W hen in 1 830 t he French began the conques t of A l
JoanaEm . gi er s Tu n is at fir st aided t he A lg
,
geri an leader Abd e l
Kad er b ut 1 n retali at ion t he Fr e n ch forced Tuni s t o
,

suppres s p ir acy comp letely to yield an island on t he ,

co as t and to p ay a sum of money Al a rmed at t he

,
.

danger from France t he Porte now sough t to form ,

closer relat ions wit h Tunis and t o m ake the country '

an immedi ate T ur kish provin ce These e fl or ts .

,

w hich were succ essful at t hat d ate i n Tripoli , fail ed i n

Tun is on accoun t of t he opposition of F rench di p lo
macy I n order to be better able to ma i ntai n h i s
.

posit ion i n regard to t he Porte t he B ey y Sidi Ah med

( 1 837 5 5 ) ent ered in to closer relations wi t h F ran ce
,
-
,

and even tried to in troduce western reforms ; in 1 842

he aboli shed slavery and in 1 84 6 the sla va tr a d e , .

Under French and E nglish i n flue n ce h is cousin Si di

M oh ammed ( 1 85 5 5 9 ) i n troduced li beral legislation —
and reorgani zed the ad min istrat ion
M ohammed es Sad ok ( 1 85 9 82) even gave the
-
H is brother
— .

coun try a liberal const itut ion in 1 861 but had to ,

withdr aw i t owing to the opposition of the A r abs and

M oors H is e x t ravagant t as tes forced the bey to
.

borrow money thus br ing i ng him in to fin a n ci a l

dependence on Fran ce whi ch showed more and more
,

undi sgu isedly its desire to control Tunis However

the Fran co G erman W ar ( 1 8 7 0 7 1 ) forced France to
- — ,

restrai n i ts hand .

I n 1 8 7 1 t he sultan granted the heredit ary righ t to

rule accord ing to pri mogen iture to the fami ly of the
bey and abandoned all c lai m to tribute , in return for
wh ich the bey prom ised not to go to war w ithout t he
perm i ssion of the Porte and t o enter i nto no di p l o
m ati c negot iat ions with foreign p owers F ran ce pro
,

tes ted against thi s and would n ot reco gni z e the su ze

t ain ty of the Porte over Tunis b ut could not enf orce i t s ,

p rot es ts In the years succeeding the forei gn elemen t

.

i n Tuni s const an tl y gained in importance and the ,

It a li an G overnment e speci a lly sought t o acqu ire a

stron g econom i c posit i on 1 1 1 the country F rance
, ,

began to fear that she m igh t be outwit ted by I taly 1 n

Tunis so in 1 8 8 1 she used th e disturbances on th e
,

boundary of Al giers and Tun is as a p re t e x t for m ili

t ary interference In A p ril 1 88 1 in sp ite of t h e pro
.
, ,

tests of th e b oy and t h c Port e , an army of ‘

 TU N J A 1

Fren ch sold iers a d vanced from Al giers in to Tunis an d ,

readily overc am e t he resist an ce of t he tribes A

F ren ch fleet ap p ear ed before t he cap i tal and a
.

s quad r on landed a t B isert a a brigade g whi ch a dvanced

aga i nst the Ci ty of Tun is from t h e land side Unable .

to op pose thi s fo rce , the bey was obli ged to si g n on

1 2 M ay t he Trea ty of Kasyr e l S a id , also call ed the -

B ardo Treaty , wh ich transformed Tuni s i nto a Fren ch

protectorate The revolt of the n ative tribes against
.

the Fren ch was crushed in the years Al

though at the beginni n g of the exp edi tion Fr an ce h ad
declared that the occup ation woul d only be a tem
p or ar y one , yet ever s i n ce then t he French have
remained in the coun try E conom ically the con trol .

by an E ur opean p ower h as p roved ad vantageous to

the country M oh am med es Sadok w as succeeded
.
-

b y his brother Sidi Ali Pas ha ( 1 8 82 who was

followed b y his son Sidi M ohammed .

The regency of Tun is has an area of sq m i les .

and contai ned i n 1 9 1 1 , i nh ab i tants , of ,

whom were n atives Jews , ,

Fren ch , Itali ans E ngli sh and M altese , ,

1 307 Sp ani sh Poli ti call y Tun is form s a French pro

.
,

t e ctor a te ; Fran ce repr es ents t he coun try in foreign

relations m akes a ll the treaties wi th forei gn p owers
, ,

decides as to peace and war In return it protects the .

bey against any threatened attack upon his land and

guaran tees t he state debt In in tern al aff a irs the bey .

has nom in all y the legislative p ower , but decrees and

laws are n ot vali d unti l they have received the sign a
ture of the resident general represent ing the F renc h -

G overnm en t The budget is n ot subm itted to the

.

bey for his approval un ti l i t h as been discussed by the

m in isterial coun ci l and exami ned by t he Fren ch G ov
e r nme n t The resident general I S the represent ative -

of the F rench Governm en t at Tuni s , and is sub or d i

n ate t o the B en ch mi ni ster of forei g n afi a i rs H e .

u n ites i n hi s person a ll the authority of the Fren ch

G overnment is the o ffi ci a l i ntermedi ary between the
,

Tu ni sian G overnm ent and the represen tat ives of

forei gn p owers is t he pres idin g offi cer of the m in ,

i s te r i a l coun cil an d of a ll the hi gher adm i ni s trat ion of

,

Tuni s H e can veto t he act ions of t he bey , and i n

. .

case the bey fails to act he can order the necessary

re g ulation s or open the wa y for them The m inis .

t er i a l coun cil consists of t he resi dent general two -

,

n ative m in isters and seven French m i nisters ; the ,

counci l settles the m ost i mp ortant matters and espe

ci a lly determ i nes the budget The two n ative m in .

i s t ers di rect i nternal a ff airs , the administrat ion of

j ust ice for the n ati ves and the supervision of the ,

landed prop erty of t he nat ives The other bran ches .

of the ad mi ni strat ion are di r ected by the French

mini sters The ad m in istration of j ust ice is a doub le
.

one : a ll legal d isp utes i n whic h E uropeans are con

cerned are settled by y French law ; the n at ives are
under M ohammedan la w As r e gards the Catholi c .

Church Tun is i or ms t he Archdiocese of Carthage ;

ci also t he arti cle L A V I GE R I E
A S H B EE B i bi of Tu n i si a ( L o n d o n B RO A D L E Y Tun i s
. .

Pa st a n d P r esen t ( L o n d o n
.
, , ,

TI SS O T E x p l or a ti on sc i e nti
, ,

fi qu e d e la Tun i si e ( P a ri s 1 88 4 F A U C O N La Tu n i si a a va n t
F I TZ NE R D i e
. ,
,

ct dep u i s l occu p a ti on f r a n ca i se ( P a ri s
'
, ,

R eg en tscha f t Tu n i s ( B er li n C LA I N D E LA R w s H i st
L or a H i st de la Tu n i si e , , .

g é né r a l e d e la Tu n i si a ( P a ri s . , .

( P a ri s V IVI AN Tu n i si a a n d th e M od er n B a b a r y P i r a tes
( L o nd on O L IV E R A N D D o n o rs La Ta n tate ( P a r i s
. . r

H E S S E W A R TE G G Tu n i s th e La nd a n d th e P eop l e ( 2md ed
. . .

L o n d on
-
. ,
, .

B AHA R L e p r otector a t tu n i si en ( P a r i s
S CHO N F E LD
. , .

La Tun i s i a a u déb ut d a X X s i éclc ( P a ri s °

S CHAN Z A lg er i e n
. ,

A us d en Sta a te n d er Ba r ba r es ken ( B e rl i n . , ,

Tu n i i e n u Tr i p oli ta n i e n ( H a ll e L O TH La p eup le i ta l i n
ID E M La Tu ni si a et l wuvr c
s . . , e

e n Tun i s i a cl cn A lg é r i e ( P a ri s
'

. ,

d a p otecto r a t f r a n ca i s ( P a ri s BA B E LO N C A G NA I A N D R E 1 N ’ ‘
r , , ,

ACH A tla s a r ch é ot g i que da ta Tu n i si a ( P a ri s 1 9 05

S LA D EN Ca r tha g e a nd Tun i s
, o .

La Tu n i s i e d a Nor d ( Pa ri s
( L o n d on
. ,

P ETR I E Tun i s K a i r oua n a nd Ca r tha g e ( N e w

. , .

Y ork R s c w s A lg ér t e et Tu n i s i e ( P a ri s 1 9 09 ) GA U D
‘

, . ,

mm A N D Ts u uco u nr La Tun i si a ( P ari s , G B P T La . .

Tun i si e é con o mi quo ( P a r i s Sta t i sti que g é n é r a l e ( Tun i s

, .

a n n ua ll y ) ; L EC O R E C H A R PBN TI E K L i n d i ca te u r t u n i s i e n ( Tun i s
’
-
, .

1 89 9
J O SE P H Lms .
 TU N STA LL

Th e Sta te Pa p er s do me sti c a nd fore i g n f o r th e re i g n s o f

, ,

H e nr y V I I I E dw a r d V I a nd M a ry a n d t h e usua l sour e s of
, , .
c

i n f orma ti on f or t h ose re i g ns t oo n ume ro us f o r ci ta ti on h e re must , .

b e r f e rre d t o N o i n d e p en d e n t b i o g ra p h y e x i sts b u t a mo n g
re ce n t wri te rs t h e f o llow i n g sh o u ld b e co ns ul te d : B R A D Y E p i
e .

, s

p a l S u ccessi n ( R o me B R I DG E TT K N O X Q u een E l i za beth

a ch y ( L on d o n P O L LA R D i n D i t N t
-
co o , ,

a n d th e Ca th ol i c H i er r ,
e . a .

B i g s v ; P H I LLI P S Th e E ti n ti n f th e A n ci en t H i er r ch y c o o a

( L on d o n
o .
, . .
, x
B urr Th e E l i za b tha n Rel i g i ous S ettl emen t ( Lon
, ,
e

d on,
E DW I N B U R TO N .

Tun st all , T H O M AS V ENERA B LE m artyred at , ,

N orwich , 1 3 July 1 61 6 H e w as descended from the

-
, .

Tuns ta lls of Thurlan d an anc ient Lan c ashire family ,

who afterwards settled in Y orkshire In the Douay .

Di aries he is called by the ali as of H el mes an d is

described as Ca r leolen si s that is bo r n with in the a h , ,

cient D iocese of Carlisle H e took t he College oath .

at Douay on 24 M ay 1 607 ; received m inor orders at ,

A r ms 1 3 June 1 609 , an d the subdiaconate at Douay

, ,

on 24 June followin g The diary does no t record his .

ordin ation to the diacon ate or p riesthoo d , bu t he le tt

the college as a priest on 1 7 August 1 61 0 Ou reac h , .

ing E nglan d h e was almost i mmediately apprehended

an d spent four or five y ears in various prisons till he
succeeded in escap ing from W isbech C astle H e .

’
made h is way to a fr iend s house near Lynn where he ,

was recap tured and com m itted t o N or wi ch G aol .

A t the n e x t assi z es he was tried and con demned

( 1 2 July The saintliness of h is demeanour on
,

the sca flold p roduced a profound impression on the

'

p eop le There is a contemporary portrait of the

.

m artyr at Stony h urs t show ing h im as a m an st ill ,

young wi th abundan t blac k h air a n d d a rk moustache

L
.

C H A LLO N E R M e moi r s of M i ss i ona r y P ri es ts I I ( o n d o n

L
. . .

Th i r d D o ua y D i a r y X X I ( C a th o l ic R e cor d Soci e ty o n d on ,
L
. . .

F O L E Y Recor ds E ng P r ov S J , X I I ( on d o n
N
. . . . .
,

ED W I B UR TON .

Tu ns t ed , S I M O N E nglish M inorite b at N orwich , , ,

.

year unknown ; d at B ru isy ard Su ffo lk 1 369 H av

.
, ,
.

i ng j oined t he Greyfriars at N or wi ch he dist in g u ished

h imself for learn in g an d p iety and w as m ade a doctor
of t heolo gy H e fille d several im portant ecclesi ast ical
.

charges bein g at di fferen t t imes warden of the Fran

,

ci sca n con ven t at N or w i ch , regen t mas ter of the

M inori tes at Oxford an d twenty n inth p ro -

vi n ci a l superior of h is order i n E ngland He

“
wrote a commen tary on the M eteo ra of Aristo tle ,

i mproved the A lb eon of Richard of W alli n gford and

“
is t he repu ted aut h or of ano ther work t he Quatuor ,

P r i n ci p a li a M usic as a c lear , p racti cal , and ve ry valu

able med ieval treat ise on musi c Davey gives a .

thorou gh discussion of t he authorsh ip of th i s work ,

whi ch h as been ascribed by di fferen t wri ters on the

h istory of musi c to T un ste d to John H a n boy s and to , ,

Thom as of Tewk esbu ry ; bu t the argu men ts brought

forward by Davey show that i t is certainly not t he
work of ei ther H a n boy s or Thom as of Tewkesbu ry ,

wh ilst h is con c lusion wi th regard to the fir st n amed -

wri ter is that “ the gro unds for ascribi ng i t to Tun

sted are admi ttedly i n suffi ci e n t ; and intern al ev idence
p oints to the author being a forei g ner either by birth
”
o r education
D A V E Y i n D i et Na t B i og s v I D E M H i st of E n g l i sh M usi c
.

E D W A RD C P H I LL IPS
.
. . .
, .
,

. .

Tur g ot , A NNE R O B E RT J A CQ UES Baron de L A ulne ,

’
- -
,

Fren ch m in ister , b at Paris 1 0 M ay , 1 7 27 ; d there .

,
.
,

20 M arch 1 7 8 1 In his youth he was destined for

,
.

the Ch urc h ; he comp osed a treatise on the e x i sten ce

of G od of wh ich fragmen ts remain and one on the
, ,

love of G od , wh ich i s lost The year 1 7 5 0 , d uring .

wh ich he was pr ior of the Sorb onne mark s the transi ,

t ion between the two periods of h is life : on t he one

h and he de livered a d iscourse on the advan tages
,

accruing t o the human race from the Christ ian

religion wh ich showed hi m as still an ecclesiastic ;
,

on the other he delivered a d iscourse on the successive

,

progress of the human m ind in whi ch the true and ,

false ideas of t he ph i losophers wor e m i ng led co uf u

 TURI N TUR I N

fi ve m ineral springs . Th e pop ula t ion i s peoples as well as the k ing s li bra 1 y
, l l1 1 d e r th e
’
. .

palace t h e remains of a Rom an theatre were d isco v

th e numerous elemen tary and i n termed i ered The Palaz zo Madama stands on t h e si te of t h e
.

s, pub li c and privat e there are a un iversi ty

,
old decuman gate , whi ch became a castle in the M id
a musical l y ceum commerc ial a nd in d us
,
d le A ges and was repeated l y enl arged un ti l i n 1 7 1 8 i t , ,

The A ccadem ia A lbert in a for was fin a lly prepared by J uvara for M adama Reale as ,

possesses t h e precious M ossi Gallery she was called the widow of Charles E man uel I I
, It . .

is now occupied by the stat e archives and t h e observa

t ory . The Pala z z o Carignano a work of
G uarin i is the residence of the younger bran ch of Sa
,

voy Carignano ,
n ow the reigning
house This pal
.

ace was occup ied

by the Parli amen t
from 1 848 to 1 864 ,

and now shelters

the M useum of
N at ural H istory .

The Academy of
the Sciences for ,

merly a Jesui t
College
houses th e M u
seu m of Anti q
u i t i es and the
Pinacoteca The .

Pala z z o d i Citt a ,

or Ci ty H all
t he work
of L a n f r a n c h i ,

con tain s the B ib

li o teca C i v i c a .

There i s also a
M useo Civico di
Be ]le Arti ; and D OO R W A Y C H U R C H O F S G I O V A NN I . .
,

Tt mm X V C E NTUR Y
the M ole Anto .

n e lli a n a , 5 30 feet h igh contain s t he M useo d i ,

1 8 27 for ever y k ind of h uman mise r y , i n R isorg imento The c ity itself is laid out on
t 7 000 sick aged and i n fir m p ersons have
H I STO RY —Before the R oman con q uest of t h e
, , a very regular plan .

er ),
the R oyal G eneral Chari ty H ospi ce , .

of the Infan z i a A bbandon at a the R eale , G rai an and Cott ian Alps Tauras ia was already an ,

V irt u Th e Opera Pi a Barolo has important c ity of t he Taurin i a Li gurian people In , .

rect ion vari ous charit able and educat ion al 2 1 8 B c Hann ibal destroyed i t
. . Under A ugustus the .

For t he R ifugio and Oratory of St . con quest w as complet ed and the ci ty was named
Sales see B o s c o G I O V A N N I M E L C H I O R ,
,

Augusta Taurinorum ; rob a b ly con tin ued h ow

ever to form part of the dhmi n i ons of Cotti us K ing
.
, ,

, ,

of Secusi o ( the modern Susa ) In the war between .

Otho and V i tell ius i t was almost en tirel y b urned ,

do wn . N one of the Roman mon ume n ts h a ve sur

v i v e d e x cep t the Porta Palatin a commonly k nown as ,

the Towers n ear whi c h are the remains of a m on u

,

men t erected early i n the second century in h onour of

A ttili us Agr icola In the fif th and si x th centuries the
.

c ity sufi er ed from the i nvasions of th e Burgundians

'

and of Odoacer and m th e G ot hi c W a r Aft er t he

,
.

Lombard invasion it became the cap ital of a duc h y

an d fo ur of i ts d ukes A g ilulfus A r ioa ld us— ,

G a r i ba ld us R a gi mb er tus ( 7 0 1 ) — became
k in g s of th e Lombards W hen the Lombard k ing .

d om fell T ur in became a residence of Fra nk ish

,

count s unti l in 89 2, i t p as sed t o the m arq u e sses of

,

Ivrea from whom t hr oug h the m arri age of Adelaide

, ,

w it h Odo of Savoy i t passed int o th e posses

s i on of t h e l atter house I n 1 1 30 the c it y w a s con .

It was sumpt uously rest ored stit uted a commune st ill remai ning however under , , ,

c ity are : S M ari a Ausi li atri ce ,

. the i n flue n ce n ow of the count s of Savoy , n ow of the
co ; t he G ran M adre di Dio , marq uesses of Salu z z o or of M onfe r rato w ith whom , ,

ccas i o n of t h e return of K ing a s also w ith the emperors they were frequently at ,

M aria del M ont e ( 1 5 8 3 ) on t he war From 1 280 o n i t was almost constant ly under ,

the Bas il ica of Superga with a , the power of the H ouse of Savoy more parti cular ly ,

th e work of Juvara built by , the A cai a bran ch ( 1 29 5 After 1 4 5 9 i t was the

cap it al of the Duchy of Savoy In 1 5 36 it fell into .

t h e power of Fran c is I of France , W h o establ ished a

parliament there ; in 1 5 62 E man uel Phi libert recon
quered i t In 1 63 8 durin g th e q u a rrel of t h e re g en cy ,
.
,

the city was besieged by the Fren ch and defended b y

 TURI N 94 TURI N

Pr ince Thomas of Savoy Still more memorable is .

Candi da ; Landolfo who founded the Abbey .

t he siege of Turin i n 1 7 0 6 again at the hands of the , of Cavour and rep ai red the losses i n fli cted on hi s
Fren ch from wh i ch i t was r elieved by Pr in ce E ugene
, C h urch by the Saracen incursions ; Cun iberto ( 1 046
and by the s a cr i fice of Pietro M i cca During the . to whom St Peter Dami an wrote a letter exhort .

French occupation i t was the capi tal of the Depart in g him to repress energetica lly t he la x i ty of hi s
ment of the Po ( 1 7 9 8 though it was i n the clergy ; Uguccione ( 1 23 1 who abd icat ed the
hands of the A ustro Russian forces from M ay 1 7 9 9 , -
, bishopric an d became a Cistercian ; G uido Canale
until June 1 800 In 1 8 21 th e revolut ion agai nst
, . who founded a hosp it a l at Pinerolo and
Charles E manuel broke out and a provisional govern , enlarged the cathedr al ; Thomas of Savoy
ment was set up t he ki ng abd ica t ing i n favour of h is
, Under G ianfrancesco della R overe Turin was -

detached from the m etropoli tan obedien ce of M i lan

and became an archi ep iscopal see with M ondo vi and
'

Ivrea for s ufi r a g a ns , other sees be in g added lat er ou .

In t he time of Cesare C ibo th e diocese was in fested

with the Calvin isti c heresy and h is successors were ,

also called upon to combat i t Cardinal G erolamo .

della Rovere i n 1 5 64 brought to Tur in the H oly

, ,

Shroud and t he b ody of St M aurice the martyr .

, .

From 1 7 1 3 to 1 7 27 , owing to d ifficulti e s w ith the

Holy See the See of Turi n remained vacant A fter
1 848 Cardinal L uigi Fr a n soni ( 1 832 62) distinguished
,

h imself by his courageous opposition to the en croach

— .

ments of t he Piedmontese G overnmen t upon the

r ight s of t he Church, and in conseq uence was obli ged
to live i n exile N otable among h i s successors are.

Cardinal A li mon d a ( 1 883 a po lished wr iter and ,

Cardinal Ri ch e lmy the presen t in c umbent of

t h e see The dioceses suflr a g a n to T ur in are A cqui
A lba A osta Asti Cuneo F ossa no Ivr ea M ondovi
.
,

, , , , , , ,
Pinerolo Salu z z o and Susa The ar c hd iocese corn
, , .

prises 2 7 6 parishes with souls , 1 4 05 secular

and 280 regular priests 3 5 commun ities of male and ,
-

5 1 of female relig ious 1 5 e d uca t i on a l esta bli sh men ts ,

for boys and 27 for girls There are two Catholi c daily .

newspapers “ M e ment o ” and “ Italia Reale ” two

, ,

weekli es and many other i nstruct ive and edifying

,

p e r 1 od 1 ca ls .

Ch i ese d I ta li a X I V ; Sa vr o Gli a n ti ch i vesco m

' '

m
, .

d el P i emont e ( Tur i n , 28 1 ; C I B R A R I O , S tor d i Tor i no

( Tur i n , I SA I A . Tor i n o e di n tor m ( Turi n SE M E R I A
'

. ,

Stori a de lla ch i e sa di Tor i n o ( Turi n , Gui do commer ci a l e cd

a mmi n i s tr a ti v a di Tor i n o ( Tur i n Ce u m s tor i co- sta ti sti ci
’

d ell e i sti tu zi om p ubli ch e e p r i va te d i ben efi cen za e d i a ssi sten za d el

'

Comu n e d i Tor i n o ( Tur i n R o n no u n o I vi scon tt d z Tori n o.

' “

. .

i n B oll etti n o S tor i co Suba lzn n o ( P i n e ro l o, 1 9 0 1

'

P O R TA PA LA I I N A Tua m
TH E ’ ‘
,

brother Charles Felix Af ter that T urin was the .

,
TH E U N I VE RS I TY T U R I N was fo unded i n 1 4 04 OF ,

centre of a ll Italian movemen ts for the un ion of t he when the lect ures at Pi acen z a and Pavia were inter
Pen insula whether monarchi cal Or republi can The
, . r up te d by the wars of Lombardy Some of t h e pro .

transfer of the cap i tal of the K ingdom of I taly from f essors of t heology med ic ine and arts at Piacen za , ,

T ur i n to Florence in 1 864 caused another though , , ,

obtained permission from Louis of Savoy Acai a t o -

n ot importan t revolut ion (21 22 September ) , . con tin ue t heir cour ses at Turin This prin ce had .

The most anc ien t tradi tions of Christi anity at ob tained from the ant ipope Bened i ct X I I I , i n 1 4 05 ,

T urin are connec ted wit h the m artyrdom of Sts A d . the p on t ifica l privi lege for a sta di um gen era te a n d in ,

ven t or Solutor and Cand ida who were much ven

, , ,
1 4 1 2 t he per mi ssion of the emperor was li kewise
e r a t e d i n the fif t h cent ur y and were i n later ti mes granted In t h e foll owing year John XX I I I con
.
,

i n cluded in t h e Theban Legion As to the episcopal . fir med the concessions of Bened ict X I I I rendered
see i t is certain t h at in the earli er half of the fourt h
,
n ecessary by the wars whi ch had d istur bed t h e
century T uri n was subj ect to V ercell i Perhaps how stud i u m o f Tur in The s tud i um t hen comprised three
’

- .
.
,

over St E useb ius B ishop of V ercell i on h is ret urn

, .
, ,
f a cult im : t heology law ( canon an d c iv il ) , med icine ,

from e x i le provided the c ity wit h a p as t or of i ts own

, .
( with arts and p hi losophy ) The Archbishop of .

In a ny case St M a x i m us can hardly be considered the

. Turin was always chancellor of t he un i versity A s .

fi rst Bis h op of Turin even though n o other b is h op is ,

at Bologna the rect or cont inued for a long t ime t o be
,

kno wn before h im Th is sai nt many of whose hom i

.
,
chosen from t heir own body by t he st udent s who in ,
’
lies are e x ta nt r di e d between 4 08 and 4 23 I t was . 1 67 9 represented th irteen n at ions The professors .

anot her M a x im us who l ived i n 45 1 and 4 65 In 4 9 4 . salaries were paid by t he com munes of Savoy ; b ut
V ictor wen t wi t h St E p i p h a n i us t o Fran ce for t h e ran from 1 4 20 the c lergy also contribut ed an d at a later
som of p ri soners of war St U r si ci nus ( 5 69 —
.
,

609 ) peri od the d ukes In the seven teenth cent ury the
su ffered m uch from the depredations of the F ren ch
. . .

. un iversi ty levied a t a x on the Jews Under Duke .

It was then t hat the Diocese of M ori a na ( M aurienne ) Amedeo V I I I , the State began to restrict the
was d etached from that of Turin O ther bishops . autonomy of the s ta d i um by means of rif on na tor i
were Rust i cus ( d Claud ius ( 8 1 8
. a cop ious ,
an d subj ected the professors and st udents in criminal
though n ot original wr iter famous for h i s oppositi on
, ,
m atters t o ord inary j urisd ict ion From 1 4 27 t o 1 436 .

to t he vener ation of i mages ; R e g i mi r us ( of un certain t he seat of the un iversity was t emporar ily t rans
date in the n int h cent ury ) who establish ed a rule of
, ,
ferred t o Chieri and Savi gn ano The number
comm on li fe amon g his canon s ; A molo n e ( 880 of salaried professors in t h e years 1 4 5 6 and 1 5 33
who in curred the i ll will of the Turinese and was -
was twenty five ( only two of t heology ) but t h e
-
,

driven out b y t h em ; G e z on e who founded the

m onastery of the holy mart y rs So lu tor A d ve n t or an d , ,
n umber of lect urers was much g re a ter ; e g in the
statutes of the theo logic al faculty ( 1 427 36) n ineteen — . .
,
TUR K E STA N 95 TUR KE STA N

n ineteent h cen tury : Father Peyron , professor of

Oriental languages a celebrated E g y ptolog ist , the ,

p hi lologists V a lla ur i and F a br e tti the mathematic ian ,

and physicist G ali leo Ferrari , the hi storian Balbo ,

the physiologis t Cesare Lombroso The uni versi ty .

h as 22 cha irs of j urisprudence wi t h 1 8 professors and

20 docents ; 24 cha i rs of p h ysical and mathematical
sciences wi th 1 7 professors and 1 7 d ocents ; 28 c hairs
of medi cine wi th 25 professors and 89 docents ; 22
c h airs of p hilosophy and li terature wi th 1 9 professors
and 21 docents In connexi on wi t h t he med ical
.

fac ulty are a school of ph armacy vari ous c lin ics , ,

lab oratories , etc as well as t he laboratories , cabi nets

.
, ,

and astronom ical observatory of the other sci e n ti fic

faculties I n 1 9 1 0 1 1 there were 2204 students
.
—
enrolled .

A nn ua ri o d e lla R Un i ver si td d i Tor i n o . V A L LA U RI ,

Stori a d e ll e Un i ver s i tri d eg li St u di i n P i e mo n te ( Turi n

'
-
.

B O NA D eIle cost i tuz i n i dell Un i ver s i ta d i Tor i no ( Turi n

,
o
'

U B E N I GN I
—I C HI
. .

Tu r k es t a n . . N E SE TU R K E sr A N .
—Wh en J eu
gh i z K han died ( 1 227 ) his secon d son D j a g a ta i h ad , ,

the greater p art of Central A si a for h is share of the i n

h eritan ce : his emp ire i ncluded not on ly M avar a un -

N ahr between the Syr Dari a and the A rn u Daria

, ,

but also Fer gh a n a B adakhshan Chi nese Turk estan , , ,

as well as K horasan at the beg i nn ing of h is re i gn ; h is

cap i tal w as Alm al iq i n the 1 11 V alley near the site of ,

the p resen t Kulj a ; in the fourteen th cen tury the

emp ire was di vi ded i n to t wo p arts : M avara un -

N a hr or Tr a nso x i a n a , and M ogh uli s t a n or Jabah the ,

’
easte r n d i vision In 1 7 5 9 the E mperor K ien Lung
.

subj ugated the coun try north an d south of the T ien ’

’
shan an d di vi ded t he new terri tory in to T ien shan -

Peh ln an d T ien shan N a n lu ; i n 1 7 62 a m ilitary

-
’
- -

governor was appoin ted an d a new for tifie d town ,

H wei yuan chin g was erected ( 1 7 64 ) near the si te of

- -
,

Kulj a : a n um ber of M anchus from Pek in g an d the ,

Amu , an d M ongols were dr awn to the new p lace an d

later on there came a m igrat ion of Chin ese from the
K an su and Shen si Provin ces The local M oham
- -
.

medan ch ieft ains are kno wn as P&k ’ e (Beg) ; they are

classed 1 11 five d egr ees of rank from the t hir d to the
seven t h degree of t h e Chinese h ierarchy : the most
’
i mportan t titles are Ak i m Beg ( local governor ) Ish ,

k h an B eg ( assistant governor ) Shan g B eg ( collector of ,

revenue ) H a tsz e B eg ( j udge ) , M irabu B eg (sup er i n

,

tendent of ag ri culture ) .

The bad a d m i ni strat ion of the Ch inese gove r no r s

was the c ause of n umerous rebelli ons ; a great rising
t ook p lace agai nst the Governor of 1 11, P i Tsing ; at
the head w as J ih a n gh ir son of Sa d d et Ali Sarimsak ,

an d grandson of one of th e K hoj a Burhan e d Di n ; ,

-

unfortun ate at fir st J ih a n gh i r was vi ctorious in Oc to ,

ber 1 825 , an d cap t ured the four great town s of

,

T ien shan N a n lu z K ashgar , Y angi hissar Y ark and

’
- - -
, ,

and Kh ot an The C hin ese E mperor Tao Kwan g

.

sen t G eneral Ch ’ an g Ling to figh t the rebels J ih a n .

’
ghi r w as defeated and m ade a prison er at K art i e
k ai ( 1 828) an d sen t to Pekin g where he was put to
death i n a c ruel man ner O n th e other h an d the .
,

establ ishmen t of Orenburg by the Russians the ex ,

plorat ion of the Syr Daria by Ba t i ako v, the toun da

t ion of Ka z alinsk ( 1 8 48 ) n ear the mouth of th is river ,

the exertions of Per ovsky the attacks of the Cos ,

sacks against the Kh an ate of Kh oka n d had for resul t ,

the arrival of the Russians i n the valley of the I li

Ri ver Ou 2 5 July , 1 85 1 Col K ova le vski si gned
.
, .

w it h the C hinese o n behalf of the Russians at Kas h

gar a treaty regul at in g th e trade at Ili ( Kulj a ) and at
Tarbagatai ( Ch u gutch a k ) In the m ean time new .

rebellions brok e ou t after the deat h of J i h a ngh i r :

i n 1 8 4 6 one o f the Kh oj a K at ti Torah w it h the help , ,

of h is brothers t ook K ashgar but was soon defeated ,

by the Ch inese ; in 1 8 5 7 W ali Khan captured K ashgar ,

Ar tosh and Y angi ~ ,hissar ; an d at las t the son of .

J ih a ngh ir B ur z uk K han with the help of M oha mmed

, ,
 TU R K E STA N

Y akub , son of Ismet Ulla born abou t 1 820 at Psken t ,

i n the K hanate of K h ok a n d tak i ng advan tage of ,

the M oham medan rebell io n of K an su , began a new -

struggle against th e C h inese Y akub having taken .

,
’
Bur z uk s place subj ugated K ashgar K hotan A ksu , , , ,

and the other t owns south of the T ien shan th us ’

-
,

creatin g a new emp ire ; h is cap it al was Y arkan d an d ,

there he recei ved embassies from E ngland in 1 87 0 and

1 8 7 3 ( S ir Douglas T Forsy th ) an d fro m Russia i n .

1 8 7 2 (Col Baron K a ulb a r s ) . .

To check the advance of Y ak ub to the west the -

,

Russian s who had captur ed Tas h k ent (27 June , 1 8 65 )

took p ossession of Il i i e the north of t he T ien sh an , , . .
’
—
on 4 July 1 87 1 W hen the Ch inese had que lled th e
,
.

Y un n an rebellion after the surren der of T a l i they

- -
,

turned their arm ies against th e M ohammedans of the

north west ; the celebrated Tso Tsung t ang V iceroy
- -
’
,

of K an su an d Shen si h ad been appo in ted com

- -
,

man der i n ch ief ; he captured Su chau (O ct

Urumtsi Tih —
- - -
,
.

hwa an d M an as ( 1 6 N ov , 1 87 6) when
, , .

a wholesale m as sacre of t he inh abit ants took place ;

the Russian Go vernor of Turkestan G eneral K a uf ,

m an wrote a protest against t hese cruelties The

, .

t ask of the Chinese was ren dered easy b y the death of

Y akub (2 9 M ay Aks u ( 1 9 Oct , Y ar ,
.

k an d (2 1 D ee ) K a shgar (26 D ee ) an d at las t K hotan , ,

( 1 4 Jan 1 87 8 ) fell in to t heir hands

.
, The Chinese .

then turn ed to the Russi ans to have Ili occup ied

temp orari ly r estored to them Ch un g—
,
’
,
h o u sen t .
,

as an amb as sador to St Petse r b ur g signed at .

,

Li vadia in Oc t 1 87 9 a treaty ceding t o the R ussians .

, ,

—
a large p ortion of th e con tested territo ry in cluding
the M uz A r t P as s giving them the privilege of selli ng
their goo ds not on ly at T ie n tsi n an d H an kou but
,
’
— -

also at K algan K i a y ti Tang shan , Si ngan an d

‘

- - -
, , ,

H anchung ; p ermission was also granted to t he B us

sians not only at Il i Tarbagatai K ashgar an d , , ,

K urun but also at K i ay ii k wan K obdo , Uli asut a i ,

’
,
-
,
’

H ami Turfan Urum tsi and K ush ten g The treaty

, , ,
.

was strongly attacked by t he censor Chan g Ch i tung ,

-
,

an d Ch ung ho u tr ied by a h igh court was sen tence d

’
-
, ,

to death W a r between Russia and Chin a very

.

n early brok e ou t but thank s t o the good offi ces of , ,

forei gn powers a new embassy sent t o Russi a w it h ,

the M ar quis Ts en g arran ged m atters A new treaty .

w as signed at St Petersburg 1 2 (24 ) Feb 1 88 1 an d .

, .
, ,

Russia k ep t bu t the western p art of the con tested

terri to ry restoring the Pass of M u z Art an d giving
,
-

up som e of the commercial privileges gran ted by the

L ivadi a Treaty .

After the M ohammedan rebell ion had been crushed ,

the territory was organi z ed in 1 8 7 8 an d was called

Sin Ki an g or N ew Dom in ion , t he n ames E astern
-

Turkestan an d Chinese Turkestan being also used ;

i t is boun ded on the north by Siberi a on the west by ,

Russian Turkestan an d In dia on the sout h by T ib e t , ,

and on the ea st by M ongoli a and t he C hi nese Provin ce

of K an su I ts area i s 5 5 0 5 7 9 square mi les, W 1 t h a
-
.
,

popu lat ion of 000 in habit ants scat tere d over

this i mmense desert vary i n g i n altitude fro m 3000
to 4 000 feet above the level of the sea an d su rroun ded
by mo untai ns : in the south the Kwen lun and i ts -

two branches the N a n shan an d the Altyn Tagh ; in ,

- -

th e west the K arakoram the P a rn i rs an d t he Trans

, ,
'
A l tai ; i n the north by the T ien shan north of wh ich -
,

chain t he country is called T ien shari Peh In or Sun

—
’
-

garia and south of i t T ien sh an N anlu or K a sh g ar i a

.
’

The ch ief ri ver of Chinese Turkestan is the Tarim or

T ali mu h o abou t 1 25 0 rniles in len gth resulting
'
- -
, ,

from the j un ction of the r i vers or d a ri as waterin g ,

Y arkan d Khotan etc ; fi nally the Tari m empt i es its

, .

wat ers in to the Lob N o r now more of a marsh but -

,

a lake 1 11 ancien t times The p rin cip al p a sses to en ter .

Si n K ian g are the following : the T a s h Davan

-

( Kwen lun range ) south of Lob Nor ; th e Karakoram

-

,
-

P a ss road leading from Y ark an d t o Leh in L adak ;

,

t he Sh ish i klik Pass in the Pam irs ; the Kyz il Art P a ss , ,

 TUR K I SH 98 TU RK I SH

( ancient Cyren aica whose coasts in an ti quity were won over M eanwhile the rival amb it ions of the
.

“
very fertil e ) , th e oasis and c ity of Tripoli powers prevented the E astern Question from being
in h ab itants ) and inland the oasis of Gh adames On
,
. regulated in a d e fin i ti ve m ann er I n 1 821 the i n sur .

t h is territory of sq miles there are scarcely . rect ion of t he Greeks supp orted by E ur ope ended in , ,

one m ill ion inh ab itan ts The princ ipal resou rces . the creation of the K i n gdom of Greece ( Treaty of
are the c ultivat ion of fru it trees and in t he oases A drianop le 1 829 ; and C onf eren ce of London
, ,

dat e palm s .
The Servians form ed an autonomous principali ty as
I I H rs r O R Y The coun tries w hich form thi s
.
'
.
-
early as 1 830, and in 1 832 the Pas h a of E gypt .
,

immen se territor y represen t what remains of t he M e h e me t A li , revolted ; hi s independence was con

-

con quests of t he O ttomans , a Turk ish tribe originally ceded to hi m i n 1 84 1 , on condi tion t hat he would
from K horassan which em igrated into Asia M inor ,
recogni ze the su z erain ty of the sultan ; I n vain t he
abou t 1 224 at the time of the cat aclysm produced
,
Turks tried to reform ; after t he massacre an d the dis
in Central Asi a by the M ongolian i n vasion of Jeng solution of the J a ni ssar i es ( 1 826) M ah moud org a n i zed
h i z K han
-
The chiefs of t his tribe of t h e K ei Kan
.
-
an army resemb li ng the E uropean established m ili tary ,

k ali became the mercenaries of t he Selj uk em i rs of

A sia M inor One of them O thman , p roclaim ed
.
,
schools and a newspap er an d i mposed the E ur opean
cost ume on his subj ects In 1 839 Abdul M edj id or .
,
—
h imself in dependent at the end of t he th i rteent h cen g a n i z e d the Ta n z i md t ( new regi me ) an d accorded to
tury , and took t he t i tle of sultan or p ad ishah , . h i s subj ects a real charter liberty reli gious t oleration , , ,
.

Under Orkhan was organ i z ed w it h some C hr is tian and prom ises of a li beral governmen t I n 1 8 5 4 the .

captives t he permanen t m ilit ia of t he Jan issaries ; Tsar N i ch ola s of Russi a strove to take up again the
and t hen began incessan t w a r between the Ot toman s p roj ect of Catheri ne I I and t o do away w ith t he si ck ,

and the B y z an t in e E mp ire In 1 35 9 Su le i man . man ” . Protected by Fran ce and E n gland Turkey ,

en tered E urope by t he occupat ion of Ga llipoli . kept at t he Con gress of Paris

, a ll of i ts terri tory
M urad establ ished h i mself at A drianople ( 1 360) and save M oldavia and W allachi a wh ich were declared
autonomous The Hatti H uma y oun of 1 6 F e b ,
,

at tacked the Slavon ic peoples of the Balkans The . .

-
.

battle of K ossovo ( 1 389 ) gave h im Serv ia The . 1 85 6, proclaimed the ad mi ssion of Christians t o all
struggle continued un til t he t ak ing of Cons tan t inop le emp loyments and equa li ty wi th other subj ects before
b y M ahomet I I , who p ut an en d t o t he By z an tine the law b ut after t he L iberal govern men t of Fuad
,

E mp ir e and conquered the Peloponnesus Pasha t hey resumed their form er ways On all sides .

N egropon t Treb i z ond B osn ia ,

t he provin ces revolted and about 1 87 5 formed the ,

and W all achia H e died i n 1 4 8 1 after fail i n g t o tak e

.
, . party of Y o un g T urkey desirous of reform in g the ,

Belgrade and R hodes b ut ach iev in g th e con quest of ,

emp ire on the E ur opean m odel .

A nato li a as far as the E uphr ates and t he pen i nsula Two sultans , Abd ul A z i z and M urad w ere succes
'

-
, ,

of the Balkans as far as t he Danube To these con . s i ve ly deposed A n ew sultan A bdul Hamid pro .
,
-
,

quests Selim I added A z e rb a i d j a n Syr ia and E gypt , ,

c lai med on 23 De c 1 8 7 6 a constitut ion resem bling the .
, ,

D iarbek ir an d M esopotami a he E uropean wi th a p ar liamen t and responsible m i nis

received from M ecca the banner of the prop het and ,
ters ; but t he reforming grand vi z ier M idhat Pasha
took t h e t itle of caliph wh ich assures to the Sultan , was strangled and t he opening of par li amen t was n o
,

of Con st an t inri p le the sp iri tual auth ority over all th e more t han a comedy E ur ope decided t o act and in .
,

M ussu lmans of the world . 1 87 7 Russi a took the lead and sen t an army across the
So liman I took Rhodes from the Kn ights of St . Balk ans after the di fficult siege of Plevna an d would
, ,

Jo h n ( 1 5 22) and conq uered H un gary whi le K h a i r ed have entered Constant inop le had i t n ot been for t h e
d in B arbarossa subj ected t he B arbary States i ntervent ion of an E n glish flee t The treaty of San .

Selim I I took possessi on of the Island of Cyprus Stefan o ( M arch 1 87 8 ) establ ished a G rand Prin ci ,

b ut the Turki sh dom ination had reached the p a li ty of B ulgar ia and cut Turkey i n E urope int o ,

l im its of its e x tension Sol iman had been unable t o . many sections B ismarck alarmed by the p rogress .
,

take e ither V ienna ( 1 5 26) or M alta and i n of R ussia h ad th is treaty revised at the Congress of
,

1 5 7 1 t he great vi ctory of the Chri st ian fle e t at Le Berli n the independen t B ulg ar i an princ ipali ty
p ant o weakened the n aval p ower of the T urks in the w as reduced t o M ossia to the n ort h of the Ba lkans ;
M editerranean A t the end of the sixteent h cen . E astern Rumelia alone was auton omous and M ace ,

tury the T ur k ish E mp i re had attained the z eni th of i ts don i a rem ained Turk ish The i ndependen ce of Ser .

power on land The siege of V ienn a of 1 683 whi ch .

,
v ia M ontenegro and R umania was san ctioned
, , .

fai led thank s t o the intervention of the K in g of

, G reece received Thessaly ; A ustri a occup ied B osni a
Poland Jo h n Sob ieski marks t he last aggressi ve a t
, ,
and Her z egov i n a ; E n glan d estab lished herself i n t he
temp t of the Turk s on t he W est Hen ceforth the west . Island of Cyprus This treaty r a t i fied by all the .
,

ern powers encroach on the Tur k ish E mpi re and begin powers was followed by new d ismemberments In
, .

i t dismembermen t
s
In 1 69 9 by the treaty of K arlo . 1 8 8 5 E astern R umeli a was ann e x ed t o B u lgaria In .

v it z t h e Sultan ceded Hungary and Transylvan ia to 1 89 7 Crete revolted and t ried to reun it e with Greece , .

A ustria It is true t h at in 1 7 39 the Turks succeeded

. After the vi ctorious campai gn of h is army in Tbessaly
i n ret ak ing Belgrade b ut this was t heir las t m i li tary ,
the su ltan kept the sovereignty of Crete b ut wit h a n ,

su ccess The p owerful m i li ti a of the J a ni ssa r i es was

. autonom ous Christian governor a son of the Ki ng of ,

of n o further use ; the admi nistration was corrupt an d G reece .

venal M oreover , the Turks were unable t o i mpede

. In con trast to his predecessors who had sought to ,

t he progress of Russia ; in 1 7 7 4 b y the treaty of K ain restore t he i r country b y reform in g i t , t he Sultan

a r d j i the T urk s ceded to Russi a the Cri mea and the Abdul H a rni d establi shed a r egime of fero cious r e p re s
-

coasts of the Black Sea and t o Austria Ruman ian , sion against the Y oun g Turks , who were partisan s of
I Sukowi n a The French Revolut ion of 1 7 89 saved
. t he reforms A form idable pol ice p ursued a ll those
.

T urkey from th e proj ect of divisi on plann ed by w ho were suspected of Liberal ideas an d an unp i ty ,

Catherine 1 1 ; the Peace of Jassy ( 1 7 9 2) restored ing censorship undertook t he impossible task of de
only a p art of Bessarabia and the left bank of the p r i vi n g Turk ey of E uropean p ubli cat ions ; t he i ntro
Dniester E gypt occupied b y the Fren ch in 1 7 89
.
, ,
d uction of the most inoff ensive books such as Ba e ,
’
surrendered to Turkey i h 1 800 but i n t he m ost pre .
,
d e k er s gu ides was proh ibited E m issaries every
, .

carious cond ition A f ter the n ineteenth cent ur y began
t h e forward movemen t of the C h ristian nationalities
wh ich had submitted up to that time to T urk ish
d omination ; public O p in ion in E urope upheld this
. where revived M ussuh a n fanat ic ism ; to t he clai ms
of t he A rmen ian revolut ionar ies the Su lt an responded
by fri ghtful massacres of t h e Ar men ians of Const an t i
n O p le ( Sept followed soon b y t he slaughter
.
,

movemen t and the governm ents themselves were

, wh ich in 1 8 9 6 dren ched Kurdistan w ith blood ; every
 TUR K I SH 99 TUR K I SH

where Armen ian s were tracked and isolated m as , rel igious or commercial reasons an d under t he offi ci a l ,

sacres of Christi ans became also the normal order of protecti on and j u risdi ction of t h e ambassadors of the
events in M acedoni a . Powers M an y of t h c mms of class be h ave however
.
, ,

E ducated in W estern ideas the Y oun g Turk s e Sp a , , s ucceeded i n obt ain in g t h i s privi lege .

ci a lly t he refugees at Paris un it ed as earl y as 1 89 5 , ,

In 1 5 3 5 t h e fir st cap itula ti on was signed between
an d succeeded in sp i te of p ro h ib it ions in circula t in g the K ing of Fran ce Fran cis I , and t h e Sultan Sol iman , .

i
i n Tur key the r j ournal the “
M e ch ve r e t
”
A Com . I t accorded t o France t he p ro tectorate o ver all the
mi ttee of Union and Progress was even formed a t C hr istians Thi s agree men t w as often renewed i n
.
,

Consta nt inop le and by constan t propagand a su c ,

1 604 1 67 2 1 7 40 and
, A t the treat y of K a 1
, ,

cee d e d in gain ing to its cause the greater n umber of n a r d j i Russia obtained a sim ilar rig h t of p rotec t ion
t he o ffi ci a ls T he uprisin g the prep arat ion of whi c h
.
, over t he Ort h odo x C h rist ians The r i ghts of Fran ce .

deceived t he H a mi di an po lice began 23 July 1 9 08, , , to t he prot ect ion of Catholics of all nat ionalit ies have
at Salonica ; an ult i mat um was sent to t h e sultan who , , been recogn i z ed repeatedly b y the H oly See and par ,

abandoned even by his Al ban ians proclaimed t he ,

t i cula r ly b y t he E n cycl ical of Leo XI I I A sp era rerum
r e estab l ishmen t of t he const it ut ion ( 24 Jul y
- 1 9 08 ) , cond itio (22 M a y
”
Th e treaty of Berl in left ,

in t he m idst of in describab le en t husiasm and called to eac h state t h e care of p rotecting i ts subj ects b ut
i n pract ice F rance preserves t he protectorate over
, ,

a p ar li ament (4 Dec .
,

In t hr ee mon ths 300 j o urnals were started A broad .

, Cat holi cs an d even the dip lomat i c rupture between
,

the co un terstrok e t o th is revolut ion was th e defi n it ive Fran ce an d t he H oly See has no t impa ired t hese c iv i l
annexat ion p roclaimed by t he E mp eror of Austria ,
,
r ights E ach of t he G reat Powers has therefore con
.

of Bosn ia and Herzegov in a (3 O ct A t the .

, sid e r a b le interests in the Turk ish E mp ire : each on e
same t i m e t he Pr ince of B ulgari a took the t itle c f i ts own p ostal autonomy courts schools and organ i , , ,

Tsar of the B ulgarians ( 6 O ct , an d rep ud iated . z a t i o n s for p ropaganda teachin g an d charity , , .

the vassalage w hi ch st ill conn ected h i m wit h t he The Y oung Turk party in p ower to d a y dreams of ,
-
,

sult a n . over t h rowing t his arrangement The new const i .

T hi s exterior check weak ened the Y oun g Turk t ut i o n granted b y the Sult an M ohammed V 5 A ug ,
.
,

p arty and on 1 3 A pr il , 1 9 09 , a coun ter revolution of

,
-
1 9 09 p ro claims the equali ty of a ll subj ects in the m at
,

S of ta s and soldiers of the guard broke o ut i n Con ter of tax es m ili tary service an d pol it i cal rig h ts
, , .

st a n t in op le The Y oun g Turks had t o flee t he cap i

. For the fir st t ime Christi ans are adm it ted in to t he
t al b ut i mmed iately the tr 0 0 ps of Salon i ca M onast ir
, , , arm y , and the p arliament whic h meets at Constan ti ,

and A dr ianop le con sol idated and marched again st n op le is chosen indiscri minately by a ll t he races
,
.

Constan t i nop le and laid siege to i t ( 1 7 Ap r il , The e ffect of this new rég ime app ears to b e in the view ,

N egot iat ions con t in ued for si x da y s ; fin a lly at the of t he Y oun g Turks t he estab lish men t of a common ,

m omen t when the ma ssacre of the C hr ist ian s seemed law for all subj ects , the suppress ion of all pr ivileges
i mm i n en t t he Sa lon i ca n tr 0 0 p s en t er ed Constant i
, and cap itulat ions B ut the religious com mun i ties .
,

n ople and after a short batt le becam e masters of the

,
or mi llets hold to the an c ien t statutes w hi ch have
,

p lace O h 27 Apri l A bdul Ham id was forced to si gn

.
-
safe guarded t heir race and religion ; t he three oldest ,
-

h is abdi cat ion an d ban i shed to Salon ica A son of ,

. t hose of the G reeks the Armen ians an d Jews date , , ,

Abdul M edj id was made sultan under t he n ame of

-
back to the day f ollowi n g the t ak ing of Constant inople
M oham med V , and a new constit ut ion was proclaimed , by M ohammed I I .

5 Aug , 1 9 09 the Comm ittee of Un ion and Progress

.
, The rest of the E uropean p owers have in the Turk
super in tending i ts execut ion w it h d ictatorial p owers . i sh E mp i re p oli ti cal econom i c , and religious in terests
, ,

To day Turkey i s on t he road to reform and p ol it i cal

-
of considerable im portance ; a certai n n umber of
reorgani z ati on . p ub li c servi ces such as that of the p ubli c debt or ,

I I I R A CE S N A TI O N A L I TI E S A N D R E L I G I O N S
,

.
, ,
. institut ions l ike th e O ttoman Bank have an in ter ,

Accord i n g t o a trad it ion wh ic h dates back to t he nati onal character The same holds good of most of .

earliest ant i qu ity Or ienta l nation alit ies did not com , the compani es wh ich are formed t o e x ecute p ubl i c
monly form comp act group s set tled w ithin wel l de -
works docks railways e t c
,
Th e trade i n
, , .

fine d boun daries As a resul t of v iolen t transmi gra . e x ports and i mport s in volves large sums of money as ,

t ion s of peop les owing to hurricane li ke i n vasion s or -

, one may j udge by the following tab le :
even by t he simple chan ce of m igrat ions due t o
econom i c causes , all t he races of the Or ien t are FORE I GN C O MM E R C E F RO M 1 M A R CH , 1 9 08 , TO 28
m ingled i n an i ne x tr i cable manner and t here i s n ot a FE B , 1 9 09 (i n p i astres ).

single c i ty of t he Ottoman E mp ir e wh i ch does no t I mports E xports

contain speci men s of a ll races lan guages an d relig , ,

i ons The p op ulat ion h as therefore an ent irely het ero

.

g e n eo u s ch aracter ; t he Turks have never made an y

e fi or t to assim ilate t he ir subj ects ; t h ey do not appear
'

even to have attemp ted to prop agate Islam ism

widely Un t il the con sti tuti on of 1 8 7 6, and in fac t as
.

late as t h e revo lut i on of 1 9 08 , t hey have j ealously

str iven t o safeguard their p rivileges as con querors .

U p to the present t ime the pop ul at ion of t he emp ire Averi tab le econom ic war is going on between the
m ay be said t o b e d iv ided int o three cl asses : Powers , desirous of e x ploi ting t h e ri c h es of the Orien t ;
( a ) Th e M uss ulma ns ( Turks Ar abs Servian s A l , , , to the secul ar ambi tions whi ch menace the e x isten ce
ban ians ) en j oy in g alone the right of holding o th ee
, ,
of t h e “ sick man ” have been added new form s of
t he onl y landowners b ut subj ec t t o m i li tary servi ce , . greed N eit h er t he Russians nor the Greeks h ave
.

( b ) Th e Ra ms ( flock s) or i n fid e ls con quered peo , , ceased to consider Constan tinople as t he historic goa l
ples who have obt ained the righ t of preserv in g t heir of their e fl or ts and B ulgaria deprived of M aced on ia
'

, ,

religion b u t barred f r om all o th ee and subj ected t o a

, by t he treaty of Berlin also fin d s in i ts trad it ions ,

heavy t a x I t was U pon t hem t hat the despot ism ot c lai ms on the same heritage M acedon ia is claimed
'

. .

t he p ashas w as e x ercised They are st ill , followin g
“
t h e creed to wh ich t he y belon g d ivi ded in to na
”
tion s govern ed b y rel igious authorit ies C hr ist ian
b ishops Jew ish rabbis responsible to the sul tan but
, ,
provi ded wi th certain j urisd i ction over t h ei r fai thful
. by t he Greeks B ulgarians Se r vi ans and the K ut z o
, , ,
, V lachs or Ruman ians ; Salon ica has become a com
, me r ci a l cen tre for Aust rian e x port at ion ; an d t he
,
anne x at ion of Bosn ia and H er z egovina h a s b y one and
. th e same s t roke reinforced A ustro Hun garian and -

( c) E uropean subj ect s establ ished i n Turkey for G erman i n flue n ce in the Balkan Pen insula I taly
'

, . .
 TUR K I SR 1 00 TU R K I SH
'

has some c lients in A lbania and is seekin g a t t h e M acedon ia where they are mostly shepherds (1 1 )
F i n a lly in all T ur ki sh ci ties may be found a great
, , .

presen t m omen t to take possession of Tripoli .

,

Finally France E ngland and G erman y are fig h t

, , ,
n umber of fami li es of E ur opean origin set tled in the ,

ing to establish their moral and econ om i c i n flue n ce . coun try for a lon g period and who h ave lost their
France has maintained an importan t posit ion because ethn ical characters and their lan guages S uch are .

of the protection t h at it has alwa y s e x ercised over t h e Levantines who seek to obtain from the ambassa
,

Catho li cs ; French in t h e Orient has become a ki nd of i or s foreign n at ur ali z ati on for the sake of i ts pri vi
second vernacular ; whi le th e i n flue n ce of Germany has ig
e es .

in creased in t h e last few years for p o lit i cal reasons ,

From a reli gi ous standpoin t the M ussu lmans may
b y wh ich t he developm ent of German com merce h as be esti mated at 5 0 per cen t of the p opulat i on the ,

p ro fite d The E ur op ea n Power s an x ious for t h e

.
‘

, Orthodo x Ch urch 4 6 per cent Catholics 3 per cent , ,

defence of their own interests , are not however read y , ,

o ther comm un ities Jews Druses etc at 1 p er cen t , , .
, .

to abandon their cap it ulations The T ur kish E mp i r e . In T urkey in E ur ope on t he c on trary there ar e 66 , ,

has moreover en tered into a period of transform at ion

t he end of which no one can foresee and what delays ,
, per cent of Chr istians t o 33 per cent of M ussu lman s
( 1 ) M ussu lma n s The M ussu lman re li gion has .
— .

st ill more t h e task of the new power i s the i nfin i t e rem ained the reli gion of the state The sultan is .

alway s th e caliph t he Sp iri tual head of the M us sul

.

diversity of races and reli gions which make up t he ,

empire . mans of the whole world The M ussulmans comprise .

A lt h ough the stat ist i cal documents are ver y i n com the maj ori ty of Turk s Arabs and a portion of t he , ,

p le te t h e total p op ulat ion of t he empir e in c lud ing

, ,
A lbani ans B ulgari ans Greeks et c
,
Polygamy is , .

E gy pt and t h e dependencies ( Crete governed by , always legal ; four legit imate w ives an d an unli mi ted
Prince George under th e control of the Powers ; Samos , n umber of con cubines are p ermi tted to the beli evers .

governed since 1 832 by a Greek prin ce appoi nted by Under the i n fluen ce of W estern ideas a nd Chr is
t h e sultan ) , can b e estim ated at Under t i a ni ty monogam y tends t o est ab lish itse lf
, D ivorce .

t h e d irect governmen t of the sultan there are onl y e x ists, and the di vorced wom an can remarry The .

subj ects w h o belong to t he followin g ,

se x es are always separated in t he fami ly home , wh i ch
races : ( 1 ) Turks or Osmanlis est imated at , comprises the sela mli k ( male apartments ) and the
are settled t h roughout A sia M in or t h e c ities of , ha r em ( female apartments ) It i s the sam e i n the .

E urope an d Syr ia and som e cantons of M acedon ia ; , tramways rai lways sh ips et c The wom en cannot
, . .

most of them are M ussu lm ans ( 2 ) A rabs .

g o o ut excep t vei led , but c irculate freely in the
in A rabia Syria M esopotam ia and Tripoli , , , ,
streets of the ci ties un accomp anied Slavery is .

forming several sects of M ussu lmans (3 ) Jews .

,
always active b ut i t has kept a patri archal character
, .

scattered almost everywhere ( Jews of Span ish origin The master mus t endow h i s slave when the latter
form h alf of the pop ulati on of Sa lon ica ) ; compact m arries and the K oran ob liges h im to provide for the
,

groups of Jews may b e found in Jerusalem and it s needs of h i s slaves E d ucat ion is progr essing In . .

outskirts at Bagdad M ossoul and Beirut

, Sa ma r , , . prin ciple i t i s obligatory Primary educat ion is free , .

i ta n s in h abit t he sanj ak of N a p louse (4 ) Gipsies a .

,
a secondary school e x i sts at the cap ital of each vila
m y sterious race are scattered t hr oughout t he emp ire , . yet as well as one free profession al school Instru o
, .

( 5 ) A rmen ians who have swarmed outside of t heir , t ion of women is develop in g at C on stant inop le ; the
country and form p owerful colon ies i n Asia M inor ,
Lyceum of Galata Serai organi z ed by Fren c h pro -
,

M esopotami a Constan tinople and Turkey in E urope

, , . f essor s ha s 1 1 00 p up i ls
,
H igher instruction i s .

From a re ligious standpoin t they are C a tholi cs ,
G r e g or i a ns or Protestants , (6) Caucasian races :
La z es of Treb i z ond M ussu lm ans or Ort h odo x G reeks ;
represented by the Un i versity of Constant inople and
,
. spec ial schools A n i mperial m useum of a rch aeolo gy
has been created at Tch i li ni K i osk
.

— .

K ur d s , fanati cal M ussulmans scattered around E r z e As in a ll M ussu lm an co untr ies the sp iritual an d ,

rum A ngora M ossoul Sivas ; Ci rcassi a ns , Spread

, , , temporal domai ns are blended and c iv i l relations are ,

t h ro ughout A sia M inor M ussu lmans ( 7 ) Syrians , .

, regulated by reli gious l aw w hi ch consists in t he K oran
t h e descendants of A ramaean peop les , di vided in to a and in the Cheri a t a coll ection of customs The i h ,
.

multit ude of commun it ies of d iff eren t language and t e rp r e ter s of this law are t he u le ma s w ho form a pow ,

reli gion ; Cha ldaza n s i n Bagdad M ossoul Aleppo , , , , e r f u l clergy whose head t he S h ei kh ul i s la m, has t he ,
- -

Beirut or N es tor i a n s speak ing p art ly Syri an and

, , rank of vi z ier and access to t he counc il of m in isters
, ,

partly A rabi c The M elch i tes Speak Arabi c but.

, or d i va n A t twelve years of age t he futur e u lema s
.

belon g to the Greek C h urch The J a co bi tes or

.
.
,
leaves the primary sc hool and enters a med r esse ( sem
M onoph y sites speak Ar ab ic and Syri ac The
, . i n a r y attached t o t he m osque ) as a sof ta ( studen t )
M a mni tes of the Lebanon and of B eir ut speak A rab i c where he learns gramm ar eth ics and theology He , ,
.

and are Catholics The Dr us es of the Lebanon form . fin a lly receives from the S h ei kh ul i sla m the d ip lom a - -

an h eret i cal M ussu lman sect (8 ) The Gr eeks have . of cand idate (mu la si m) and can be elevated to the
remain ed in their hist oric country ; as i n ant iq uity rank of t he u lema s ; he ma y become cad i (j udge ) To .

t h ey are a marit ime people ; they form p owerful advance further he must study for seven ye ar s when ,

groups at Constantin ople Adrianople Salo n i ca in , , ,

he may become i ma m of a mosque The u lemas wear .

M acedonia A sia M in or in the i sles in Sy ria and in

, , , ,
a white turban ; t he h ad j i s who have been at M ecca , ,

Cret e They belong to th e Ort hodo x or t o th e Greek

.
have the green t urban The mesdj id s are simple .

Uniat Churc h ‘
T h e y are of considerable impor
. p laces of prayer I n a large mosque or dj a mi may be
.

tance m the emp ire ( 9 ) Th e A lban ians app ear to be . found s h ei kh s in charge of the preachin g ; ki a li bs who ,

t h e remnant of a ver y ancient race They form in the .

. d irect t he Friday prayer ; i ma ms charged w it h t he ,

west of th e B alkan Peninsula ( A lban ia ) a compact ordinary serv ice of the mosque (daily prayer m ar ,

group and s t 1 ll lead a semi patr iarchal life A large r i a g e s burials ) ; mu ezzzn s who ascend four t imes a
’

-
.
, ,

part is M ussulm an the ot h ers , day to the m in aret to ca ll t he faithful to prayer ;

C at h ol i c : among them ma y b e found t he powerful ka i ms a k ind of sacr istan Several orders of d er
t r i be of o t h e M i r d i tes In 1 9 1 1 the new governmen t
.
,

. vi sh cs form the regular clergy and devote them selves

was o b ll gerl to d irect an e x ped i tion against them to to spec ial prac tices of wh ich some are noted for t heir ,

e ffect t h eir d isarmament ( 9 ) The Slav p eop les .

, e x travagan ce ( howling and whirl ing ) ; t he y are d is
B ulgar i ans and Servi a ns are scattered over M ac e , t i n g ui sh e d b y a con ical felt hat The p r mci p a l r e . .

d oma and Old Sc r v i a where t h e y oppose G reek , li g i o us obl igations wh ich t he faithful perform wit h
,

1 n flue n ce ; they are d ivided be t ween Islam ism Ortho z eal are : pray er four times daily the weekly Friday
, , ,

d o x Chr i s t ian ity and Cat h oli cism ( 1 0 ) The Ku t zo

, . service t h e ob servan ce of Ra ma d a n ( abst inence from
,

V lachs or Rumanians Ort hodox or Cat h olics inhab it , ,

eat ing , drink ing and smok i n g from the r ising to the
,
 TU RM A I R 1 02 TU RNER

have , however encountered great obstacles i a their C h u r ch ( L on d on , DE M E E STE R Voy a ge d e , deuz bén édi cti n s
, .
a ux mon a stér es d a me n t A th os ( P a r i s B E RTR N D La melee A
work , and t hey have been unable even t o cons i der a d es r eli g on s en i Or i en t i n R evue d es
,

deux M ond es ( O ct
.

d i rect propaganda i n regard to t h e M ussu lm ans . I

D O W L N G Th e p a tr i a r ch a te of
. J E HA Y Jer usa lem ( Lon d on , ,

N e ver th ele ss, the ir moral i n flue n ce 1 s con s1 d e r a b le ; 1 t D e la si tuat i o n lé l

ga e d es auj ets ottoma ns non musul m n s ( B russ e l s a ,

B E RTR A N D L es é c l es d Or i ent i n R evu e d es d euz M on des o

'

man i fests itse lf by social works due to their 1 n 1 t 1 a t 1 ve ( Sep t O ct

,

Ca te d es é c les ch éti en n es d e Ma céd oi n e r o r

L O UV E T L es mi ssi ns ca tholi qu es u X I X ei écle
. ,

( schools , hp Sp i ta ls di spensaries et c ) wh i c h are very ( Pa r i s o ‘

( L y on s
, ,
.
, , c

prosperous and are main ta in ed by numerous or g a m K R O S E K th ol i sch e M i s s i ons sta t i sti k

, , a
,
Sr n mr
'
K a th li s h en M i ssi ona tla s
'
o B s ns é
c L cti on
'
a
z a t i ons founded i n E urop e : t h e Soc1 e ty of Fore i gn
, .

soci le d es mi ssi on na i es et les d omi n i oa i ns f r a nca i s en Tu qu i e

a r r
M issions of Paris founded in 1 65 8 ; the Propa gat i on d A si e ( P a ri s
'
L es m s sa cr s d A d a n et n s mi ssi on m i s a e
'

( L y o ns
, , a o re

of the Faith founded at Lyons i n 1 822 ; t he So c1 e ty of N O PC S A A K a toli ku s E sza k A tba ma X X XV ’

M A LD E N F or ei g n mi ssi on s ( Lo n
-
, , .

( Fo ld r a j zi K é z le me n y e k
,

St Fran cis Xavier founded at A ache n in t he year

. .

.
, d on B u ss D W I G H T A N D TU P P B R Th e E ncy l op ed i a f
mi ssi on s ( 2 n d e d L on d o n
, . . c o
1 832 ; the LeOp old sve r e in founded in A ustria i n 1 839 ; , B u ss Th e mi ssi on a ry ent , , er

t he Society of t h e Holy C h i l dhood etc p is

r ( 2 md cd
e N ew Y o rk W a s nn r A N D B A RTO N Th e .
,

Al ha mmed n W ld of T da y ( N e w Y ork
.
,
o a or o-
Among t he reli gious orders represented m the P eri o di c a ls : M i ssi on es Ca th li cae cu S Cong eg a ti on i s d e o ra
,

. r
T urk ish E mp ire must be m ent ioned : t he J e su1 t s , P e p a g a nda F i de d cr i p taz ( Ro me ) ; Revu e d a M ond e mueul ma n
r es

who have estab lished the Un iversity of St Josep h ( P a ri s ; see N ov 1 9 1 1 La con qué te d mon de mus ul ma n ) ; E ch a . a o
d O t en t ( P a ri s 1 8 9 7 B E A C H Sta ti sti l tl s of mi ssi on s
.
' '

of Be i rut whose faculty of le tt er s n umb er s d i stm

r

( L o n d on a n d N e w Y or k
. , ca a a
, H UB E R Ca te sta ti sti qu e d ea cu ltes , , r

gui sh e d Or ienta lists and e p i g r a p h 1 st s and whose Tur qu i e d E u r op e; I I Turqui e d A si e ( C a iro 1 9 1 0

’
ch éti ens : I
’

g
, , , .

school of medi c i ne p laced under the control of t he 1 1

L o m s B a t ma n
,

Un iversity of France forms a nurser y for nat i ve p hy ,

.

s i ci a ns ; it has a li brary and a prin ting press suppl ied

Tur m a i r , J OH A NNES
-

See TH U R M A YR
wi th Lat in and Ar ab i c characters ; it p ub li shes a
. .

j ournal and an Ar ab i c review E l B ac h ir and E l ,

-
Tur n eb u s , A D R1 A N , p h il ologist b at Andely in
M a chr i q; t he Assump t ion ists at Con st a n t mOp le ;
.
,
, N ormandy in 1 5 1 2 ; d in Paris 1 2 June 1 5 65 The .
, , .

many of whom devote t hem selves suc cessfu lly to t h e acc ount s of the lif e of the great scholar are scan ty and
study of archaeology an d By z ant ine a nt i qu 1 t 1 e s ; t he in part even contrad ictory N eit he r is i t e asy to ih
t e r p r e t t he n ame Tur n e bus in F ren ch Tum ébe
.

Brot hers of the C hr istian Sc h oo ls who had i n 1 9 08 , , , I t is , .

3 4 4 9 pup i ls (8 coll eges at Constant inop le 8 at Smyr na , , said t hat hi s father was a Scot t ish gen tleman nam ed
others at Salon ica A ngora t he Cap u chin s es , , Turnbu ll w ho sett led in N ormandy an d gave h is
F rom thi s i t
,
t a b li sh e d in Ar men ia A sia M i nor Syr ia et c ; the , ,
.
name t he Fren c h form of Tour n eboe uf .

La z ari sts at Beirut ; the Carmel ites at B agdad

, , , became Tournebu then Tur n éb e in Lat in Tur neb us , , .

Tripo li et c ; the Salesians in Palest in e ; t he Sisters of

,
.
, W hatever may have been t he derivat i on of h is n ame
St V in cent de Paul who have open ed in alm ost ever y
,
.
, Tur ne b us c ame from a noble t hough poor fam ily .

di stri ct schools hosp itals and workshops and who , , , W hen eleven years old he was sen t t o Par is t o study
are respected by t h e M ussulmans for t he i r self
.

H ere h is a b il ty and industry enabled h im not only to

sa cr i fice ; the Sisters of N otre Dame of Sion w it h , surpass hi s fellow pup ils b ut even also his teachers -
.

schools in Con stant inop le ; t h e Dom in ican s established , In 1 5 32 he received the degree of M aster of Arts at the
at M ossoul and Jerusalem w i t h a B ibl i cal scho ol , .
Un iversity of Paris an d one y ear later he became pro ,
In 1 9 1 0 a normal school was est ab lished at Rhodes to f essor of human it ies at Toulouse H avin g held this .

educate members of reli gious congregat ions to act as position for fourteen years he ne x t b ecame professor ,
teachers in the E ast .

of G reek at Paris an d in 1 5 61 e x changed t hi s p r o ,

A ll these m issions are offi ci a lly p laced under t he f essor sh i p for t hat of G reek p h il osop hy
( 1 5 5 2—
For a t i m e .

protectorate of Fran ce For t he most p art t he .

5 5 ) he and h is fr ien d W il li am M orel super
m issionaries are French but t here are also a large , vised the royal prin t i n g p ress for G reek work s I t is .

number of Germans Itali ans , and E ngli sh B esides , .

said and can easil y be believed of so dist i n gu ished a
,
t hese Catholic m issionaries , r ival societ ies display scholar t hat importan t professorsh ip s in other p laces
,
immen se act i vity First of all t he Jewish A lli ance .
, , were declined by h i m wh i le he t aught at Paris As .

which has founded sc h ools in most of t he large cit ies ; an illustrat ion of h is remark able i ndustry a well a u -

t h e Zion ist movement has for i ts obj ect t he repeo t h e n t i ca ted story is told , that he devoted several
p ling of Palest ine by Jews ; a few colon ists have been hours to study even on his wedding day O ver study , -
.
-

attracted thi ther from Russia There are t hr ough .

however wore out h is strength p remat urely a nd he
, ,
out t he emp ire Protestan t m issions from E n gland , d ied at the age of fif ty t hr ee I n accordan ce wi th h is -
.

Germany and Ameri ca I n 1 842 an An glican bishop

, .
own t estamen tary d i rect ion s h is b ody was p laced in ,
ri c wa s establi shed at Jerusalem , whose t itular is th e ground without any reli gious cerem ony on t he .

alt ernately E ngli sh and German A ll the large .

societ ies of Protestan t m issions are represented in the
Orient ( A merican Board of Fore ign M issions A m eri can
U P M ission Church M issionary Societ y Deutsche
. .
O r i e n tmi ssi on G erman Pioneer M ission , E vangeli cal
very even in g of h is death Thi s curious proceed in g .
,
as well as various utterances and a severe p oem on th e
, J esui ts raised t he m uc h controvert ed quest ion
,
,
, , whether Tur n ebus rema ined a Cat holi c or became a n
, ad heren t of t he n ew heresy I t seem s at least prob .

M issionary Society of Basle A ll seek t o , able t hat he in cli ned t o Protestan t v iews even though ,
estab li sh their i nflue n ce b y the same propaganda : d is he d id n ot break completel y w it h the Church as h is
t r i b ut i o n of B ibles and G ospe ls t ranslated in to t h e
,

Catholic friends st eadily ma i n tain ed I n other r e .

nat ive languages hosp itals d i Sp e nsa r i e s schools , , , sp e c ts his c h aracter was blameless H is rep utat ion .

etc A t Beirut there is an A meri can Un iversity and

.

, rests n ot only on his lectures but also in equal meas ,

more than 30 schools comprisin g 3000 p up ils A t , .

ure on his wr itings H is n umerous works in clud i n g .

,
Const antinople there is t h e A meri can Robert College .
comment aries on th e anc ien t classics short treat is es , ,
D U R A N D E mp i r e Ottoma n Tu r qu i c d E u r o p e Tu qu i e d A si c and p oems were collected and p ublished (2 vols
' ' '
, . r , .
. , ,
Nou ve ll e ca r tc a d mi i tr a ti v écmzomi que et c n s u la i e ( P a r is
C U I N E T L a Tu qu i e d A i e ( 5 vo ls P a ri s 1 8 9 1
n s

r
e,
'
o r .
S trasburg 1 600 ) w it h t h e co operation of h is t hr ee
,
-

S ur c L i ba n Pa l est i n e ( P a ri
s
'

z 1 89 6
,

Bfi R A R D La Tur qu i c e t s.
. . ,
sons .

D E T11 0 0 H i stm r c u n i ve r s alle ; J o c mzn A lla Gr lch r tr n L ex i kon ;

. , .

t h éllé n i s me conte mp o a i n ( P a ri s La r evolut i on tu que

'
- ’

r , r -
, . .

( P a ri s . D U R A N D Je e Tur qu i e vi ei ll e F r a n ce ( P a ri s , an . , I S E LI N N cu ver meh tes h i stor u g eog a p h i s ch es e i kon V I

, r . . r
t t e mmr c ottoma n ( P a ri s I M B E RT
. .

1 9 09 ) ; P 1 N O N L E u r p
’ ’ ’ ’

, o e e
N
V O N O PP E N H E I M
, .

L a r en va ti o n d e l e mp r e ottom n ( P a r i s
’ ’ .

o . i a . ,

V m M i tt l m er z u m p r si s h n G lf }: ( 2 vo l s B e rl i n 1 8 9 9
o e e
M A R K S Y K E s D a r l i slm n ( L o n d n 1 9 03 ) : T1 N A Y R E N otes d un e
c

LE
e e o ,

Tu r n e r A N TH O N Y , VE N E RA B See B A R RO W ,
'
’
- -
e -
o ,

ENE A B LE
, , . .

v y oe u sc e h Or i e nt i n R vu
o a d s d ur M on des ( l u l y N o v e e e c .
-
W i Lu A M, V R
L r éy i m I s ca p i t uln t i n s d ms I em/n r e tto ma
.

nu
' ’

n e ( n o a o n
( 2 n d c d Pa r i L s g r u p mu e nts ch é t i n s e n O i n t
s, e o r e r e
m Ech os l On an t ( 1 9 N '

Fo nr ns c o n Th e O t h dox Ea ste n Tur n e r , W i t t u m Se c ( i A LL O ‘Y A Y , D 1 o e s s s

‘
‘
‘
r 1 .
r o r . or .
 TUR P I N 1 03 TU SCA N Y

Turp i n , A rc hbishop of Rei ms date of birth uh d ur in g the reign of Charlemagn e and formed a “

certain ; d 2 Sep t 800 H e was a monk of St Den is

. .
,
. . m ar gravate t h e margrave of w h i ch was also made the
,

w hen about 7 5 3 he was called to the See of Re im s

, ,
. ruler several times of the Duchy of Spoleto an d Cam
W it h eleven ot her b ishops of Fran ce he attended th e erin o In 1 030 the margravate fell to Bon iface of t he
.

Counc i l of Rome in whi ch Pope Stephen I I I con Canossa family Boniface was also Duke of Spoleto
.
,

d e mne d th e an t ipope Constan tine to perpetual con Count of M odena M an tua and Ferrara and was the , , ,

fine me n t H e e nr iched the library of his cathedral by

. most powerful prince of the empire in It al y H e was .

havin g n umerous works copied and ob ta me d from ,

fo llowed by hi s wife Beatri ce fir st a s regen t for thei r ,

Charlemagn e several privileges for his d iocese Le g . minor son who d ied in 1 05 5 t hen as regen t for their ,

ends grew up around h is l ife so that by degrees he ,

daughter M at ilda ; in 1 07 6 Beatri ce died Bot h sh e .

becomes an ep ic character who figur es i n n umerous and her d aughter were enthusiast ic ad h erents of
c ha ns o n s d e ges te espec iall y in the C hanson de R o ,
Gregory V I I i n h i s contest wit h the empire A f t er .

” “
land Furtherm ore a chr o
. n i c le k nown as t he H is ,
”
tori a Karol i M a gn i e t R oth ola ndi has been a ttr i
buted to h im ; but that he was not t he author is
roved b y th e use in t he chron icle of t he word
pLot h a r i n i a wh ic h d id not e x ist pri or to 85 5 the
‘
g ,

m ent ion of t he musical chan t wr itten on four l in es a ,

custom whi ch does n ot d ate b ack further than 1 022 ,

and fin a lly t he si lence of all the writers of t he n in th

and tent h centur ies regard ing t h is so called book of -

Turp in s The first to ment ion h im is Raoul de Tor

’

taine a monk of F leury who wrote from 1 09 6 to 1 1 4 5

.

.
, ,

A t t he same t ime C a lis t us I I regarded t he book as

aut hent ic and i ts d iff usion revived th e ferv our of the
,

p il gr images to St James of C omp oste ll a In it i s r e

. .

lated an appar it ion of St James to Charlemagne ; t he .

sain t orders t h e emperor to fo llow wit h his army the

d irect ion of th e M i lk y W a y which was then ceforth ,
”
called the Path of St James G aston Par is . .

considers tha t th e fir st five c hapters of t he chron icle

attributed to T ur p i n were wr i tten ab ou t the m iddle
of th e eleven th cen tury by a m onk of Comp ostell a an d ,

t hat t h e remainder were wr itten betwee n 1 1 09 and X I V C E N TUR Y C H U

-
RC H AT On s a r a cw . TU S C A N Y
1 1 1 9 by a m onk of St An dr é de V ienn e This sec . .

ond par t has a real literary imp ortance , for the m onk
’
M at ilda s death i n 1 1 1 5 her hereditary p ossessions
wh o wr ot e i t derived hi s ins p ir at ion from t he c ha n sons were for a long ti me an obj ect of strife between t h e
d e ges te an d t he epi c tradi t ions ; hence there ma y b e p apacy and the emperors
D ur in g the years 1 1 39 —
.

seen in t h is comp ilat ion a very an c ien t form of these 4 5 Tuscany was ruled by
tradit i ons The chr o n icle w as translated into Lat in
. M argrave H uld er i ch who was appo i n ted b y the ,

and French as early as 1 206 by t he cler ic J eh a n in t he E mperor Conrad I I I H uld er i ch was followed b y ,
.

servi ce of Renaud de Dammartin Coun t of B oulogne G ue lf brother of Henry t he Li on In 1 1 9 5 the E m .

,

E d ition s according to various M 88 have bee n issued

.

p eror H enr y V I gave the mar g ravate i n fie f to hi s .

at Paris by Castets ( 1 8 80) an d at Lun d by W ulfi

'

brot her Ph i li p In 1 209 O tto I V ren oun ced in favour .

of the papacy all cla i m to M ati lda s lands as did also ’

—
,
G A S TO N P wms D c p se ud o Ta r p i n o ( P a r i s
. A U RA CB ER t he E mp eror Frederick I I i n the G olden B ull of E ger . ,

De tlf r a n zosi sch e P s e u d Tu r p i n d er A s en a lha n d sch r i f t i n

of 1 2 1 3 but b ot h fir mly m ain tained t he righ ts of th e
r a o r

Ro ma n i ch e F s ch u n g e n
s V ( 1 88 9or FI S Q U E T L a Fr a n ce
, .
,

p o ntifi ca le: Re i ms ( P a ri s emp ire i n t he Tuscan cit ies Durin g the struggle .

G EO R G ES G O Y A U
.

between the popes and t he emperors an d in the .

,

period fo llowi n g t he fall of the H ohenst aufens when

Tur r i an u s, F RA N C I S CU S See TO R RE S , FR AN
t h e t hr one was vacan t Floren ce S ien a Pisa Lucca
.

C I SCO
, , , , ,

Arez zo and other Tuscan cities att ained con stan tly
.

T u sc a n y a d ivision of central Italy i ncludes the in creas ing independen ce and auton omy
, They a o , .

provinces of A re zz o Floren ce Grosseto , Livor no , q uired con trol als o of M at ilda s p atrim ony so far
, ,
’
,

Mas sa and Carrara Pisa and Siena ; area , 9 304 sq as i t was si tuated in Tuscany
, , In the four teent h . .

m iles ; populat ion in 1 9 1 1 E cclesias t icall y and fif t e e n t h cent uries a ll Tuscany e x cep t Sien a
, ,

i t i s d ivided int o th e provin ces of Florence wi th 6 and Lucca came un der t he su z erain ty of Floren ce , ,

s u fi r a g a n d i oceses ; Pisa w ith 4 sufi r a ga ns ; Sien a

'

and t he M edi c i
, In 1 5 23 the E mperor Ch arles V , .

wit h 5 suflr a ga ns ; the Archd iocese of Lucca ; and t h e made Alessandro M edic i hered i tary Duke of Floren ce
'

immediate Dioceses of A re z z o , Corton a M ontalci no The last T uscan t own s that still enj oyed inde , ,

M ontepulciano and Pien z a The territory is essen p e n d e n ce were acq ui red by Alessan dr o s successor
’

In the C osimo I ( 1 5 3 7 —
.
,

t i a ll y t h e same as that of an cien t E truri a 7 4 ) part ly b y cunni ng and b r i b . .

si x th and fifth cent uries 13 c t he E truscans were t h e ery p artly wi t h Span ish aid by force of a rms I n
. .
, .

’
d ominant power in n orthe r n an d cen tral Italy , an d 1 5 5 7 Ph ili p I I who req uired Cosimo s aid against ,

brought La t ium and Rome under the ir supremac y the pope g rant ed h im Sien a whi ch in 1 5 5 5 h a d .
,

Towards t h e end of the si x t h centur y 13 C Rome surrendered t o th e emperor On ly a small part of . . .

regain e d i t s independence and from t h e second half Sienese territ ory rem ained Span ish as t he S ta te d cgli
,

of t h e fif th cent ury i t began a st ruggle for supremacy p re si d i Thus the M ed ic i acq uired th e whole of . .

There were many chan ges of fortune d ur in g the long Tuscany and i n 1 5 69 the pope made Cosimo G rand ,

war b ut i t ended about 280 B C wi th the overthrow D uk e of Tuscan y A lthough at the beginn ing of
,
. . .

of E truri a Durin g the E mp i re E t ruria form ed the Cosimo s rei gn there were several conspiracies
.
’
,

seventh re g i on of It aly After t he fall of th e W estern especiall y by the e x i led fam ilies the Fuor i sci li th e
.
, ,

E mpire Tuscany was ruled successively by t he Florent ines gradually became accustomed t o t h e
,

G erman s under Od oacer by t h e Os trogot h s by the abso lut e gove rnment of t h e ruler Cosimo h a d
, ,
. .

E a s t ern E mpi re through N arses and by t h e Lom crea ted a well ordered state out of th e c h a os exist in g
,
-

b ards Tuscan y or T oscia as i t was called in th e previously and h a d es t ablis h ed t h is st at e on t h e

.
, ,
.

M i ddle A ges b ecame a part of the Frank ish E mp ire founda t ion of j ust ice equali ty of all c i t i z ens good
, , ,
 TU SCA NY 1 04 TU SCA NY

fin a n ci a l admi ni stration and su ff i cien t m i li tary ,

u ns crup ulous chamberlain G iuli ano Dam i W hen he , .

stren gth A r t literature and learni n g a lso enj oy ed

.
, ,
di ed the M edi ci dyn as ty ended:
a new era of prosperi ty d ur ing his rei gn A fter long In accordan ce with t he Treaty of V ienn a of 1 7 35
negot iat ions his son F rancesco I ( 1 5 7 4 —
.

8 7 ) received in Francis D uke of Lorrain e who had married M ari a

Theresa i n 1 7 3 6 became g ran d duk e ( 1 7 37 —
, ,

1 5 7 6 from t he E mperor M a x im i li an the con fir ma t i on 65 )

,

of th e grand ducal title whi ch had been refused his i nstead of t he Span ish B our bons Francis Joseph .

fat h er I n his foreign poli cy Fr a n cesco was depend

. garrisoned t he count ry wit h A ustrian troops and
ent on t he Habsb urg dyn asty Dur in g h i s weak . transferred i ts adm in istration t o imperial counci llors .

rei gn the p ower was in th e hands of women and A s Tuscany n ow became an Austrian territory ,

favour ites and the corruption of the nobil it y and

,
belonging as in heritance to t he second son T usca ny ,

o ffi ci a ls ga i ned groun d aga i n wh i le the di scontent of ,

was m ore or less dep enden t up on V ienn a However .
,

the common peop le was increased by heavy tax es

“
. the coun try once more great ly advanced in econom ic
A1 ter th e deat h of hi s fi r st w ife the grand d uke m ar ried prosperi ty especiall y dur i n g t he rei g n oi Leop old I
,
-

his mistress t h e V enetian B ianca Capell o A s he had ( 1 7 65 who li k e his brot h er t he E mperor J ose p h
on ly daug h ters one of w h om was th e F ren ch queen
,
.
,

, ,
I was fu ll of z eal for reform b ut who went about it
, ,

M ari a de M edi ci an d the attempt t o subst itute an ,

more slowly and cautiously In 1 7 82 Leopold sup .

i llegitim ate son failed he was foll owed by hi s brother ,

pressed the In qui sit ion , reduced the possessions of the
Cardinal Ferdi n and ( 1 5 87 who has been Ch urch suppressed n umerous monasteries and i nter
, ,

accused without any hi sto ri cal proof of poisoni ng hi s f er e d i n p urely in tern al ecclesiasti cal m atters for
bro ther and sister i n law - -
. the b ene fit of the Janseni sts Af ter hi s elect ion as .

In forei gn poli cy Ferdinand made h i mself in d ep en d emperor he was succeeded in 1 7 9 0 by h is second son ,

ent of th e emperor and Sp ain and as an opp onent of Ferdin and I I I who ruled as hi s father had done, .

the preponderance of t h e Habsb urgs supported the During the Fren ch Revolut ion F er di n a n d lost h is
French K in g Henr y I V Henr y s retur n t o t he .
’
d uc h y in 1 7 89 and 1 800 ; i t was given t o D uk e Loui s
Catholi c Chur ch was largel y due to Ferdi n and s in flu ’
of Parma on 1 O ctober un der t he n ame of the K i n g ,

ence Ferd i nand b en e fited hi s duchy b y an e x cellen t

. dom of E trur ia In 1 807 Tuscan y wa s uni ted d ir ect ly
.

adm ini stration and large pub lic works e g t he , . . w ith t he French E mp i re and N apoleon made h is ,

draini ng of the M i a na ta les and the M aremm a cf ‘

sister E li z a Ba cci occhi its ad mi n istrator wit h t he t it le

Siena th e construction of the port of Leghorn etc of grand duc h ess After N ap oleon s overth row the ’

H e r e—
. .
, ,

establi s h ed pub li c safety b y repressing brig _

Congress of V ienn a gave T uscan y again t o Ferd inand
a n d a ge In 1 5 89 he resi gned the card i n alate wi th the
. an d added to i t E lba Pi omb in o , and t he S ta te d egli ,

consent of Si x t us V and married Chr istine , daughter , p r esi d i A n um ber of the m onasteries suppressed by
.

of Henr y I I I of France Hi s relations wi th the . the Fren ch were r e estab li shed by t he Con cordat of -

papac y were almost always of th e best ; b e promo ted 1 8 1 5 b ut ot h erwi se the govern ment was in fluen ce d
,

t h e reform of the Tus oan monasteries and the e x e cu b y the princip les of Josephi n ism i n its rel ations wi th
t ion of the decrees of the Co un ci l of Trent H i s son the Cat h o li c Ch ur ch W hen the eff orts of the It ali an
Cosim o I I ( 1 609 —
. .

2 1 ) mar r ied M argareta sister of ,

secret societ ies for t he format ion of a un ited n at ional
t h e E mperor Ferd inand I I Cosimo I I r uled i n t he . state spread t o Tuscany Ferdin an d formed a closer ,

same sp ir i t as hi s fat h er and raised the prosperity of uni on with A ustria , and t he Tuscan troops were
t he co un try to a height never before attained H e p laced un der A ustri an offi cer s as preparat ion for t he
breaki ng—
.

was succeeded b y a mi nor son of eleven years Ferdi out of war The adm i ni strati on of his son
Leop old 1 1 ( 1 824—
.
,

60 ) was lon g considered t he most

’
n and I I ( 1 621 t h e regent bein g the boy s mo ther .

M argareta s weak ness led t o t h e loss of Tuscany s

’ ’
liberal i n Ital y altho ugh he reigned as an absolut e
,

righ t to th e Duc h y of Urb in o whi ch fell vacant and , ,

sovereign Th e Con cordat of 1 8 5 0 also gave t he
.

w h ic h Pope Urban V I I took as an unoccup ied fief of C hur ch g reat er li berty N ot wi thstand in g the eco .

the Ch urch From 1 628 Ferdinand ruled i n d ep en d

. n om i c and in telle ct ua l gr owt h wh ich the land en j oyed ,

en tl y ; to the d isadvantage of his coun try he formed t he i n trigues of t he secret societ ies foun d the count ry
a close union wi th the Habsburg d yn ast y whi ch i n fr ui tful soil for the rulers were always regar ded as
,

volved h i m i n a num ber of Itali an wars These wars .

,
foreigners and the conne x ion they formed wi th Aus
,

together with pestilence were m ost disastrous to the tria m ade them unpop ular
coun try Cos i mo I I I ( 1 67 0—
,
.

. 1 7 23 ) brought t he coun In 1 8 4 7 a state coun c il was established on 1 5 Feb .

,

t r y to the br in k of rui n b y h is unluck y poli cy and his 1 848 a constitution was issued and on 26 June t he
, ,

e x travagance H is aut ocratic methods incon sisten c y ,

.
,
newl y elected popular assembly was opened N ot
-
.

and preposterous meas ures i n in ternal afl a i r s p lace wi thstandi ng this se d it ion again st the dynasty ,

upon hi m t he greater p art of the respon sibi li ty for t he in creased an d in Au gust there were st reet figh t s at
,

e x tr eme arbi trariness that developed among t he state Leg h orn in wh ich the troops proved un trustwort hy .

o f i cials especiall y a m ong those of the j udici ary

, . Alt h ough Leop old h ad call ed a dem ocrati c m ini stry
A l th ough he sought to in crease t h e i mportan ce of t h e in O ct ober w ith G uerraz z i and M ontanelli at it s
,

Ch urc h y et h e damaged i t b y using the clergy for

, head and h ad taken p art i n t h e P iedm on tese war
,

poli ce p urposes proceeded again st heret ics wi th , against Austria yet the Rep ubli can s forced h im t o ,

undue severi ty and sought to aid t he conversion of , flee from t h e coun try and g o to G aet a i n Feb 1 849 .
, .

n on Catholi cs and Jews b y a ll means even very

-

,
A pro visi onal republi can governmen t was estab li shed
mat erial ones Duri ng t h e W a r of the Span ish . at Florence ; thi s before long was forced to g i ve wa y to
Succession th e g rand duk e des i red t o remain neutral ,
an opposing m ovement of moderated Libera li sm .

alt h ough he h a d accepted Si ena in ficf on ce m ore from A fter th is b y the a id of A ustri a Leopold was ab le in
Phili p V In this era the land was ravaged by pest i
. Jul y 1 8 49 t o ret urn
,
In 1 85 2 he suppressed the
, .

len ce and th e war ta x es and forced con tributions

,
-
constitut ion issued in 1 848 an d governed as an a b so
levied on it b y the imperi al generals completely ( le . lute ruler alth ough wi th caut ion and m oderat ion
,
.

stroyed i ts prosperit y N either of Cosi mo s two sons .

’
H owever t he suppression of t h e con st itu ti on and the
,

had male h ei rs and fin a lly h e obstina t ely p ursued the

, fact t h at up to 1 85 5 an Austrian army of occupation
plan al thoug h wit h ou t success t o t ransfer t h e s ue
, .
,
remained in t h e country m ade hi m great ly d isliked .

cession to h is daughter B efore t h is however t h e .

, ,
W h en in 1 85 9 war was begun between Sar din ia
powers had set tled in the Peace of U trech t tha t when Piedmont a n d Austri a and Leopold became the con ,
t h e M ed ici were e x tin ct t h e successi on to Tuscan y federate of A ustria a fresh revolution broke ou t
wh i ch forced hi m to leave F or t h e period of the war
,

was t o fall to th e Spanish B ourbons Cosimo I I I . .

was followed b y his second son G i ova n G astone ( 1 7 23 V ictor E mmanuel occup ied t h e coun try Aft er the .

who permi tted t he coun try t o b e governed b y h is Peace of V i lla Fr anca had rest ored Tuscany to Leo
.
 TW I KE TA L 1 06 TY NEM O U TH

near th at town 1 3 1 9 ; d at B ridlington 1 3 7 9 ,

He .
, . h is sold iers to p i llage i t ( Hom e “ E ssai sur le r egne d c ,

I E mp er e ur A ur elien
’
was of t he Y orksh ire family Twenge whi ch fam ily , 90 In 37 1 V a le n s created
i n Reformation day s supp lied two priest mart y rs -
a second provi nce of Cappadoci a of wh i ch T y an a ,

and was also instru men tal in est ablishi ng the Insti became t he metrop oli s whi ch aro used a violen t con ,

tute of the Blessed V ir gin M ary (q t r over sy between A n th i mus, B ishop of Tyan a and
at Bar .
,
Convent Y ork John completed his st udi es at
,
. St Basil B ishop of C aesarea each of whom w ished
.
, ,

O x ford an d then entered the Priory of Brid lin gton . to have as many suflr a g a n sees as p ossible A bout 64 0 .

Charged su ccessively with various o ffi ces in t he com Tyan a had thr ee and i t w as the same in the tent h ,
“
mun ity he w as fina lly desp ite h i s reluctance elected
,
cent ury ( Gel er , Ungedruckte
z Te x te der N ot i
t i ae ep i sco p a t uum 5 38 , 5 5 4 ) Le Quien (Or i ens chr ist
’
prior wh ich o thee he held unt i l h i s death E ven
I 39 5 —
.
, .
,

i n his lifeti me he enj oyed a r ep u ta t i j n for great ,

4 02) m ent i ons 28 b ishop s of Tyan a am ong ,

holiness and for miraculous p owers O n on e occas io n . whom were : E ut y chi us at N i ce i n 3 25 ; A n t h imus , ,

he changed water i nt o wi ne On an other five sea .

, t he rival of St B asil ; E th er i us at Constan ti .
,
.

men from Hartlepool in danger of shipwreck c alled n op le i n 3 8 1 ; Theodore th e fri end of St John Chr ys , .

up on Go d i n the n ame of H is servan t John of Brid os tom ; E ut h e r i us the p art i san of N est orius dep osed , ,

li n gton whereupon the prior h i mself app eared to

,
and exi led i n 4 3 1 ; Cy r i a eus a Severian M onop hysite , .

them i n h is canoni cal habit an d brought them safely In M ay 1 3 5 9 Tyan a st i ll had a m etrop oli tan ( M ik
, ,

to shore After his death t he fame of the mir acles

. losi ch and M u ller “ Aet a p atri archat us Constant i ,
-

”
wr ought by h is intercession spread rap i dly through n e p oli t a n i I in 1 360 t he metropolitan of
, ,

Cze sa r ea secur ed the adm ini stration of it ( op cit

'

the lan d A rchb ishop N eville ch a rged h is su fi r a g an s

—
. . .
,

an d others to take evi den ce w ith a V iew to h is canon i Then ceforth t he see was ti tular The r uin s of .

z a t i on 26 July ,
1 3 86; and t h e same prelate assisted ,
Tyan a are at K ilisse H issar three m iles sout h of ,

by the B ishops of Durham an d Carlisle offi ci a te d at a N i gde i n t he vilayet of K on i a h ; t here are rema i ns of
solemn translation of his body 1 1 M arch 1 4 04 d e
ma n da te D omi n i P a p az This p op e B oniface IX .
,

,
, ,

,
a Roman aq ueduct and of sep ul chral grott oes
Tne n A s i e mi n eu r e ( P a ri s
Gr eek a nd
.

Roma n Geog
5 7 1 4 ; SM IT H D i et ,
— .

, .

shortly afterwards canon i z ed h im The fact has .

, s . v .

S VA a é
.

been doubted an d disp uted ; bu t t he origin al Bull was . .

recently unearthed in the V at ican ar ch ives by M r T . . Ty ch i cus , S A I N T a disciple of St Pau l an d h is , .

A Twemlow who w as engaged i n research work there

.
, constant comp ani on H e was a n at ive of t he Roman .

for the Brit i sh Government St John w as especially . . Provin ce of Asia ( Acts , x x born probably at , , ,

in voked b y women in cases of di ffi cult con fin eme n t . E p hesus Abou t h is conversion no thin g is k nown
. .

A t the Reform ation the peop le besough t the royal H e app ear s as comp anion of St Paul in h i s t h i r d m is . .

plun derer to spare the ma g ni ficent shrine of the saint , si on a r y j ourney fro m Corint h t hrough M acedon i a
but i n vain ; i t Wa s destroyed in The splendid and A sia M inor to J er usalem H e shared t he Ap os .

’
n ave of the church restored in 1 8 5 7 is all t hat now , , tle s fir st Rom an cap t ivi ty an d was sen t to Asia as
’
rem ains of Bridlin gton Priory The sa i nt s fe ast is . the bearer of letters t o the Colossi ans and E p hesians
observed by the c anons regular on 9 O ctober (Ep h , v i , 2 1 ; Col , iv 7 , Accordin g to Ti t , ii i ,
B U TLE R L i ves of th e Sa i n ts; G A S Q U E T H en ry VI I I a n d th e
. .
,
. .

1 2 Pau l int ended t o sen d Tych icus or Artem a s to

E n g l i sh Al ana ster i es ( L on d o n
, ,

STA N TO N M en ol og y ( L o n
,

d o n a n d N ew Y ork S ta te Pa p er s Roll s S er i es N or th e n
, ,

r
Crete to supp ly the pl ace of Titus I t seems , how
Reg i ste s ; W A L S I N G H A M H i stor i c A n g li ca n a ( L on d o n 1 8 63
.

S U E I U S D e p oba ti s Sa n ctor um H i stor i zs (Turi n 1 8 7 5 —

. , ,

r , . . ever that Ar tem as was sent for during the secon d

, ,

capt i vi ty of St Paul at Rome Ty c hicus w as sent

'

r 89 )
V I N CE N T S CU LLY
, ,
.

.
thence to E p h esus ( I I Tim , i v , O i the sub s e .

quent career of Tych i cus noth in g cert ain i s k nown

TW i k et a l (TH U R CY TE L TU R K E TU L ) O F C R OY The M e~
.

L A N D d July 9 7 5 H e was a cleri c of royal descent

,
Several c i ties clai m h i m as t he i r b ishop .

n o lo gy of B a sil Po rp hyrogen itus , wh i ch com memorates

. .
, , ,

who is said to have acted as chan cellor t o K ings

A t h elstan ( d E dmun d ( d an d E dr ed h im o n 9 April makes h im B ishop of Colop hon an d,

successor t o Sosthenes H e is also sa id to h ave

. .

(d b u t as this st atemen t rests on the auth ority

—
.

been appoin ted Bishop of Chalcedon by St An dr ew

.

of the pseudo In gulf i t must be received w ith cau “

.

t ion Leav ing th e world in 9 46 he became a mo nk at

,
the Ap ostle ( L i p siu s Apok r yp he ,

B ru nswi ck , 1 8 83 , H e is also c al led B ishop of

.

Croylan d Abbey , W hi ch had been devastated by the

N eap olis i n C y prus ( Le Q uien “ Or i en s
Danes an d 1 ay in a ru inous and desti tute st ate H e ,

Paris 1 7 4 0, I , 1 25 ; I I Some m artyrologies

. .

endowed i t with s ix of h is own m anors a n d b ei ng , ,

elected abbot restored the house to a flour i sh i n g con

, ,
m ake h im a deacon , wh ile the Roman M ar tyrology
dition H e was a friend bot h of St Dunstan and St
,
p laces h is commemorat ion at Pap hos in Cyprus H is .

feast is kep t on 29 A p ril

. . .

E th e lwold of W inchester an d l ik e them a reformer .

, Ad SS . A p i a , I I I P6L Z L D i e M i ta r bei ter d es W elta p ostels

.
a
The real aut h ori ty for h is l ife is Or d er i cus V ital is ; for
. , ,

P a u l u s ( Ra t i s b o n . 3 25 .

n o reli ance c an be p laced on the long an d ficti t i ous F R A N C I S M E RS H M A N

accoun t in the fourteen th century forgery wh ich is
Ty n em ou t h Pr i or y , on the e a st co ast of N orth
-

p ublished under t he name of In gu lf of Croylan d

-

u mb er la nd E ngland o ccup ied t h e si te o f an e a rlier

(q v ) . .
,

Sax on chu rch bu i lt fi rs t in wood then i n stone in the

,

O n o s mcu s V I TA LI S H i st E ccl esi a sti ca ( P a ri s 1 838 ,

D U G D A L E JW na sti on I I ( L on d o n 1 8 1 7 L I N G A R D H i st r y
,
, .
,

seventh cen tu ry and famous as the burial place of St -

1 ( L o n do n
o r o
, . , , , .

of E n g la n d 25 2 5 3 ; F R EE M AN N orma n C on
, .
-
.
Oswin k ing and m artyr Plundered and burn t sev
qu est ( O x f rd 1 8 67 7 9 ) C O O K E i n D i et Na t B i og s v
,
Th u r cy l el
.

o -
,

E D W I N B U RTO N
. . . . . . .

eral t im es by the Danes and frequent ly rebu ilt i t was , ,

granted in 1 07 4 to the B en edi ct ine m onks of Y a rrow

.

Ty a n a a t i tular m etropol i tan see of Cappadoci a

, an d , w ith them ann e x ed to Durham A bbey , In the .

Pri ma Th e city must fir st h ave been called Th oa n a

.
, reign of W i l liam Rufus Robert de M owbray E arl of , ,

because T h oas a T h rac ian k in g was i ts foun der , , N orthumberland r e peop led Tyn em ou th w ith mo nk s ,
-

“ ”
( A rrian a s Per iplus Ponti E u x i n,i vi ) ; i t was in , fro m St Albans , an d i t becam e a cell of that abbey
.
,

Cappadocia b ut at the foot of Taurus and near the , remain ing so unt i l t he D issolut ion The N orman .

C ili cian G ates ( Strabo X I I 5 37 ; XI I I , The , , Church of Sts M ary and Oswin was bui lt by E arl.

surround ing plain rece i ved the name of Ty a ni t i s . Robert abou t 1 1 00 an d 1 20 years later was great ly ,

T h ere in the fir st century A D was born the celebrated . . enlarged , a cho ir 1 3 5 feet long w ith aisles being added
m agician A pollon i us Under Caracalla th e c ity . bey ond the N orman apse while the n ave was also
b ecame the “ A nton i n i a n a colon ia Tyana ” After . lengthened E as t of the c hoir an d c h an cel was added
.

having taken sides wit h Queen Zenob ia of Palmyra i t about 1 320 an ex qu isite Lady chap el probably bu i lt -
,

was captured by Aurelian in 27 2 wh o would not allow , by the Percy fam i ly , wh ic h h ad lately acqu ired the
 TYPES 1 07 TY PE S

great N orth umberland estates of the de V escis The . . .

—
I I Fi g ur i s ts I n the t wo earlier periods of Revela
firs t p rior of the t e founded monas tery was Rem igius -
, tion t here i s n o lack of men t hings and act ions , ,

and t he las t w as Robert Blakeney who on 1 2 Jan ,

.
, resemb li ng those of t he C hr istian economy ; besides ,

1 5 3 9 , surrendered the p rio ry to Henry V I I I he him , the N e w Testamen t e x pressly declares t h at some of
self w ith fif te e n mon ks and four novices si gn ing the
, , t h em typify t heir respective resemblances in the
deed of surrender , whi ch is st ill e x tan t wi th the beau ,
new d ispensati on Hence the q uestion arises whether .

t iful seal of the mon astery ap pended to i t A pensio n . one is j usti fie d i n a ffi r mi ng t o be a type a nything
of £ 30 was granted to B lakeney and small p it tan ces ,
whi c h i s not a ffir me d to be so i n Revelat ion , eith er
to t he mon ks ; an d t he p rio r y site and bu ildings were by d i rect statemen t or man ifest imp li cat ion W i t .

bes towed fi rs t on Sir Thomas H ilton an d later u n der , , si u s and C occe i us ( d 1 669 ) were of op ini on t hat the .

E dward VI on t he Duke of N or th umb er la n d ,

Colonel V illars governor of Tynemouth Cas tle un der
W illiam I I I and An ne had a lease of the pr iory and
d id irreparable dam age to the rem ain i ng bu i l d in gs
Pract ically noth in g is now left e x cep t t he roo fle ss
. types act ually in d i cated i n Revelat ion were to be
,
considered rather as e x amp les for o ur gui dan ce i n
, , t he i nterpretat ion of ot hers than as supplying us
. wit h an ent ir e li st of a ll t h at were desi g ned for th is
p urpose Cocce i us and hi s foll owers contended that
.

chancel one of the most beaut if ul fragmen ts of thir

,
every event i n O ld Testament hi story w h i ch had any
t e e n th cen tury arch i tecture i n E ngland
-
formal resemblance t o somet hi n g i n t he N e w was
G I B S O N H i stor y o/th e M o n a ster y of Ty n emouth ( L on d on
.

to be regarded as typ ical Th is view opened the

M A TTH E W PA R I S
, ,

a va l ua bl e a nd a d mi ra bl y e x e cute d w o rk ;
.

Ch r on i ca ma j or a e d L U A R D I I V ( L o n d o n 1 8 7 4 p ass i m ;
,
door to fr ivolous and absurd i n terpretat ions by the
Flor es h i sto i a a m cd L U A R D I I I ( Lo n d o n
-

302—
.

followers of t he Cocceian and W i tsi a n sc h ool Cra

, . .

D U G D A LE
M o na st a n g l i c I I I ( L o n d o n
r r , . . , . , .

20 ; B R A N D H i stor y of “
mer , for i n stance in hi s De ara e x ter i or i ( xi i 1 )”

N e wca sI Ie up u n Ty n e I I ( L on d o n
. , ,
, ,
-
65 66 e t c
D O H U N TE R B L AI R
, ,
“
, . .

-
considers the altar of holocausts as a t y pe of Christ ,

and then asks the quest i on “ quadratus q uomodo

. . .

Ty p es i n Scr i p t ur e , though denoted by the Greek Christus fueri t van Ti ll ( De t a b er n a culo M osis ,

word r tnrot are n ot coe x tensive wit h t h e mean in g of

‘
'

,
x x v ) presents the sn u ffers of t he sacred cand lestic k
“ ”
t hi s word I t si gni fies i n John , xx 25 the print
.
, , as a typ e of sa n cti fie d reason w h i c h destroys our
of the n ai ls i n t he risen Lord s hands ; i n R om vi , ’
.
, daily o cc urr i ng errors H ulsi us d Out r e i n D e usi n g
-
.
,
’
, ,

1 7 the
“
form ” of the Christi an doctrine ; i n Acts and V i tr i n g a (d 1 7 22) belon g to t h e same school
I I I P i eti s ts —
, , . .

v i i , 4 3 “ fig ur es ” formed by a b low or i mpressi on I a t he W i i r t e mb e r g school of pie

'

, , . .

“
images ” of idols made for adorat ion ; in Acts v i i , , t i sm the types of the O ld T e s ta men t were n o longer
“ ” “ ”
44 an d H ebr
,
vi i i 5 t he for m , or pat tern , .
, , ,
considered as isolated phenomena in tended to ,

according t o w h i ch someth ing is to b e m ade ; i n Ph il . instruct and con fir m in the fai th b u t were regarded ,
“ ” “
i i i 1 7 I Ti m iv
, ,
1 2 et c , the m odel or e x amp le .
, , ,
. as members of an organ i c development of the sa lvi fic
of conduct I t i s to b e n oted t hat i n all instances
. , economy i n which each ear lier stage p r e figur e s the
in whi ch t he word 1 61 m; indicates the sim ilarity between subsequent B engel poi nts out ( G nomon , preface
.
,

somet hi ng fut ur e and somethi ng p as t i n e ither the 1 3 ) t hat as there i s symmetry i n G od s work s d o wn
’

physi cal or the moral order , th is sim ilari ty is intended , to t he t in iest blade of grass so t here is a conn exi on ,
’
and n ot a matter of chance resemblan ce It i s there .
, i n G od s works even in t he most i n si gni fica n t ones
, .

fore , antecedently probable that in another series In hi s “ Ordo tempor um ( i x 1 3 ) the same wr i ter ,

of texts e g Rom v, 1 4 in w h i ch a type is a person

,
. . .
, , in sists on the un i ty of design whi ch makes one ,

or t hing p r e figur i n g a fut ure person or t hin g t he , work ou t of a ll the books of Scripture is the source ,

conn e x i on between t he two terms i s intended by hi m of all t imes and h a s measured t he p ast and the future
,

who fores ees an d arranges the course of hist ory alike One of Bengel s disciples P M H ahn c om
’

. . .
, ,
.

The t y p es in the B ible are lim ited t o t y pes under pares ( Theologische Schritten i i 9 ) the developmen t , ,

st ood i n th is sense of t h e word B ut whi le t hey do . of revelat ion t o t he growt h of a flow e r The forma .

n ot ext end to a ll the various meanin gs of the word t ive power hidden in the seed mani fests itself m ore
t hey are not restri cted t o i ts actual occ urren ce . and m ore by the addit ion of each pair of leaves .

In G al i v 24 for inst ance the type and i ts ant i

.
, , , , Thi s view was foll owed also by Ph H ill er i n hi s work .

P W N eues System all er V orbi lder Chr i st i i m A lten

“
t yp e are represented as d /O O G M said by an ,

allegory ; in C ol , i i 1 7 t he type is said t o be ma d

”
Testamen t ”
and by Cr usi us in hi s treatise
m
.
, ,

H y p omn e ma t a theol p r e p h e ti cz
”
7 am m mv
“
a shadow of thin gs to come ; i n
- “
e
”
( 1 7 64 The .

H ebr i x , 9 i t is called r a pa fiok fi a “ parable " of i ts

.
, , , last n amed writer i s of the opi nion that the fig ur a ti ve
-

ant i type B ut t he d e fin i t i on of the type i s ver i fie d

. developmen t of G od s k ingdom c han ges i nto an ’

i n a ll these cases : a person , a t hin g or an act ion , , h istorical growt h at the t ime of David ; he considers
havin g i ts own i ndependen t an d absolute e x i stence , t he K ingdom of Davi d as the emb ryo of the K in g
b ut at t he same t i me intended by G od to p r e figur e
I V M od era te Use of Ty p es —
dom of Chr ist .

a fut ure person th ing or action

I N a tura l B a si s of Ty p es —I t has been poin ted
, , . . Owing t o t heir lack .

. . of a clear d ist in ct i on between type an d allegory ,

out that in the var ious degrees of nature the hi gher M art i n Luther and M elan cht h on d id not esteem the
forms repeat t he laws of t h e lower forms in a clearer typi cal sense of Script ure at i ts true value A ndreas .

and more pe rfect way In history too , the pas t and .

, Ri ve t us attemp ted to draw a li ne of di stin ct i on
present often resemble each other to such an e x ten t between type and allegory ( Pratt a d p s an d . .
,

t hat some w r iters regard i t as an a x iom that h ist or y Gerhard ( Loci I I 67 ) closely adhered to hi s d e fin i
, ,

repeat s it se lf They poin t t o N abuchodonosor and . t ion. B ut practi cally t y pes were used for parenet i c
N apoleon t o the fle et of Xerxes and t he a r mada of
, rather than theological p urposes by Baldwin ( Passio
P h i li p After Plut arch h as i nf ormed his reader ( De
. Christi typi ca ; A d ve n tus Christ i ty p i e us) Ba cme i s ,

fortuna A le x andri x ) that among all the expressi ons , ter ( E xp li ca ti o ty p or um V T Ch r i stum exp li can . .

of H omer t he words “ bot h a good k in g an d an , ti um ) and other wri ters of this school They would
, .

e x cellen t figh t er in war pleased Ale x ander most , have had more co n fid e n ce i n the typ ical sense of
he adds t hat i n thi s verse Homer seems n ot merely Script ur e had they followed the view of B ishops von
t o celebrat e the greatne ss of A gamemn on but a lso , M ildert and M arsh For these wr iters di d not leave .

to prophesy t hat of Al exander W hat i s t rue of . the t yp ical sen se to the ima gin at ion of the ind ividual
n at ure an d h ist ory i n general i s especially appli cab le e x positor but rigidly requ i red competent eviden ce
,

t o t he econ omy of salvat ion ; t he state of nat ure of t h e D ivine in tention that a person or an even t
was superseded and s urp as sed i n perfect ion b y the was t o p r e figure anot h er person or even t E ven i n .

M osaic Law and t h e M osai c Law yielded similarl y , t h e B ible the y d ist in guish between e x am ples t h at
t o t he Christ ian d ispensat ion . are used for the sak e of illustrat ion only and t hose
 TY RA NNI C I D E 1 08 TY RAN N 1 0 I D E

beginni ng of the n ineteen th centur y there w as a

'

where there i s a mani fest typ ical relationsh ip and

c onn exi on I t is true that Ca lovi us ( System theol
. . .
,
revi val of taste for symboli sm and of an a p p re ci a ,

I 663 ) and Aug Pfei ffer ( Thes herm iii , can 1 0 )

,
. . .
, . t ion of Bengel s ty p i ci sm Star t i n g from symboli sm’
.
,
“
i nsist on adm itt i ng on ly one sense , the literal in ,
de W ette ( Beitrag z ur Characterist i c des H eb r a i s
Scrip tur e ; b ut as t he literal sense c learly i ndi cates m us ” i n “ St u di en von Daub un d Gren z er 1 807 ,

several types , wr i ters li k e B udd eus Rambach an d , ,

I I I 244 ) con cludes t hat t he whole of the O ld Testa
,

Pf a fi po i n t out t h at such an i nsistence on the li teral

'

ment is one great prop hecy , one g reat type of what

sense d i ffers only in words from the ad mission of a was t o come and what has come to p ass F von , . .

li mited typ ical sense R a mb a eh goes f urther than .

M eyer and Stier wrote in t he sam e stra i n b ut they ,

t his ; i n order to i ncrease th e parenet ic force of Scr i p are men of less note Influen ced by Bengel s vi ew .
’
,

M enken e x p lained i n a typ ical sense D a m, i i ( 1 802

H ebr , v i i i—
ture he attributes to each word as wide a mean i n g
,
.

and as m uch i mportance as the n ature of t he subj ect the brazen serpent x .

matter allows ( I nst i t h erm The “

M y s te . .
,
from t he same p o i n t of view Beck wr ote h i s “ Bemer ,

t i um Chr ist i e t chr i s t i a ni srni i n f a seii s t y p i ci s ant i k un g en uber mes si ani sch e W eissagungen ( Tub in ger
“
i V T b Joachi m Lange J ti d i sch e H e i l Zeitschr i ft f ur Theologie 1 8 3 1 p art and a ls o
‘

qu ta t ur n y . .
, , ,

i g t h ti mer b y
”
Lundins and “
Der M essi as i m A T ,
. . exp lai n ed Rom , i x ( Chr istli che Lehr wi ssen sch a f t .
,

by Sch ott e g e n are other works in wh ich the elemen t I 1 8 33 p

, , The same prin c ip le un der lies the
.

view of B ib li cal hi s tory as presented by Hofmann

V Soci n i a n I nfi uen ce —
of e d i fiea t i on i s chi e fly kep t in view .
,

. W hi le in Cocceian and -

. Fran z Deli t z sch K ur tz and A ub er le n E d Boh , , . .

Lutheran c ir cles typology flo ur i sh e d eit h er unr e mer i n h is treatise “ Z ur b ib li schen Typ ik ” ( 1 85 5 )

s t r i ct e d ly or wit h in certa i n b oun ds i t began to be
considered as a mere accommodation or as a subj ect ive
work of p arall eli z ing a n um ber of Scrip t ure passages
by t he Soei a ni a n s and by a ll those who fai led to
see t he u ni ty of G od s work in our h istory of Revela
,
adopts a si mi lar p oint of view : One idea prevai ls
through t he whole of creat ion ; in n at ure t he lower
grades are types of t he higher ; the m aterial order i s
a type of the sp i r itual ; an d m an is the an t ityp e of
’
un iversal nat ure The same law prevai ls i n hi story ; .

t ion Cler i cus, wr iting on G al iv 22 refers t y p ol

. .
, , ,
for t he ear lier age is always t he type of the sub se
o gy t o a Jewish ma nner of in terpret in g Scripture . q uent Thus the Ki ngdom of G od , whi c h is the
.

The derivation of t he M osai c wors h i p from E gy ptian c limax of Creat ion h as i ts types in nature an d its ,

an d Oriental cults as e x p lained b y Spencer rendered , ,

types in h istory .

void t he t y p i cal sense advocated i n t he E pist le to V I I I Ra ti ona li s ti c Con ten ti on a n d Ca th oli c D oc

tr i n e —
.

the Hebrews Hence H enke considers typ ology .

,
N eedless t o sa y ration ali st i c wri ters rep udiate
.

as an e x ploded system ; Sem ler (V ersuch e i ner frei the typ ical sense of Sacred Scrip tur e The Cat holi c .

eren theologisc h en Le h rart , 1 7 7 7 p d oes not , . doctrine as t o th e nature of the typ i cal sense i ts ,

wish that t y pes should b e considered any longer as b e e x i stence i ts extent its theolog ical value has been
, , ,

longing to the true religion ; D oderlei n ( I nsti t uti on es , stated i n E x E G E srs .

1 7 7 9 n 229 ) requires i n a typ e not a mere resem B es i d e s t h e w orks cite d a b ove see a ll t h e i n tro d uctory w orks to ,

Scri p ture un d e r t h e h e a d i n g H er men e u ti cs : F A I R B AI R N Th e

.
,

blance b ut also that i t should have been e x pressly

,
,

Ty p ol og y of Scri p tu e ( 3 r d c d E d i n b urg h : r se e a l so t h e
,

b i bl i og ra p h y to E X EG ES I S a n d H E R M E N E U TI CS
. ,

represented i n the O ld Testamen t as a fig ur e of t he .

futur e ; moreover he be lieves that at the t i me of , A J MA AS . . .

M oses no one would have understood such fi gur es .

B ut how e x plain the fact that the A postles and Christ Ty r a nn i ci d e literall y i s t he k i lli ng of a tyrant and ,

H imself employed the typ ical sense of the O ld Testa usuall y is taken to mean t he k illing of a tyran t by a
ment ? They adapted them selves we are told in , , private person for t he common good There are two .

their use of t he Old Testament t o t h e cond it ion of
the Jewish people and t o the hermeneuti cal prin ci
p les prevalen t i n t he Jewish schools I t foll owed
classes of tyrants whose c ir cumstances are widely
, apart—tyrants by usurpat ion and tyrant s by o p
.
, pression A t y rant by usur pat ion ( ty ra nn us i n
.

t herefore that the use of the t y p i cal sense in the N ew

, ti tulo) is one who unj ustly displaces or attempt s t o
Testament is noth in g b ut Rabb in i c t r i fli ng This . d isplace t he legit imate supreme ruler and he can be ,

p oin t of view is followed in D op ke s Hermeneuti k ’

considered i n t he act of usur pat ion or in subsequent
”
der neutestamen tl ic en Sc h h r ii t st e lle r ( part I , peaceful possession of t he supreme power A t yran t .

and also in the e x eget ical works of A mmon Frit z sche , ,

b y oppression ( ty r a nn us i n r egi mi n e) is a supreme
M e y er R ucke r t and ot hers ruler who uses his power arb itrari ly and O ppressively
V I Rea c ti o n a ga i n s t th e Soc i n i a n Vi ew —O u the I T YR AN T B Y U su a m r ro m—W hi le actua lly a t
, ,
.
.

. .

ot her hand there was no lack of d efenders of the

, tack ing the powers t hat b e a tyr an t by usurpat ion is a ,

typi cal sense of Script ure M i c h aeli s (E n t wurf der . traitor act in g again st t he com mon weal and , li ke any ,

typischen G ott esgel ah rt h ei t , 1 7 5 2 ) points out that , other criminal may be put to deat h by legiti mate a u ,

even i i we follow Spencer s view of t he origin of the

_
’
t hor i ty If possible t he legit imate aut hority m ust
.
,

M osaic wors h ip borrowed r ites too ma y have a , use t he ordin ary forms of law i n condemni ng the
’
symbol i c meaning ; b u t the wr iter s b lindness t o the t y rant to deat h , but if t hi s i s not possible i t can pro ,

d ist inct ion between type and sy mbol is the vulner cee d informa lly and gran t i n d ividuals a m andat e t o
able side of h is treat ise Bla seh e shows h i mself a . i n fli ct the capital p un ishment St Tho mas ( I n 1 1 . .

stout adherent of typology i n his Com mentary on Sent , d XL I V , Q i i , a

. . Suare z ( Def fid e i V I . . .

—
, ,
"
t h e E pistle to the H ebrews H erder in h i s iv ,
and t he maj ority of aut hori zed theo logians
t h irt y n inth le tter on the study of theology ( 1 7 80) say t hat private ind ividuals have a taci t man
believes that t h ough each stone of a bui lding does , date from legitimate a ut hority to k ill t he usurper
n ot see either it self or the whole bu ilding i t wou ld ,
when no other m eans of ridding t he commu ni ty of t he
be n arrow m indedness on our part to preten d t hat
-
t y rant are available Some however e g Crolly .
, , . .

we d o not see more th an a n y given part ca n see ; i t ( De j ust it ia I II , hold t hat an e x press mandate is
,

is on ly in th e ligh t of h ist oric developmen t that we needed before a private person can take on hi mself
ca n appreciate t h e analo gy of the w h ole to each of t he offi ce of e x ecut ioner of t he usurping tyrant All .

i ts parts Ra ni ( Fr c i mi i th i g e Untersuchun g tiber d ie aut horit ies hold t hat a private ind ividu a l as su ch
'

.
,

T y pologie 1 7 8 4 ) reve rts t o a st udy of Spen cer s

,
’
wit hout an e x press or tacit mandate fro m aut horit y ,

derivat ion of the M osai c w ors h ip and grants t h at ,

ma y not la wfully k ill an usurper unless he is actually
the Jewish r ites may b e sym b ols of the N e w Testa his unj ust aggressor M oreover i t someti mes h a p .
,
ment but den ies t h at t he y are t y pes in t h e stri c t er
, pens that an usurper is accorded t he right s of a bellig
sense of th e word ercut and t hen a >r i va te ind ividual who i s a non
V I I Revi va l of S y mbo li sm a n d P i eti s m —
.
, ,

. A t the . combatan t is exclu e d by internat ional law fro m t h e

,
 TYR E 110 TY RE

rock y island 1 9 68 feet above the sea e x isted fir st I t , . Josephus ( “ Ant j ud V I I I x iii 2 ;
. Contra A p.
, ,

i s genera lly held however t h at the cont i nental pre

, ,
i
p o en m ”
I 1 8 ; also I I I K ings x vi 3 1 ) calls her
, , , ,
“
ceded the insular c it y The referen ce in Josue ( x i x
.
,
father K ing of t h e Sidon i ans ano ther allusi on to
29 ) i s n ot e x actly i d en ti fie d b ut in the E l Amarn a ,
-
t h e Sidonian origin of Tyre In 8 1 4 B c a group of . . .

Letters the islan d is referred to un less the E g p ti a ns ,

Tyr ians wen t to the coast of Africa and founded
who occup ied all the seaboard c it ies had not su j e cte d Carthage th e most famous colony of Tyr e The very
, .

i t also to t heir domin ion . ami cable relat ions of Tyr ians and Jews di d not las t
Tyre seems always to have had kings l ike the other always ; the y waned especially when Tyre sold as
slaves the Israelitish pr isoners of war ( Joel , ii i 4 —
,

Ch a na a ni te ci ties It was its soverei gn s who m ade

. 8: ,
“ ”
it t he queen of the sea as i t loved t o call itself and , ,
A mos i , Ou t he o th er h a nd , t he luxury and cor
,
‘

i ts merchants n obles of the eart h as Isaias says ( x x i ii .

, ,
rup t morals wh i ch prevai led in the t ni ci a n c ity
3 The city was very proud of its wealth and could no t b ut h ave a banefu l i n fluen ce on t he Jews of
ships wh ich p lied along the whole of th e M ed i ter r a the tribe of A ser an d other Israe li tes ; so th at the
Prop hets such as I sai as ( xxi ii ) E zech iel ( x x v i—
,

nean coast in A frica as well as in E urop e and the

, , , xxi x ) , ,
pride of Tyre became almost as proverb ial among the Joel ( ii i 4 ,an d A m os ( i n ever ceased t o .
,

prophets of Israel as that of M oab K ing H iram . t h under against i t and pred ict i ts rui n Sa lma n asa r .
,

was one of its greatest soverei gns H e sen t to Davi d . K ing of A ssur and Sargon besieged it i n vai n for five
,

Fro m a W a tercol our b y H F e n n .

t h e stone cutters and carpenters to bu ild h is palace

-
years after t he fall of Samar ia ; alth ough th ey cut ,

( I I K ings v ,an d t o Solomon Lebanon cedar and th e aq ueduct of H iram and comp e lled th e people of
,

c y press wood f or th e construct i on of the Temple Sidon and Pa lee ty r us to p lace t heir fleets at the i r ser
( I I I K ings i x 1 1 ; I I Par ii 3
, ,
The arc h itect vi ce t h at of t h e Tyrians comp letely v an quished them
.
, , ,

and h is master workmen were Tyrian s In return ( Josep hus “ Ant IX x i v Sennacherib
.
, .
, ,

Solomon gave H iram the d istri ct of Cabul ( Ch a b ul) l ikewise attem pted t he siege i n v ain Al though p ay .

in Gali lee wh ic h in cluded twen ty small c it ies but ing hi m a light trib ute Tyr e remained a p owerful st ate
, , ,

t h i s gift seems n ot to have been t o t he t aste of the wi th i ts own k ings ( Jer xxv 22 ; E z ech xx v ii and .
, , .
,
K ing of T y re ( I I I K in gs i x 1 1 N evertheless , x x vi ii ) and was en abled t o develop its m erc an tile
, , ,

t h e two k ings were allies and their combined flee t s procl ivities and attai n t h e great prosperi ty spoken of
left the ports of the Red Sea for O phir and Tharsis by the prop hets and a ll ancient writers Ou h i s r e
t o obtai n gold ( I I I K ings i x 26—
.

28 ; x 1 1 sq ; I I Par
, turn from h i s exp edit i on against E gyp t A sar h a dd on
, ,
. .
, , ,
ix, H i ram accomplished great works i n h i s like his p redecessors blockaded Tyre but the Ty r ians , , ,

cap ital H e un i ted th e t wo parts of the island i solated on their rock wi th their powerful fleet and
“
'
.
, ,

h i therto separated by a canal wh i ch t o a certain valiant mercenaries laug h ed at all h i s e fforts Af ter , .

extent m ade th em two ci t ies an d besides h e bu ilt a having received tribute from K in g Bael A sar h a d d on
, ,

great aq ued uct whi ch broug h t th e waters of R a s e l was compelled to retire The same was t rue of -
.

A i n to t h e land . N a b ueh od on osor aft er a severe block ade lasti n g th ir

Shortl y afterwards court in trigues d ist urbed t he teen years A ccording to custom th e Tyri ans o f ered .

cit y and gave rise to a blood y revoluti on Ph alia an hi m a ligh t tribute and t h e h onour of the proud .
, ,

in truder usurped t h e p ower ; he was det h roned in turn sovereign was declared sa t isfie d N evertheless t h is
, .
,

b y hi s brother I th ob a e l or E th b a cl h igh priest of lon g isolation great l y inj ured the Tyr i ans for durin g
, ,
A starte a goddess w h o wi th the god M e lka r t w a s thi s i nterv a l a por t ion of the commerce passed t o
, , ,

muc h venerated in T y re I t W a s E thb ae l s d a ugh tcr Sid on and o ther Pho n ician and Cart h agini an peoples ’
e

Je z abel who married Achab King of Israel Je z abe l Furt hermore t h e T y rian colon ies whi c h for t h irt een
.

, , .
, ,
was undoubtedly a Tyrian princess ; M e na nd cr in years had broken all links of sub j ection t o the mot he r
 TY RE 111 TY RE

country , were in n o wise eager to resu me the yoke . and a school for b oy s the Sisters of St Josep h a school , .

Fi nall y as Ki ng I th ob ae l h ad d ied d uri n g the siege

, , for g i rls ; two other Catholi c schoo ls for boys are kep t
regen ts had assumed the authori ty ( Josep hus “ Con , by a M elchi te priest and the reli gious of Sain t Sau -

tra App I 21 ) and caused many troubles, as did a lso

.
, ve ur ; the Russians have a school an d the American
t h e ama a r a i or Sufie tes elected for seven years
, ,
. Protestants have one for boys and one for g i rls .

The m onarc hy was subsequently restored
A s t h e dom inati on had p assed from the Chaldeans
t o the Persian s Tyre a v assal or rat her an ally of
. Sour i s n o longer an island but a peninsula ; A le x ,
'
ander s causeway h as gro wn larger as a result of san d
, , form ations and is now an isthm us one m ile and a
, ,

the former readi ly assum ed t h e sam e relations wit h

,
q uarter wide There are sti ll to b e seen the med ieval
.

the latter and cont i nued to prosper The Tyrians . ci ty wall and a p ortion of the church of the Crusaders ,

wi th t h eir numerous shi ps assisted Xerx es again st t he built by the V enetians and measurin g 21 3 feet b y
G reeks who moreover were their commercial r ivals
, , 82 feet It i s generall y regarded as con tain in g t h e
.

and Dar i us ag ai nst Al e x ander t he G reat The K ing . tomb of Con rad de M ontferrat slai n i n the st 1 eet b y ,

of Tyre h im self fought in t he Persian fleet Tyre r e . two members of the sect of t he A ssassins and
fused submission to the M acedo n ian hero , as well as the tomb of the E mperor Frederick B arbarossa
authori z ation to sa cr i fice to t he god M e lk ar t , whose '
(d . However , a Germ an dep utation sen t b y
temp le was on the island ; Ale x ander , taki n g ofie n ce , B ism arck i n 1 8 7 4 to conduct excavations d iscovered
determ ined to cap ture t he islan d at any cost The . nothing .

siege lasted seven mont hs W hil e t he flee ts of t he . Am on g t he glories of Tyre were : U lp i a nu s, the cele
subm iss ive Cyp r iots and t ni c i a n s blockaded the b r a te d j urisconsult slain at Rome b y the p retorian s ,

two p orts at north and south , Ale x ander , with mate i n 228 ; t h e neo Platon ic ph i losop her Porp hyry , w h ose
-
,

r ials from Pa lmty r us whi ch he h ad j ust destroyed , , t rue name was M alchus ( b 233 ; d the det er . .

built an enormous causeway 1 9 68 feet long by about m i ned enemy of the C hrist ians , against whom he
1 9 7 feet w ide whic h connected t he island wit h t h e wrote a work in fif teen books ; som e hold that he was
con ti nent H e then laid siege to the ramparts of the
. born no t at T y re , b ut at Ba la na i a ; Origen who was ,

city whi ch o n one side reached a height of 1 5 0 feet . not born at Ty r e , b ut who died there i n 25 3 in con se
T y re w as cap tur ed in 332 ; 6000 of i ts defenders were quen ce of the tortures wh ic h he underwent under
beheaded 2000 crucifi ed more than ,
women , , Decius an d was bur ied i n the ch ur ch destro y e d under
,

ch ildr en and servants sold as slaves Although

,
. Dioclet ian ; St M ethod ius spoken of by St Jerom e , .

Alexander ra zed the walls , t he c ity was restored very as a m art yr and B ishop of Tyre under Dec ius was i n ,

q ui ckly sin ce seventeen years later i t held ou t for

,
reality B ishop of Olymp us i n Lyci a and died about ,

fourteen m onth s agai nst A n tigonus , father of Deme 3 1 1 ; as for D or ot h e us a m artyr and the author of a
trins Poli or ee t es F rom t h e p ower of E gyp t , Tyre i n
,

. work on the Ap ostles and t he seventy d isciples he ,

28 7 p assed under t he dom in ion of t he Seleucids i n never e x isted an d t he work is a forgery comp i led i n
,

1 9 8 B c obt ain in g se lf govern ment from them i n 1 26

. .
,
-
t he eighth cen tury b y a cleric of By z an tium .

B. c . Th is year begi ns t he era speci al to Tyre . A lt h ough t he corrup tion of Tyre h a d becom e pro
A ugustus was t he fir st to rob i t of i ts liberty ( Dion verbi a l in the t ime of Chri st ( M att xi 21 sq ; Luke .
, , .
,

Cassi us LI V for by his command its coins ceased

, , x ,
13 there were Tyrians eager to hear the preac h
to bear the inscrip tion autonomous V arious m on in g of Jesus an d who cam e as far as the vi cin ity of
ume n ts were erected d ur i n g the Roman period . Tiberias to li sten to H im ( M ark , 1 11 8 ; Luke vi , , ,

H erod the G reat bui lt a temp le an d adorned t he p ub Th is I s p erhaps why Jesus went to the neighbourhood
li c places A colony under Sep t im i us Seve r us , Tyre
. of Ty r e to cure t he sick and convert s i nners ( M a tt ,

subsequen tly became t he cap i tal of Phoe ni ci a ; at the xv 2 1 29 ; M ark vi i , 24

,
A C hr ist i an commu ,

t ime of St Jerome it was regarded as t he ri chest and

. n i ty w as formed there at an early date , wh ich St Pau l .

great est com mercial c ity of the prov in ce ( Comment . and St L uk e v isited and where t hey rem ained seven
.

i n E z e e h xxvi 6; xxvi i .Its factory of p urple

, , , d ays ( Acts xxi , 3 Abou t 1 9 0 the Ch urch l n t h is
,

c lot h was foremost in t he emp i re I t was a c urious . c ity was d i rected by B ishop C assius who wit h the ,

fact that un der one of the predecessors of Di oclet ian , bishop s of Ptolem ais C aesarea , an d E l i a as sisted at ,

D or o t h e us a learned priest of An tioch the m as ter of

, , the coun ci l held in Palestine to deal wit h the Pasch al
“
E useb ius of C ae sarea was app ointed di rector without , controversy ( E useb ius , H E V, About 2 5 0 . .

“ ”
having t o renounce hi s reli gion ( E usebi us , H E , . we kn ow of the B ishop M arin us ment ioned i n a let ter
VI I, of D ionysius of Ale x andri a ( B usch op cit , VI I , .
, . .

In A the Jews of Tyre formed a v ast con

. 61 3 The com mun i ty su ffered greatly durin g the last per
sp i r a cy against t he G reek E mp ire an d subsequen tly , se cu t i on After the edic t of Dioclet ian t he church
.

ransomed from the troops of Ch osr oes numerous cap w as bur n t and was on ly reb ui lt after religious peace
t ive C h rist i ans in order to sa cr i fice them In 638 the . had been obt ained I t was E useb ius of Cze sar ea who .

ci ty fell into the h ands of t he Arabs B ald win I , . pronounced the discourse at the ded ication of the new
K ing of Jerusalem besieged i t in vai n from 29 N ov ,
.
, basili ca and who describes the oldest b asi li ca known
1 1 1 1 t ill Apri l 1 1 1 2
,
Bald w i n I I capt ured i t, 27,
. to us ( op ci t X T y r a nn i us B ishop of T y l e was
. .
, ,

June 1 1 24 , af t er five m on ths siege and m ade i t the

,
’
cap tur e d and drowned at Ant ioc h
seat of a coun tship W hen the crus ad ers lost t he . E useb ius hi mself as sisted i n the amph itheatre oi t h is
K in gdom of Jerusalem i n 1 1 87 b y the defeat of city at the e x ecut ion of five Christ i ans of E gyp t ian
Tiberi as Tyre remained i n the hands of the Frank s
,
origin ( op c it , V I I I .In 306 St U lp i a nu s was
.
, .

and becam e one of t h eir ch ief fortresses There in . shut up w ith a dog and an asp in a calf ski n and th ro w n
1 2 1 0 John of B rienn e was cro wned k ing and in 1 225 , into the sea ( E use b “ De M artyr Pa lae sti naa” V .
, .
,

h is d aughter Isabe lla was cro wned queen Ty re was . A t Caesarea M a r i ti ma one of the first vi ct ims was
cap tured i n M ay , 1 29 1 after t he fall of Saint Jean ,
-
St Theodosi a a youn g Tyrian girl of eighteen , who
.
,

d A cr e b y the M ussulm ans , who completely de was horribly tortured and then thro wn in to t h e sea on
’

,
“
stro y ed i t and i t was never wholly restored after
,
E aster Sunday 2 April 30 7 E
( u e
s b H , VI I , .
, .
,

wards Occup ied b y the Tur ks i n 1 5 1 6 i t h as always

. i) . In 3 1 1 a mun ic ipal decree forbiddi n g C h ristians
belon ged t o t h em , save for a brief appearan ce of the to stay in t h e c ity w as p osted up in Tyre , toget h er
Frenc h in 1 7 9 9 I t i s now a ca z a of the v ilayet of . wi th a message of con gratulation from the E mpero r
“
Beirut The cit y h as 65 00 i nhab itants, of whom
. M ax i min ( E usebius H E ”
IX vi i ) This did n ot ,
.
, , .

4 000 are M ussulmans of various races , 200 Latin prevent the C h urch of Tyre from subsist in g and devel
Cat h olics 35 0 M aroni tes 1 7 5 0 M elch ite Catholi cs
, , ,
op ing after peace was granted to the discip les of Christ .

25 Protest ant s and about 1 00 Jews The Fran c is

, . Short ly afterwards Tyre fu r n ished E thiop ia w i t h i t s
cans estab li shed since 1 866 have a p arochial churc h
, , fir st and greatest m issionary , St Frumen tius , wh o .
went to Africa wi th a ph i losop her who was hi s m aster besieging the city ; hi s successor, W illi am, was of
and was consecrated by St A than asius the fir st bis h op . E ng lish ori gin In di sregard of the ancient canon .

of t h at coun try Thr ee co un cils were held at Tyre

. law t he new metropoli tan was subj ected to t he Lat in
,

Th e fir s t convened by Const ant i ne

,
whi ch had Patriarch of Jerusalem whi ch aroused protest on the ,

about 3 1 0 members , j udged the cause of St A t h a n a .

p a r t of the See of An t ioch The disp ute whi ch fol .

e ius who w as in T y r e wi t h 4 8 E gyp tian bish ops and ,

low ed was referred to the tribun al of Pope Inn ocen t I I
w h o decided i n favour of t h e Patriarch of J er usa lem 1 n
, ,

after a ser i es of 11 1 ] ust i ees it deposed hi m E usebi us .

of Cae sa i ea presided over t he assembly ( H efe le L e -

v ir t ue of a Decree of hi s predecessor Paschal I I , who ,

clercq “ Hi st des conc iles

,
. A not h er granted to K ing Baldwi n t he r i g h t to subjJ ect t o Jeru
coun c il w as held in February 4 4 9 to e x am i ne t h e salem a ll t he ep iscop al sees he sh ou ld sue ce e d i n con
'

, ,

cause of Ibas B ishop of E dessa who was accused b y

, ,
q uerin g from the M ussul mans H en ce two letters .

the c lerics of hi s c h urc h and absolved by t hi s counc il . of Inn ocen t I I ob li ged t he Ar chbishop of Tyre to sub
Th is sentence had ser i ous conseq uences at C h alcedon m i t to t he j ur i sdi e ti on of Jerusalem t ogether wi th hi s
and especiall y at the Co un ci l of t he Three Chap ters i n si x s uffragans the B ishops of Tr i po li Tortosa ( or ,

5 5 3 ( H e f ele L ecle rcq op ci t F i nally .

, ,
A ntaradus ) Byblos B er y t us Sidon and Ptolemai s , , , ,

in 5 1 4 or 5 1 5 was held a counci l tin der the presidency

.
, .

Later when t he c i t i es of Trip oli Tortosa a n d By blos

, , ,

of Sever us Pa t 1 i a reh of A nt ioch and of P h ilox e n s

, , , came into the p ower of the Pr in ce of A nt ioch t heir ,

met 1 op p oli ta n of H 1 e1 a p oh s an d whi ch assembled the bishops also became dep enden t on t he Lat i n Patri
b i sh op s of the provi nces of An t i och A p a n1 wa , , arch of Ant ioch N a tur a ll y after the dep artur e of the .

A ugusta E up hr a t en si s Osr h oen e , M esopotam ia , , crusaders Tyre was replaced un der the Patriarchate of
A rabi a and Ph oeni ci a L ib a n en si s I t r ej e et e d the A ntioch For long list s of Lat in archbishops see Le
I I I 1 309 —
. .
,

Counci l of Chalcedon and the H enoti con of the E m ,

Quien ( Or i en s c hr ist 20) and E ub e l .
, ,

p 0 1 or Zeno was e x p lained i n a sense clearly opposed ( H i er a r chi a ca th oli ca me d ii tevi I 5 34 ; I I 284 ; I I I , , , ,

to th e latte 1 council ( Lebon “ L e mon op h y si sme , The most famous was W illi am I I t he hi storian ,

of t he crusades The Lat i n s evacuated T y re i n 1 29 1

I I 8 01 —
sé vé r i e n Louvain 1 9 09 62 , ,
.

Le Qu ien ( O r i e n s c h rist 1 2) m ent ions and t he arc h bi shop by t he pop e s command having ’
, ,
.
, ,

29 bis h ops of t h is see some of whom have no ri ght to ,

left the c it y 8 Oct 1 29 4 there were then cefort h only ,
.
, ,

fig ur e i n th e li st Besides t hose a h e a d y ment ioned

.
'

tit ular archbi sh ops .

were : Pauli nus f 1 iend of E useb ius of Cze sar ea , men

,
The M elchi te Archdi ocese of T y re i s bounded on t he
t i on e d b y Ar ius m a letter as bein g one of his p artisans north b y N ahr e l Laitan i on the east by a li n e of -
,
“
( T h eod o e
1 t H E ,
I v) and who subsequently h e
. .
, , wooded hi lls sep arat i n g t he Di str i ct of B c harre from
c ame Patriarch of An t ioch ; Iren ae us previously a , that of M er d j a i oun on t he south by the Diocese of ,

count a partisan of N estori us e x i led 1 1 1 44 9 t o Petra

, , St Jean d A cr e and on the west by t he sea
.
-
’
It has , .

and who comp iled a co llection of very valuable docu 1 4 chur ches an d chapels 1 3 stat ion s wit h or wi thout ,

m ents wh i c h h ave reached us under t h e title of residential priests 1 6 priests of whom 6 are seculars , ,
“ ”
Tr a ga d i a Iren &i Photi us very active i n the 1 e ,
and 1 0 reli gious of Saint Sauveur 1 6 primary schools -
,

li g i ous qua 1 re ls of his t i me and who assisted at the , for boys and g irls half of wh i ch are in charge of ,

Counci ls of Ty 1 e and Chalcedon as well as at the , Lati n m issionaries and E uropean sisters The num .

Robber Counc il of E phesus ; John Cod on a t us a , ber of fai thful 1 s 5 300 Besides the i r m i ssion at Ty1 e .
,

M onop h y site and friend of Peter Fu llo Patriarch of , the Am eri can Protestan ts have two schools in t he Di o
Antioch ; Thomas who at the E ighth ( E cum en ical , cese a t Almat and Can a The M aroni te di ocese .
,

Coun cil represented t h e Patriarch of An tioch . founded i n 1 9 06 t o t he detriment of that of Saida i s ,

In cluded at fir st in the Prov i nce of Syr ia t he Di o , b ounded on t he west by t he sea o n t he n orth by t he ,

cese of Tyre formed p ar t of Ph ce ni ei a at t h e creat ion , Ri ver Za h a r a ni on t he east by the Jordan and on , ,

of t h at prov in ce by Sep ti mi us Severus shortly before the south b y t h e S i n ait i c peni n sula It has .

1 9 8 when it became the religious as well as the civ i l

, fait hful , 20 priests and 20 chur ches ; the number of ,

metrop oli s ; i ts bishop M arinus had the t itle of m et , , schools i s unk nown The schi smati c Gr aeco A rabi c .
-

“
r op o li t a n as earl y as 2 5 0 ( E u seb H VI I v) l r ch di oce se of Tyr e and Sidon has about 9 000 fait h
f Hl
. . i
, , .

W h en between 38 1 and 425 Phoeni ci a was subdi vided u

into two prov i n ces Ph oe n i ci a M arit im a and Phoeni cia N G STE N BE RG D e r ebu s Ty r i or u m commen ta ti o a ca d emi ca
E

I 89 —
,

( B e rl i n P O U LA I N D E B o ss a v R ech er ch es s ur la top og r a p h i c
,

Li b a n ensi s Tyr e rema i ned t he metropoli s of the

—
, ,

d e Ty r i n Bu llet i n d e la S oczété g é ogr a p h i qu e ( 1 8 61

'

1 45 ;

—— —
,
,

former A t th e Counc il of Chalcedon in 4 5 1 Photius

. 1 7 R E N A N M osa i qu e ch r éti en n e ci h i stor i é e d e Ty r i n A nna l es
‘

,
'

h a d to defend h i s rights as metropo li tan again st t h e a r chéolog zqu es X X I 1 5 0 2 ; D U C A N G E L es f a mi li es d ou t e mer ’

7 4 9 7 5 4 ; P R U TZ
- r
. , ,

( P a ri s 49 6 5 01 Ka is er Fr i ed ri ch I
-

SE PP M eerf a h r t na ch Ty r us ( Le i p
B ishop of Ber y tu s formerl y his sufi r a g a n who ,

G a bsta efte ( D a nt z i g
, .

—
, , r - , ,

d ivided Ph ce n i ci a Prim a int o two parts and assumed z ig . P I E TS C H M A N N Ges chi ch te d er Ph on i ci er 61 7 2 ; ,

authori ty over all the bishoprics of the n orth The K R A LL S tudi en z nr Ges chi ch te d er a l ten E gy p ten f as c I I I
, , . .

Ty r os 1 1 nd S i d on ( V i e nn a . JE R E M I A S Ty r us bi s z ur Z ei t
.

counci l recogn i z ed the rights of P h ot ius and gave h im N ebuka d n e za r s ( Le i p z i g L U C A S Gesch i ch te d er Sta dt
.

j ur isdi ction over all t h e d ioceses wit h t he e x cept ion of

. .

ty r us z ur Z ci t d er K r euzzfl g e ( B e rl i n
'

R 6HR I CB T Ges r h zrh t e ,

K
.

Be r y tus whic h remained an autocephal ous met ropolis d es K o n i g r e i ch s Jer us a l em ( I nn s b ru ck, 1 09 2 sq ; W I N C LE R , .

,
A ssy r i e n u-nd Ty r us s e i t Ti g la th p i les er i n A ltor i en ta l i s ch e F or s
.
'

Some years later Tyre became t h e ch ief see of the

Pa triarchate of Ant ioch i e i t att ai ned fir st rank
ch u ng ert I I I (5 2 5 sq ; K l r r o A Cy clop ed i a of B i bli ca l i ter a tur e
, , .
’ '
, L .

cd A LE XA N D E R I I I , a v ; Su n s A D i cti ona r y of th e B i bl e 3 v ;
—
.
,

—
. . . . . .
. .

among the metrop oli tan sees The reason for t his M i ssi on es ca th oli cm ( Ro me 7 8 2 8 1 9 ; C H A R O N H i stoi r e , ,

d es p a tr i a r cha ts me lki tes I I I ( R o me

.

284 8 6
was t h at about 4 80 Jo h n C o d o n a t us Patriarch of . . .

A ntioc h hav i n g resigned i n favour of C a la n d i on , the

, ,
S V
,

latter app oin ted him M e tropoli tan of T y r e , with the Ty r i e , J A M E S theologian b at D r umkilb o , , .
,

right f or h imself and his succ e ssors of then ceforth sit Perthshir e Scotlan d 1 5 4 3 ; d at Rome 27 M a y 1 5 9 7
, , .
, .

ting im med ia t ely af ter the p atriarch ( Theophan es , E ducated fir st at St An dr ews he j oin ed E dmund .
,

In the “ N oti tia ep i scop a tuum Hay ( q v ) at t he t i me of de G ouda s m issi on i n 1 5 62

. .
’
.

O i A ntioc h i n th e si x th century Tyre had 1 3 s ufi r a g a n In h i s comp any he t hen wen t t o Rome was t h ere ,

sees ( E chos d Or ien t X ’

I n the tenth cent ury , adm itted int o t h e Soc iet y of Jesus and was eve n t u ,

the westei n b o un d a i 1 es of the ai ch d ioce se went f1 0 1n all y sent t o Clermont College Par is in June 1 5 67 , , , ,

t h e great sp i i ng of Z ip ( A z Zi b ) to N ahr Laitan i the -

, where Hay had become rector ; and remained t here
ant ient Leontes ( E chos d Orient X Th e G reek
’
, , i n various post s e g professor head of t he Scottish
arc h d iocese was re t ained e x e n d ur i rig t he Lat in occu
.
,
.
,

Jesui t M ission t i ll 1 5 9 0 D ur in g this period .

p a t i o n b ut t h e titula1 i esi cle d at Const an tinop le

, . he was once engaged in a controversy with K nox ,
“
Odo th e fir st Latin archbis h op was appoin ted i n
, , against w h om he wrote The Refutat ion of an e
1 1 22 and d ied two y ears later when the Fra nks were A nswer made be Sch i r Johne K nox t o s ue letter be
 U
Ub a g h s, C A S I M I R b at Berg Ie z Fa uque mo n t ,
.
-
,
the in tel li gible w h i ch we contemp late and contact ,

26 N ov 1 8 00 ; d at Louva i n 1 5 Feb 1 8 7 5 was for a

.
,
.
, .
, ,
with w h i ch produces wi th i n us the in te llectual form ula
“ ”
q uarter of a cent ury the chi ef protagon i st of the On ( notion ) , is someth i ng D iv ine or rather i t i s G od
t olog i co Tradit ionali st School of Louva i n
-
In 1 830 .
, h imse lf This is the core of Ontologism
. The .

wh ile professor of p hil osop hy a t t he l ower semmary of in telli gen ce contemp lates G od d ir ectly and beholds i n
H im the t rut hs or
“ ”
ob j ect ive ideas of wh ic h our
.

R old uc, he w as c alled to Louva i n whi ch under h i s 1 n ,

fl uence became a centre of Ontologism I n 1 84 6 he . k nowledge is a weak r e fle x i on A ssuredly , if Ub a gh s .

“ ”
undertook the editorship of the Revue cathol que , i is right , skept icism is d e fini ti ve ly overcome L i ke .

the off i ci al organ of Ontologism i n conj un ction with , wise if teachi n g p lays i n the p hysical life the p art he
Arnold Tits , wh o had taug h t wi th hi m at Rold uc an d assi g ns to i t, the same is true of every doctr i ne whi ch
j oi ned him at Louvain i n 1 840 and Lon ay , professor ,
as serts the ori g in al independen ce of reason and whi ch
at Rold uc La For et Claessens the Abbé Bouqu il
.
, , Ub a g h s ca lls Rationali sm B ut thi s so called tri .
-

lon Pére Bernard V a n Loo and others foll owed the

, ,
ump h w as p ur chas ed at the cost of many errors I t .

doctrines of Ub a gh s B ut opponents soon app eared . . is to say the least strange that on t he one hand
, ,
“ ”
The Journal h istori que e t littérair e , founded by Ontologisti c Tradition alism is b as ed on a di strust of
Kersten kep t up an i n cess ant controversy with the
,
reason and on the other h an d i t endows reason wit h
“
Revue catholi que ” Kersten was j oined by G il son
.
,
unj ust i fia ble prerogatives Surely i t is an in credib le .

dean of Bouillon Lupus and others From 1 85 8 to, , . audacity to set m an face to face wi th the D iv i ne es
1 861 the controversy raged I t was at its hei ght when . sence an d to attribute to h is weak mind t he i mme di
a dec ision of the Rom an Con gregation ( 2 1 Sep t .
,
ate percep tion of the etern al and im m utable veri ties .

’
Ub a g h s pr i n cip al work s are : Log i caa seu p h i loso
’
1 864 ) censured in Ub a gh s s works after a lon g and ,
s
”
prudent deli beration a series of propositions relat in g , p h i ae r a ti on a li s c lementa ( 6 editions 1 8 34 ,
“
to Ontologism A lready in 1 8 43 the Con gregation of
. On tologi aa sive metap h generali s specimen ( 5 edi .

“
the Inde x had taken note of five proposi tions and or tions 1 835 , Th eod i cze se u theologi e s n at ur a lis
”

dered M Ub a gh s to correct t hem and exp un ge t hem

. ( 4 ed it ions ) ; A nt hr op olog i cae p hi losop h element s .

“
from his teach i n g but b e m isunderstood the import of
,
Précis de logi que élémentair e ( 5 ed it ions )
“
this fir st decision W hen h is career was ended in 1 864
. Précis d ant h r op ol psycholo g i que ” ( 5 edi t ions )
’
.

“
h e had the mor tifica t i on of wi tnessing the ruin of a D u réali sme e n t héolo gie e t eu p h i losop hi c ”
teaching t o which he h ad devoted forty years of hi s “
E ssai d id é ologi e ontologi que
’
n um erous
life F rom 1 8 64 unt i l his death he lived in retiremen t articles in the Louvain “ Re vue cat holi que ”
‘

O u th e Tra di ti on a l i st O n to l o g i sm o f L ouva i n see D E W O L F

. . .

The theories of Ub a gh s are con tained in a vast col

H i stoi r e d e la p hi losop h i e en B elgi que ( Lo uva i n a nd P a ri s
,

le ction of treat ises on wh ich b e exp ended the best 29 9 sqq

.

For t h e li fe o f U b a g h s see J A C O B S i n A n n ua zr e d e
.
'

l Un i ver si té d e L ou va i n
.

years of his life E dition s followed one another as ’

4 1 7 sqq
M DE W UL F
. .

the range of hi s teachin g widened Th e fund a . . .

men tal t hesis of Trad itional ism i s clearly a ffi rme d by

Ub a gh s the acquisit ion of m etap hysical and moral
,
Ub ald us, S A I N T, confessor , B ishop of G ubb io , b of .

truths is in exp li cable wi thout a prim it ive Divine noble p arents at G ubb io , Umbria Italy towards th e , ,

teach in g and its oral transmi ssion Soc ial teaching . begin ni n g of the twelft h cen tu r y ; d there W h itsun .
,

is a natural law a cond it ion so necess a ry that W ithout

, t l d e 1 1 68, W h i lst sti ll very yo ung havi ng lost his
.
,

a m iracle m an could not save t hrough it attain the father , he was educated by the p rior of the cathedral
exp li ci t kn owledge of truths of a metap hysi cal and a church of hi s native c ity , w here he als o became a
moral order Teach in g and lan guage are n ot merely
. c ano n regular W i sh ing to serve Go d w ith more reg
.

a psychological medium wh i ch favours the acquisition ular i ty he p as sed to the M on astery of St Secondo in .

of t hese truths ; its act ion is determ inan t H ence the . the same c ity , where h e rem ained for so me ye a rs .

p rimordi al act of man i s an act of fai th ; the authori ty of Recalled by hi s b ishop he retu rned to the cathedr al ,

others becomes the b asis of certi tude The quest ion . monaste r y where he was m ade prior H avin g heard
, .

arises : Is our adhesion to the fund a men tal tr uths of that at V ienna Blessed Peter de H on est i s some year s
the speculative and mor al order b lind ; an d is the e x , before h ad estab lished a ve r y ferven t com mun ity of
i s te n ce of G od wh ich is one of them , i mp ossible of
, canons regu lar to whom he h ad given special statu tes ,

rational demonstrat ion ? Ub a g h s did not go as far as wh ich had been approved by Paschal I I U ba ld us went ,

t h is ; his Traditionalism was m i tigated a sem i Tr a ,

-
there remainin g wi th h is bro ther canons for three
,

d i t i o n a li sm ; once teac h ing h as awakened ideas in us months to learn th e details an d the p ract ice of their
,

and transm itted the m ax ims ( ord o acqu i si ti on s ) rea rules wish in g to in t ro du ce them am ong h is own c ano ns
,

son i s able and ap t t o comprehend them Though . of Gubb io Th is he di d at h is return Serving God
. .

p owerless to discover them i t is regarded as bein g in great regularity poverty ( for a ll h is ri ch p atrimony ,

capable of demonstrating them once they h ave been h e had gi ven to the p oor and to the rest oration of -

made k no wn to i t One of his favour ite comp arisons . m onasteries ) h umi l ity mor t ifica t i on meekness and
, , , ,
“
admi rabl y states the problem : As the word view ‘ ’
fervour the fame of h is holiness spread in t h e coun
,

ch ie fly expresses four t h ings the faculty of seeing , the t ry an d several bishopri cs were o fi ere d to hi m b ut he
'

, , ,

act of seeing the obj ect seen e g a landscap e , an d

, , . . refused them all H owever , t he ep iscop al See of .

the drawing an artis t makes of thi s obj ect , so we give . G ubbio becom ing vacant , he w as sent wit h some ,

the n ame idea which is derived from the former

, , clerics by t h e p opulation to ask for a n ew bishop f r om
,

c h i e fly to four d i fle r e n t t h ings : the faculty of kn owin g

'

H on ori us I I who , h avin g consecrated h im sen t h i m ,

rationally t h e act of rat ional knowledge , the obj ect of

, back to Gubbio To his peop le he became a perfect .

t h is knowledge the int ellec t ual cop y or formula

, p attern of all Christian V i r tues an d a p owerful pro ,

w h i ch we m ake of t his obj ec t in con ce ivin g i t ” ( Psy tec tor in all thei r Spiri tual an d t em poral needs H e .

”
c h o lo g i e 5 th e d 1 8 5 7 4 1
, N o w t h e obj ec t ive
.
, , , d ied ful l of m eri ts after a lon g and painful illness of ,

idea or ob j ect i d ca ( th ird accep tation ) , in other words

,
-
, two years N urn er ous m iracles were wrought by h im
.

1 14
 U BA LD U S 1 15 U B E RABA

i n l ife and after death A t the sol ic i tation o f B ishop

‘

. broad and 9 high surmoun ted by a st eeple and

, ,

Bentivoglio Pop e Celes tine I I I canon i z ed him i n cross rising 20 metres w as ded icated on 3 M a y , ,

1 192 H is power as we read in the O th ee for h is

.
, 1 89 4 In 1 89 5 the fir st two C hrist ian marriages
.

feast is ch i e fly man ifested over the e V i l sp irits an d

, , i n Ub a n g hi were solemn i z ed before the vicar Apos
the fai thful are instructed to h ave recourse to h i m toli c The m is sion Spread to the s urround in g vil
.

”
contra omn es d i a bo li cas n e qui ti as . lages and later to the A li ma 300 k ilometres up the ,

The life of the saint was wr itten by Blessed Theo Congo ; still higher up are the stations at L iranga ( a t
baldus h i s im medi ate successor in the e p iscopal see
. , t he j un ction of the Congo and the Uba n g h i ) fo unded ,
and from this sour ce is derived all the inform ation by Fat hers Paris and A llaire on 3 A pril 1 889 ; at ,

given by his nu merous biograp hers The body of the . Bangu i ( 1 1 25 m iles from the coast ) established ,

hol y man wh ic h h ad at fi rst been buried in the cat he amon g the cann ibal Bon d j os and Bu z er us and pastoral
—
,

dr al ch urch by t h e B is h ops of Perugia and Cagli at N d r i s, by Fathers Salla z and Re my i n Januar y

’

, , ,

t h e t ime of his canoni z at i on was foun d fle x i ble an d 1 8 9 4 ; and at Saint e Fam i lle among the Ba n z i r i s m
by Father M oreau —
,

in corrupt and was then placed in a small oratory on

,
1 89 5 , this i s now the head ,

the top of t he hill overlook in g t he c ity , where i n 1 5 08 , quarte rs of t he Prefect ure of U ba ngh i Chari N ear .

at the wish of the Duke of Urbino the canons regu lar , these stat ions have been establi shed “ free v ill ages ”
bu 1 lt a beautiful church frequented to this day by , where nat ives escapi ng from t he clutches of the cann i
n umerous p ilgri ms who come to visi t the relics of , bal or sl ave owners can reside i n safety Bi shop .

t heir heavenly protector from near an d far The . A ugoua r d was awarded a pri z e of $3000 in Apri l ,

devotion to the sain t is very popular throughout Um 1 9 1 2 by the Fren ch A cademy of M oral and Pol it i cal
,

bria b ut especially at G ubbio w h ere in every fam ily

, ,
Sciences in appreciation of h is work d ur i ng t hirt y
at leas t on e member is called Ub a ld u s The fe as t of
‘
. fo ur years in French Congo M ission statisti c s: .

their p atron saint is celebrated by the inhabi tan ts of The V icariate of w h ich B ishop Ph ilip p a Pr osp er ,

the count ry roun d w ith great solemni t y there being ,

A ugouar d t itular B ishop of Si n i d os ( b 1 6 Sep t
, . .
,

re li gious an d c i vil p roces sions which call to m in d the 1 85 2 ; j oined the Congregat ion of t he Holy G host ,

famous festi v i t ies of the M iddle A es in Italy . to whom t he m iss ion is entrusted ; and was con
H i s t t i p a t ( Ro me I C I N E L L I A n n ota t i n
. r r .
, , .
secra te d 23 N ovember is in charge has 1 2
SU E I U S I V ; G I A M P A O L I Gr a n d e
, , ,
0 17 CC R R ( V e n i ce
. . .

me ma n a stor i ca di S Uba ld o Vescovo d i Gu bbi o ( P ra to

’
, , ,
priests ; 25 lay brothers ; 1 2 Sisters of St Josep h of .

A A LL A R I A
. .

. .
Cluny ; 8 churches ; 4 st at ions ; 23 chapels ; 23 schools
with 1 5 34 children ; 7 orp hanages wit h 9 02 o r p hans ;
Ub a ld u s a San ot o Ca j et an o . See G I R A L D I , 8 h OSp i t als ; 5 workshops ; Cat holi c population 3 5 00 ;
-
,
U B A LD O pagans Th e hot
damp climate is very severe and in one year ( 1 89 7 —
.
25 00 catechumens ; and .

Ub a n ghi , PRE F E C I ’
A p o sr o mc o r B E
‘
U RE LG I A N ,
8) ,

in Belgian Congo from separated on 7 A pril , 1 9 1 1 , 1 4 of t he 3 1 m i ss i on ar i es d i ed .

A U G O U A R D Mi ss i on d e l O uba n g h i ( Po iti e rs I DE M
, '

the V i cariate of t he Belgian Congo and entrusted D em i er voy a g e da ns l Ou ba n g hi cl l A li ma ( L i g ug e

, . .
' '

Vi e d a ,

to th e Capuchins Its boundaries are : west and . R P A lla i r e mi ss i ona i r e c u Con g o ( P a ri s

. . , L P RO Y i n . .

n orth the river U b a ng hi from 1 30 N lat to t he ° '

P I O LE I M i ss i on s oa t h j r a ng a u X I X s i écle V ( P a ri s
' ‘
. . .
, ,

A A M A CE R L E A N
.
, .

meet ing of the M bomu and t he U e lle at Y akoma ; . . .

east a lin e drawn from t h at poin t towards t h e j unc

Ub a n g h i Ch ari , P RE F E CTU R E A p o sr o mc
,

t ion of t he I t i mb r i ( Rubi ) and the Congo as far as ,

-
in '
or ,

t h e southern lim i ts of t he village of A b umomb as i ; E quatorial Afri ca lies west of the B ahr e l G ha z al ,
- -

south the p a rallel p assing through A b umo mba si then territory and south of t he Tchad d istri ct and e x tends ,
, , ’

the watersheds of t h e Ub a n g h i and t h e Con go and of ,

from 4 30 to 1 0 N lat an d from 1 2 to 26 30
° ’ °
. .
,
° °

t he Ub a nghi and the N giri t o 1 30 N lat and ° ’

. .
E lon gitude
. This region was formerly part of the
.

t hence to t he Ub a ng h i R P Fulgence de Gerard V icariate Apostolic of Ub a n g h i or Upper French

Congo ; its first miss ion post was establis h ed at Sainte
. . .

M ontes was appoin ted fir st prefect A postoli c 1 1 ,

July 1 9 1 1,
.
Fami lle on t he Upper U b a n g h i about 1 37 5 m iles from ,

A cta A p ostoli caz Sed i s ( Rome ,

the western coast by river by R P M oreau ,
. .
,

A A M A CE R LE A N . . . in 1 89 5 among the Ba nz us or Ba n z ir i s in an almost

, ,

unknown country A t the req uest of M gr Ph il ippe .

Ub a n g hi ( U P PE R F R E N CH C O N G O ) , V I CA R I A TE Prosper A ugoua r d t itular B ishop of S in ide ,

A eo sr o u formerl y part of the V i ca r i a t e of Fren ch

c os , and V icar A postoli c of U ba ng hi Ub a n g hi Chari was ,
-

Congo erected on 1 4 O ct 1 8 9 0 ; it has an area of about

,
.
,
withdrawn from his j urisd iction in M ay 1 9 09 and , ,

sq m iles and is bounded south and e as t by

.
,
formed into a new prefecture Apostoli c under t h e
t h e Congo and the Ub a n g h i ; north b y the Prefect ure care of the Fat h ers of the Holy G host R P Pierre , . .

A post oli c of Ub a n g h i Chari ; west by t h e V icariates of -

Cate ] ,
being appointed prefect A p ostoli c .

Loanga G abon and Camerun ; t he m ission of Lin z olo

, , H e resides at Sain te Fam i lle The mission con tains : -
.

lying south west of Bra z zavi lle was t ransferred from

-
23 priests ; 1 4 lay bro thers ; 1 1 n uns ; 1 8 catechist s ;
Lo anga t o Ub a ng h i on 1 4 Fe b 1 9 1 1 The pr incipal .
, . 1 5 stations ; 1 7 churches and chapels ; 22 schools with ,

tribes i n the V icar iate are t he Batek es Ba y a nz i s and , ,

1 7 5 6 pup ils and 9 02 orp hans ; 35 00 Catho li cs ; and
Bo n d j os the las t two being cann ibals
, The French . 25 00 ea t e e h u me ns; Boundaries : n orth and east the ,

representatives especial ly M de Chavannes and M ,

. V i cariate of the Sudan ; sout h the Prefectures of U e lle ,

Dolisie have greatly aided in the estab lishment and

,
. and Belgi an Ub a n g hi the V icariate of Upper Fren ch ,

develop ment of the mission The fir st attempt to . . Congo ; west the V i cariate of Camerun and the Pre ,

gain a foot h old in the t erri tory of t he V i cari ate wa s fecture of N o rt he rn N ig er i a .

made b y Fat h er ( now Bishop ) A ugoua r d in 1 883 a t A A M A CE R L E A N . . .

Bra z z avi lle b u t i t failed owing to the un happy

,

e x perien ces of t he nat ives at the hands of Sta nle y ; Ub er a b a , D IO C E SE

( D E L B E R A B A ) , s ufl r a ga n of or
' '

i n Jul y 1 88 7 however M gr Ca r rie succeeded owin g

, , , ,
M ariann a in Bra z il created by th e Con sis torial Decree
, .

t o t he help of M ( le Chavannes The Sisters of St . . . of 29 Sep tember 1 9 07 separa ting i t from the Diocese of , ,

Josep h of Cluny arri ved at Bra z z aville on 2 1 A ugust ,

G oya z and p lac ing under i ts j urisd ict ion the portion
,

1 89 2 and have a convent c h apel and school t h ere

, , ,
of M in a s G eraes k nown as Tr ian gu lo M ineiro and the
on a sit e presented b y the French G overnment follow ing p ar ish es w h ich formerl y belon e d to the Di o
g
.

Bra z z aville t h e cen tre of Fren ch in terests in the

, cese of D iaman tina : U r c u i a or Bur it y , a nim Branco
Congo and in w hich t h e bishop resides is si t uated on or l l io Pre t o P a r a ca t i i A legres Sant a Rita ( le Patos
’

, , , , ,

a plateau 1 20 f t high a t t h e plac e where th e Congo . Cap ao Redondo and 8 11 0 Rom ao Th e d iocese is ,
.

leaves Stan ley Pool Its cat hedral , 3 7 metres long , 1 2 . bounded : on the nor t h b y t he Urucu ia R iver ; east ,
 U BERTI N O 1 16 U BE RTI N O

the $ 5 0 Fran c isco R iver ; south , the M arce lla and Brother Leo that C hr ist had rais ed up St Fran cis
, .

Canastra mountain ranges and t he R io Grande ; west , w it h a glorious body to conso le his poor friars who , ,

the Paranahy ba and J acaré r ivers and the G eral ,

accord ing to Ubert i n o were of course t he Sp irituals ,

mo un tain range The Catholi c popu lation num . onl y . N o tw i t h s ta n d i n g the Utop ian theories of Uber
bered souls i n 1 9 1 1 R t Rev E duardo . . . tino he had many protectors and adm i rers an d in
, ,
“ ”
Duarte Sil va the fir st and presen t b ishop was born at
, ,
1 307 after having wr itten the A rbor vit a
, he was ,

F lor i a n op o li s 27 Jan 1 85 2 ; stud ied in the Pi o La

,
.
,
-
chosen chaplain and fam i liar to Card inal N a p oleon e
t in o Co llege of Rome ; was ordained pr iest , 1 9 Dec , . Ors i n i nep hew of N i eh ola s I I I , who had been created
,

b y Celest in e V protector of t he Sp ir ituals of the

_

1 87 4 ; c h ap la i n of th e Florianopo lis hosp ital and canon

of the imperial chapel ; e lected B ishop of Goya z 23 M arches of A n cona but which protectorate soon
“

, ,

J a n 1 8 9 1 and consecrated on 8 Feb , 1 89 1 ; precon iz ed

.
, ,

B is h op of Ub eraba , 1 9 De c , 1 9 08 The fo llowi n g r e . .

.

—
ceased by t he elect ion of B on i face V I I I in Dec 1 29 4
Ors i n i w ho in 1 306 0 8 had been pon t ifi cal legate in
,
.
, .

li g i ous orders are in the d iocese : Dom in i cans R e col , cen tral Italy deputed Ub ert i no on 1 0 Sep t 1 307 , to
, .
,

lects Laz arists Dom i n ican nun s Fran ciscan M ission

, , ,
absolve t he in hab itan ts of S ien a who had in curred ,

a r y nuns of E g y p t T h ere are 4 5 churc h es The . . ecclesi asti cal censure W hen Orsin i wen t t o G er .

Catholi c educat ional in st itut ion s are : t he Gy mn a si o many in 1 308 Ub ert i no di d not accompany hi m
In t he years 1 309 —
, ,

D iocesano a sc h ool of secondary instruct ion w it h the

,
be i ng then called to France 12 .
,

privi leges of a federal co llege dir ected by the M ar ist ,

whi ch w itnessed the greatest struggle in t he Franc is
Brothers ; and the Co ll eg io de N ossa Senhora das can Order Ub ert i no was called t o A v i gnon with other
,

D ores for gir ls under the Dom i n ican nuns The

, ,
. chiefs of the Sp i r ituals to d iscuss before t he p op e t he
pr in cipal Cat h o li c charitab le associat ions are : t he quest ions at issue between t he two p art ies i n the order .

Sociedade de S V i cen te de Paula ; the Irm andade da Four po ints were d iscussed v i z ( 1 ) on t h e relat ions
of the order with the sect of t he s o ca lled F ollowers of
.
,
.

Santa Casa de M iseri cordia : and t he Associacao das -

Damas de Caridade The oth ci a l organ of the d iocese . the Free Sp i r i t ; (2 ) on t he condemnat ion and doctr i ne
“ ”
is the Correio Ca th oli co ( Uberaba ) . of O liv i ; ( 3 ) on the p overty and d iscip lin e i n t he Order
J U L I A N M O R E N O L A CA LLE -
. of Friars M in or ; and (4 ) on t he supp osed p ersecut ions
of t he Sp ir ituals of t he order D ur ing the discussions .

U b ert i n o of
Casa l e , leader of the Spi rituals , b . Ubert i no behaved in a very boisterous and in solent
at Casale of V ercell i , 1 25 9 ; d about 1 330 H e . . manner aga i nst t he whole bod y of the order accusin g ,

assumed the Fran ciscan habi t in a conven t of t he i t of many false an d un j ust th ings ; however he was ,

provin ce of Genoa i n 1 27 3 , and was sent t o Paris t o
cont in ue h is studies w h ere he rem a i ned n in e years
after wh ich he returned t o I taly In 1 285 he v isited
t h e san ctuar ies of Rome an d th e nce proceeded to
forced to acknowledge t hat regular d is cip li ne sub
,
.
, sta n t i a lly exi sted i n t h e order ; but as regar d s p overty
. he attacked O pen ly t h e p on t ifica l declarat ions as con
, t r a r y to the rule an d as a cause of ru i n to t h e order .

G r e cci o near Rieti to see the B lessed J ohn of Parma

, , , H e pretended t hat the Friars M i nor should be com
p e lle d to observe a d li tter a m St Fran cis s T esta me n t
’
w ho was considered as t he patriarch of t h e Sp ir itual .

Friars A fterwards he sett led in T usca n y and in and Rule , and even a ll th e evangelical counsels t aught
—
.

1 28 7 at Floren ce was the compan ion and disc ip le of

, , b y C h r ist And because a ll t h is was n ot possib le to
.

B rother P ierre Jean O livi H e held a lectorsh ip at . obtain from t he m aj ori ty of the order , he e x acted that
Santa Croce Floren ce but abandoned it after a few
, , conven ts an d p rovin ces should be erected for the
years to ded icate h i mself to preaching , esp ecially reform party B ut this was absolutely den ied , whi ls t
.

at Floren ce B eing a man of gen ius but of an e cce n

.
,
on t he other hand the quest ion of pract ical ob ser v
tri c and restless character , he soon became the leader an ce of poverty w as sett led by the famous Bull ,
“ ”
o f the f amous Sp i r ituals in Tuscany professed strange , E x i vi de p arad is e 6 M ay , 1 3 1 2 part ly ca lled fort h
, ,

ideas regard ing evangelical and Fran c iscan poverty , by the p olem ical writ in gs of Ubert i n o .

and attacked t h e gover nment of the order although , Ub ert in o t hereon retired t o Avignon i n 1 3 1 3 and ,

some of these ideas had been reproved b y O livi in h is stay ed w it h Card i n al G i acomo Colonn a t ill he had
letter of Sep t 1 29 5 to B lessed Conr ado da Ofiid a .
, , ,
obtain ed from J ohn XXI I ( 1 O ct 1 3 1 7 ) perm ission to .
,

a moderate Zela n te of Fran c iscan poverty T he . leave t he order and t o enter the Bened i ctine A bbey of
Sp ir ituals of Tuscany were so fanat ical as p ub G emblou x D iocese of L i ege Some have doubted
,
.

li cly to blame Gregory IX and N i cholas I I I and even ,

whet h er t he B ened ict ines would have received i n t heir
to condemn them as heret ics for having i nterpreted ,
co mm un ity a person of such a restless character but ,

the Rule of St Fran cis as regards poverty ~

according
. we are assured of it by C la r eno and a n ot ar y of K ing
to j ust ice and moderation ; t hey also condemned James I I of Aragon in t he year 1 3 1 8 N o tw i th sta n d .

I nnocent I I I wh o had stron gly d isapproved of the

,
i n g this , Ub ert i n o d id not desist from m i x ing h i mse lf up
teaching of J oach i m of Flora whom they regarded as ,
in t he q uest ion t hat troubled t he Fran ciscan Order t ill
an oracle of the Holy G host and whose theories were ,
he was excommun i cated by J ohn XX I I W h ile st 1 ll .

t h e cause of the discord i n the Fran ciscan Order in a favourite of th is pop e and a fam i liar of Card inal
t he fir st half of th e fourteen th century . Orsin i he was in vi ted by the sovereign p on tiff t o g ive
,

O u account of h is e x cessive and sat ir ical cr it ic ism ,

h is O p i n ion regard in g t he ot her famous questl on d i s
Ubertino was summ oned before Ben ed i ct X I and for cussed between the Dom in ican s and F r a n ci s ca n s that ,

b idden to preach at Perug i a and was ban is hed to the ,

is concern in g the p overty of J esus Christ and that
,

Convent of La V ern a where in 1 305 b e con ceived and ,

of the A post les This latter q uest ion far more th a n
.
,

wro te in on ly three mon t h s and seven days ( ii he can

, th e one con cern in g t he Sp i r ituals caused the d i sas ,
“
be believed on this poin t ) h is ch ief work A rbor v itae , ,
trous schism in the order headed by M ichael of Cesena ,
”
cr uci fix ze Jesu C h rist i Th is work is a co llect ion of . general of the order and seconded by t he rebe lli o us ,

allegorical t h eological and politi cal theor i es regard ing

, ,
Lou is I V of B avaria U bert ino was at A y i gnon m .

c ivil soci ety and t h e Church of those days and e x ,

1 322 ; on t h e request of the pope he wrote h i s answer
pounds also his ideal of the near future I n th is work . t o the quest ion t hen in controversy assert i ng t hat ,

he critic is es everyt h ing and every one the p opes and ,

C h rist and t h e Apostles have to be considered i n a
the Church especial ly for pret e nded abuses of r i c h es
, two fold cond it ion : as private p ersons t h ey had rep u
-

i n th e ecclesiasti cal and civil states and fin a lly th e , d i a te d all propert y but as m inisters of religion t hey
,

Franciscan Order for not pract isin g t h e e x tremest m ade use of goods and money for n ecessar i es and
povert y In t h e same work ( book I chap iv ) is the
.
,
. alms J ohn XXI I was sa t i sfie d w it h the answer b ut
.
,

fir st mention of t h e legend of t h e resurrect ion of St . Ubertino returned a ain to t he servi ce of Card i nal
Fran cis as he a ffi r ms to have heard from Blessed
, O rsin i and cont in ue by h is wri tings to con cern h i m
,

Conrado da O fii d a and t h e latter from Blessed , self in t he q uest ion wh ic h meanw hile had been set
,
 UDI NE 1 18 UDI NE

baptistery in Florence V asar i tells us that h is . sini ( A rchbishop Br i ca t o ) In the baptistery is a .

special love was for geometry and perspect ive . font by G iovan ni d a Z uglio ( 1 480 ) and paintin gs
M anetti taug h t h im geometry but where he learned ,
b y Tiepolo T he oldest ch urch at Ud ine is that of
.

painting we do not know nor are we acquai nted , S M ari a d i Castell o transformed i n the si x teen th
.
,

with the reasons w h ich led h i m t o leave the botega centur y S Anton io Abbate con tains t he t ombs of
. .

of G hibert i and set up for h imse lf V asari sco ffs . t he p atri archs Francesco and E rmolao B arbaro ;
at Uccello s study of perspective regard ing it as SS Fi lippo e G iacomo statues by Con ti er i ; S Pietro
’
,
.
, .

waste of ti me and say ing t hat t he artist be came ,

M art ire and the Z i telle e S C h iara contain not e .

“
more needy t han famous
en i n g an d prop ortion
H is sk i ll in for e sh or t worthy p i ctures ; t he M adonna delle Grazie preserves
and in some of t h e comp le x ,
a m uc h venerated By zant i n e M adonn a and is ri ch
d i ffi cult i es of per in sculpt ure and paint ings A mong the profane .

sp ecti ve was q uite ,

edifi ces the Castello whi ch ac qu i red i ts present
, ,

remarkable a n d ,
form in 1 5 1 7 was the resi den ce of the p atri archs
,

his p ictures for this of A qui lei a t hen of t he V eneti an govern or and
, ,

reason a l o n e are is now a barrack ; i t contains a great parli amen t

well worthy careful chamber p ainted by A ma lteo Tiepolo and others , , _
.

study for they d is ,

The ci ty ha ll t he work of N i col e Li onello ,

play an e x tr a or d i in a sober and g raceful Got hi c style is rich i n ,

nary knowledge of paint ings by t he most celebrated V en eti an masters ,

geometric p erSp ec as is also t he archiepiscopal palace b ui lt by the

'

Patriarch F rancesco B arbaro espec iall y remarkable

,

t ive H is most i m .
,

p ortan t work is the for t he sa lon of G i ovann i da Udine The c ity hos .

colossal eq uestrian p ital was b ui lt in 1 7 82 b y Archbishop G radenigo .

fi g ur e of Sir John NI a ny of the private residen ces also are ri ch in works

H awkwood a chia ,
0 f art .

r o s c u r o in ter m W here the c i ty of Udine n ow stands there e x isted ,

ver d e, intended to in t he Roman period a f o r t ifie d camp probably for

, ,

i m i t a t e a stone t he defence of the V i a Julia Augusta lead ing from

statue seen aloft , ,
Aqu ileia to the Carn ic A lps N arses also m ade use .

P A O LO D I D O N O C A LL E D L CC E L L O standing out from '

of this fort after t he G othic W ar N o ment ion how .
,

Se lf p ortr a it Th e L ouvre ever is found of U ti num unt il 9 83 , when O tho I I

.

- the wall of the ca

. ,

t h ed r a l O ne of the granted its stronghold to R a d oa ld o Patria rch of ,

most precious p ossessions of t he N ati onal G allery ,

A qu ileia Pr in ce of Friul i and Istri a
, A centre of .

London is a battle p ict ure by this a rtist

, For a long
-
. p opulat ion went on form ing here from t hat t ime and ,

t ime this was wrongly ent it led the “ B att le of Sant ’

E gidio of 1 4 1 6 but i t reall y repr esents the rout of San

Romano of 1 4 32 Instead of M alatesta the p i cture .
,

g ives us a representat ion of N i col e da Tolentino .

M r Herbert H orne gave considerable attent ion to

.

the h istory of t h is p i cture som e twelve years ago ,

and was able t o arrive at a very accurat e determ ina
t ion regardi ng i t There are very few paint ings by .

Uccell o i n e x isten ce althoug h he must have painted ,

a considerable number There is a panel by h i m i n .

the Louvre contain ing his own portrait associated

, ,

with t h ose of G iotto Donatello Brunellesc h i and , , ,

M anett i represent ing perspec tive assoc iated with
,

pain ting sculpture arc hi tecture and geometry M any

, , , .

of the frescoes he e x ecuted for Santa M aria N ovella

have been destroyed The only other p icture of his .

that need be ment ioned here is a predella i n a

church near Urbino relat ing t o the theft of a p a x , ,

w h ich is attributed to h i m by m any critics H e is .

said to have studied the works of Pisanello with

great advantage and it is probable that i t was from ,

P isanello that he fir st learned painting but he may ,

be practi cally regarded as one of the founde rs of the

'

art of l inear perspective There are very few dates .

known i n h i s h istory beyond those of h is birt h

_

and death But we k now that i n 1 425 he was at

.

work at V en ice i n 1 436 painting h is portrait of ,

ir John H awkwood and in 1 468 residing at U r

E mo
V A S A R I L i ves of th e Pa i n ter s ; B o r u m Note a lle Vi te d el
.
,

' '
.
,

Va sa ri ( Fl ore nce I D E M D i a log h i op r a le tr e B clli A r ti '

( L uc ca ,
, , s

G E O R G E C HA R L ES W I LL I A M SON .

U di n e , A nc n mo ce sn o r ( U TI N E N S I S) —The city .

of Ud ine t h e cap ital of a province and archdi ocese in

,
TH E C A TH E D R A L U D I N E
X I I I C E N TU R Y , ,

Prinh n orthern Ital y is sit uated in a region ma i n ly

, , successive patriarchs provided it w i th water supply -

agr i cult ural I ts cat h edral built i n 1 236 by the

.
,
and other i nst itut i ons The p op ulation was n otab ly
.

Pa tr 1 a r ch Bertoldo was altered several t imes most , increased by the arr ival of Tuscan e x iles i n t h e t h i r
' ,
recent ly m 1 7 06 through th e mun i ficence of the
, , t een th and fourteen th centuries In t he t h i rteen th .

M a mn fami l y whose tombs adorn th e choir I t e on , . . cen tury the p atriarch was represented by a ga s ta ld o ,

tams pa i nt ings b y Pordenone Tiepolo ( chapel of the , wh ile twelve n obles and twelve commons rep resented
Blessed Sacrament ) M atteo da V eron a etc ; statues , , . the people in the governmen t Th e priv ileges of the .

by Tor re tto (St Bertrand ) Linard i ( Pi us IX ) M in i .

, ,
cit i z ens were augmen ted b y the Patriarchs Ramond o
 UGA NDA 119 UH TRED

della Torre ( 1 29 1 ) and Bertrando d i Saint Ge n a i s c

s ud i H e was a consultor of the Inde x and th e olo
.

( 1 3 4 0 ) on accoun t of t he loyalt y d isplay ed by t he gian to Card in al Carlo de M edi ci and was freq uently ’
,

Ud inese in the wars against the V iscon ti of M ilan and o ffered the ep iscopal d igni ty , whic h h e refused to a c
against t h e smal l feudatories As early as t he th i r . cep t H e was buried in hi s abbat ial church H i s
. .

“
t ee n th cent ury Ud ine was the ord inary residence of chief work is I tali a saera sive de e p i sco p i s I ta li w ”
the patriarchs and in 1 348 when Aquileia was de , , ( 9 vols Rome 1 64 3 .
, abridged by Ambrogio L u
,

stroy ed by an eart hq uake t he see was d e fimt i vely ,

centi ( Rome 1 7 04 ) r e ed ited wit h correct ions and a d ,
-

transferred to Ud ine In 1 38 1 the c ity op posed Car . d i t i o n s by N i cola Colet i ( V en i ce 1 7 1 7 with a ,

d inal Philip of Al en con who had been g iven the See of ,

tenth volume I n comp i ling th is work b e frequen tly .
,

A qu ileia i n c omme nd a m; they wished to have an had to deal w ith m atters not p reviously treated by
e fle ct i ve prince and patr iarch and t he consequen t ,
h istorians ; as a result , the I talia sacra ” owin g to the ,

war ended only w it h the card inal s renunciation ’

i mperfect ions of h ist ori cal science in U g h e lli s day ’

There was also a pop ular rising against G io especially from the point of v iew of cri ticism and dip
vann i M argrave of M oravia who wished to revise the
, ,
loma t i es cont ains serious errors p articularl y as t h e
, ,

Const itut ion In 1 420 Ud ine after a long siege sur

.
, ,
author was more in tent on col lect in g th an on weigh
rendered t o t he V enet ians and thenceforward i t ,
ing documen ts N evertheless h is work w it h a ll i ts .

belonged to t he republ ic being th e cap i tal of Fr iul i , . i mperfect ions was necessary to fac ilit ate the labours
H owever i t retained in substance its anc ien t form of
,
of criti cal h istorians of a later day and is consulted ,

governm en t Ud ine was the b irthplace of the m il it ary

. even n ow Amon g h is ot her wr itin gs are : Cardi
.
“

n a li um elogi a e x sacro ordine cistercien si

”
leaders Savorgn ano and Coll oredo and t h e painters ( Floren ce ,

G iovann i da Udine Pell egrin o da S Dan iele , G iovann i , . on t he writers and saints of his order and t h e
d i M artino and Odoric o Polit i ,
. pap al p ri vileges gran ted to i t ; Columne n si s fam i li a:
ca r d i n a li um i magines
”
In 1 7 5 2 th e Pa tr i a r ch a te of A qu il ei a wa s suppressed ,
'

( Rome and g e n ea log i ,

and the two Archbishoprics of Ud ine and G ori z ia cal works on t he “ Counts of M arsciano and t h e
“ ” “ ”
w ere formed , the former embracing that part of the Ca p i z ucch i ( Rome 1 667 , A ggiunte to t he ,

V it ae p o n t ificum of Ci aco n i us
”
patri archate w hic h was subj ect to t he Republic of I n t h e l ast volume .

V en ice The fir st archb ishop was Dan iele D olfin

. of the I tali a saera ” he p ublished various h istori cal
-

(1 7 5 2 who retained t he title of p atr iarch In 1 8 1 8 sources unt il t hen uned ited
—
. .

Udin e became a b ishopr ic subj ect t o the metropolitan L U C E N I I I ta lia sa cr a r e str i cta I ( R o me p re f a ce ; J O N G E
' ‘
, , , ,

See of V en ice ; Pius IX however in 1 8 46 r e e stab LI N Noti t a bba ti a r um or d ci ster c ( C o l o g ne

, . V i sC H B i b i . , , .

li sh e d t he A rc hbishopric of Ud ine t hough withou t

, , ,
s cr i p t ci s ter c
. X I I ( 2n d e d C o log ne ,
,
U B E N I GN I
sufi r a ga ns The archdiocese contains 20 1 parishes
. .

with souls ; 7 03 priests 3 houses of male an d , Uh t r e d ( U TR E D , OW TRE D ) , an E nglish B ened ic

6 of female religi ous ; 2 educat ional estab lishments for t in e theologian an d writer , b a t Boldon , N orth Dur .

bo y s and 6 for girls

, .
ham , abou t 1 3 1 5 ; d at Fin ch a le Abbey , 24 Jan ,
C A P P E L L E I TI L e ch i es e d I ta l i a V I I I : C rco m Udi n e e sua
. .
'
’ ‘

1 39 6 H e j oined t h e Be ne d i ct i ne s of Durham Abbey

‘
. . .

p r vi n c ia ( U d i ne
.
o ,

U B E N I GN I . .
about 1 332 and was sent to London in 1 337 Three .

years later he en tered Durham Coll ege a house wh ich

See U PP E R N I L E
,
Ug a n d a .
, V I CA R I A TE A p os the Dur ham Benedict in es had estab lished a t O x ford
TO L I C O F THE .
for those of t heir members w ho p ursued the i r stud ies
) —Th
at the Un iversity of O xf ord H e was graduated there
U g en to D i ocs s n o r ( U X E N TI N c C ity of
.

, .

as licent iate in 1 35 2 and as doctor in 1 35 7 Durin g

Ugento wit h i ts small harbour , is situated in t he
.

,
t h e su cceed ing ten years and even previousl y he took
Prov i n ce of Lecce in A pu lia on t he Gulf of Taren , ,
p art i n numerous d ispu tat ion s at O x ford Un iversity ,
, ,

tum I t is the an cient Ux en tum, a n d claims to have

.

m any of w h ich were d i rected against members of t h e

been founded by U x e ns who is ment ioned in th e ,
mendican t orders I t is on t h is account that Bale
E ighth Book of the ZE n e i d In ancien t t imes i t was
.

( loc c it below ) wrongly designates h im as a supporter

.

an im port an t ci ty In 1 5 3 7 i t was destroyed by th e

. .

of W yc l if I n 1 367 he became pr ior of F in e h a le

T ur k s Under the By z antine dom ination i t had
.

Abbey , a posit ion to w hich he was appo inted three

G reek b ishops O i t h e Lat in b ishops the first known .

other t i mes in 1 37 9 1 386 and 1 39 2 I n 1 368 an d in

was the Bened ict ine S imeon of unknown date , , .
,
,
1 38 1 he w as subprior at Dur h am A bbey A lon g w i th
.

Others wort hy of ment ion are : St Charles B orromeo

.

W ycl if he was one of the delegates sen t by E dward

.

( 1 5 30 A nt on io Sebast iano M in turn o poe t ,

I I I to the p apal representat ives at B ruges in 1 37 4
the Carmel ite Desiderio M a z z a p i ca ( 1 5 66) w it h the p u rpose of reach ing an agreemen t con cern in g
,

who w as d ist i n gu ished at t h e C ounc i l of Tren t ; an d the vexed quest ion of canon i cal prov ision in E ngland
th e great canonist A gost i n o B arbosa In 1 8 1 8
.

I n the sam e year he represen ted Durham A bbey at a

t h e Diocese of A lessano ( the anc ien t Leu ca ) was
coun c i l he ld b y E dward Pr in ce of W ales for t h e pur
un ited to t hat of Ugen to The G r ee k Rite flour i sh e d .

p ose of determ inin g whet h er t he k ing was obliged to

, ,

i n man y p laces in t his d iocese un ti l 1 5 9 1 w hen i t w as ,

.

recogn i z e t he p apal su z eraint y w h i ch had been gran t

abolished by B ishop E rcole Lan c ia The d iocese is
'
.

cd to Innocen t I I I by K in g J ohn C m t h is occasion

s ufl r a g a n of O tran to and contains 3 0 parishes ,
.

’
,
U h t r e d d e f e nd e d t he pope s right of overlord sh ip , b ut
soul s 1 29 p riests secular and regular 1 house
, , ,
when on t he f ollowi n d a y the assembl y cast i t s vote
,

of male rel igious 4 houses of female reli gious and 3 , ,

con trar ily , he fo ll owe the 1 r example ( Flores H ist or ,
school s for g irls
. .

CA PPE L L E PI I L e Ch i es e d I ta lfa XX I
' ‘
,
.

'

. .
Ro lls Series I I I , 337 , A mong h is li terary work s
, ,

U B E N I GN I n one of wh ic h have as yet been p r i n te d a r e worthy of ,

“
m ent ion : D e sub sta n t i a li b us r e gulze mona ch a li s , p e "
. .

U g h e l li , F E R D I N A N D O h istor i an b at Florence , served in t he D urham Cathed al L ibrary ; Contra r

“

H avin g entere d
.
,

2 1 M arch 1 5 9 5 ; d 1 9 M ay 1 67 0 , .
, .
”
q uerelas Fratrum wr it ten abou t 1 39 0 , e x tan t in the ,
the C ist ercian Order in h is n ative c it y he was sen t to , B r i t i sh M use um ; and a Lat in tran slat ion of the E c cle
’

the G regorian Un iversi ty , Rome where he studied , s i a st i ca l H ist or ”

y of E useb ius , wh ich is also preserved
under the Jesui t s Fran cesco Piccolom in i and John de , in the Br it ish M useum .

Lugo H e fille d many import ant post s i n his order

.

, Vi ta Comp en d i osa Uth ed t mona ch i D u n elmen si s w r i tte n b y a n r

'

, .

bei ng Abbot of Settim o ( Florence ) and from 1 638 , u n k n ow n w ri te r ( p ro b a blv Jo h n W e ss i n g to n P ri or o f D urh a m , .

A bbo t of Tre Fontane Rome H e was sk illed i n 1 4 1 6 1 4 4 6) a nd p re se rve d i n t h e B ri ti s h M use u m ; P O L LA R D i n

—
-

s v ; TA NN E R B i bl i oth eca B r i t I l i b
, .

D i cl 0] Na t B i oor
7 4 3 4 ; B A L E S cr i p t I ll us tr M a j ori s B r i ta nn i a ( B a s le 1 5 5 7
ecclesi asti cal history To encourag e hi m i n t h is work . , . .
. . , . .

.
. .
, ,

and t o defray t he e xpense of t h e j o urneys i t ent ailed VI 53

M I CH A E L O r r
. .

A lexander VI I granted h im an annual pension of 5 00 ' '

.
 UJ EJ SKI 1 20 ULFI LA S

U j ej ski , C ORN E I U S , Polish p oet , b at Ber emi a ny , L .

u nserer Zeit I r r th umb ” H e completed at Colo gne
“
.

Gali cia , 1 8 23 ; d at Ch oloj ew i e , 1 89 7 H is father was

. . ( 1 5 8 9 ) his c hi ef t heological work E rhebli che un d ,

a prosperous landowner member of an an cient nob le ,

w ic h tige Ursachen war umb di e al tg laub i ge C a th o ,

fam i ly Corne li us comp leted h is stud ies at Lemberg

. ,
lisc h e Chr isten b e i dem alten wahren Ch r i ste n th umb
and wh il e st i ll a student at t h e un iversi ty t here wrote b is in i hr en Tod b est and i g li ch verh a rren of whi c h he
.

Mara t o n
”
a p atr iot i c lyr ic poem of e x cellen t also issued a Lat in edit ion enti tled : Caus es graves e t
form I n 1 8 4 6 at t h e i nst igati on of t h e A ustr ian
,
j ust w cur Ca t h oli ci s i n commun i on e ve te r i s e j usque
,

veri Chr i st i a ni smi consta n ter usque a d fin em vi t ae

.

Governmen t t h e Gali cian p easants massacred several

,

t housand of th e nob ili ty U j e j ski then gave utter .

p e r ma n en d u m, c ur item omn ib us qui se E va n g eli cos ,

an ce to t he un iversal feeli n g of i n dignat ion in his vo ca n t r e li ct i s er r or i bu s a d ej usdem Chr i st i a ni smi

,

powerful poem “ Choral ” , whi ch has become t h e consorti um vel p ost lim ini o r e d eun d um si t ” This is .

n at ional h y mn of Poland A t Par is 1 8 4 7 he p ub .

, ,
one of t h e best controversial treatises of the si x teent h
li sh ed a volume of p oems en t it led Sk a r g i J er emi e g o cent ury an d i s still instruct ive read in g A new and
“
.

( Lamentat ions of Jerem ias ) H e m ade the ac qua i nt .

revised ed it ion was prep ared by M W K e r p ent itled :.
. .

Zwei und z wan z ig Be we ggr i i n d e E i n B uch fur K at h

'

an ce of the most dist i ngu ished men i n the Polish col ”

.

ony at Paris among them M ick iew i c z , and devoted o li sch e und E vangel sche i ( M ain z 1 827 1 8 33 and , , ,
,
“
h imself w it h yout hful ardour to t he p oet J uli us Slo Ot her works worthy of ment ion are : Trost
wa ek i I n 1 8 4 8 he ret ur ned home and won great
. ,
bueh fur d ie K ranken un d Sterbenden ” ( Cologne ,
p op ular ity H e was regarded an d beloved b y t h e peo
.
often reprinted ( new edi t ion s L ucerne 1 835 , , ,
“
p le as t he i r n at ional p oet U j e j ski wrote a number of . and M uni ch H istori a de v ita mor i bus reb us
, , ,

other p oems of fin e sent i m en t and p erfect p oet ical ges ti s s tudi i s a o d eni que m orte Pr aed i ca n t i um Lu
,

t h e r a n or um D M ar ti n i Lu th e r i Ph i lipp i M ela n ch
”
form , among them K wi a ty b e z won i ( Flowers w it h ,
.
,

t h oni s M a tt h i m Fla en I lly r i ci , Georg ii M a i or i s, e t

“ ”
out perfume ) 1 848 and Z w i e
,
dl e l scie ( Faded
i , ,
-

leaves ) i n 1 8 4 9 In 1 85 2 he p ub lis h ed a second vol

.
Andreas Osi a n dr i which was edi ted after U len b er g s ’

“
ume of p oem s en t it led M elodye Bi bli j n e ( B ib lical ”
death b y Ar nold M esh ovi us a Germ an edit ion
M elod ies ) U j e j ski n ever ac h ieved anyth ing fin er
.
being issued at M ai n z ( 2 vols 1 8 36 U le nb er g .
,

t han his yout h ful works t hough his later p oems are ,
also wr ote various shorter p olem ical and ascetical
dist i nguished b y strong patr iot i c feeling elegance of ,
treat ises H is last and m ost imp ortant literary work
.

form and fin e p oet i c taste

,
. ( Sacra B ib li a das ist , d ie g a n t z e Hei lige Sch r ifi t Alten
, ,

S T A R N OW SK I . . und N euen Testaments nac h der let z ten R é mi seh ,

Si x t in er E d it ion m it fiei ss fi b e r g eset z t ) t he Ger ,

Ulen b er g , K A SPAR convert , theological writer

'

,
m an translation of t he B ib le , he began ( 1 61 4 ) at t he
and translator of t he B ible b at Lippstadt on t he ,
. request of t he Ar chbishop and E lect or of Cologne ,

Lippe W estp hali a i n 1 5 49 ; ( L at Cologne 1 6 Feb ,

, , ,
. Ferdin and Duke of B avaria and fin i sh e d shortly ,

1 61 7. H e was the son of Lutheran p arents and before h is deat h The fir st ed iti on appeared at .

was intended for t he Lut heran m ini stry He re . Cologne i n 1 630 ; eleven ot her edi tion s were p ubl ished
ce i ved hi s gramm ar sc h ool educat ion i n Lipp stadt -
,
at Cologne up t o 1 7 4 7 an d eleven m ore at N a rem ,

Soest and Brunsw ick and from 1 5 69 stud ied t h eology

, ,
berg B amberg Frankfort and V ienn a The G erman
, , , .

at W i ttenberg W h ile study in g Luther s wr itings .

’
B ible whi ch was p ubli shed ( M ain z 1 662) at the com ,

there his fir st doubts as to t h e truth of the Lutheran m and of the Ar chb ishop and E lector of M ain z ,
doctrines were awakened and were t hen i ncreased b y ,
Johan n Ph ilip Coun t of Sch b n b or n , was a rev ision
hearing t he d isp utes between t h e Protestant theol e of Ulen b er g s translation ’
This rev ision ent i tled .
,
“ ”
gians and b y the appearan ce of Calvin ism in Saxony . Die ca th oli sch e M ain z er B ibel is sti ll fre quent ly ,

A f ter comp leting h i s st ud ies he taug h t for a short

'
printed and un til A lli oli s translation appeared was ’

t ime i n t h e Lat in school at Lunden i n D it hm arschen ; t h e most p op ular Germ an translat i on of t he B i b le .

he was t h en sent by his fami ly to Cologne t o brin g M ns n ovm s D e vi ta mar i ba s et obi tu a d m r ever en d i et ex i mn ii
H A R TZ H E I M B i bli oth eca

—
, .
,

U len ber g zt ( C ol og n e
' ' '

vt r z C
'

p as
back to Protestan tism a ki nsman who had become a o
.

C o l n i e n s i s ( C o l og n e 5 3 sq ; RKs s D i e Con ver ti ten s et? d er

,
,

. .
,

Cat h oli c After accompli shing thi s task he remained Ref or ma ti on I I ( F r e i b ur g 5 5 0 7 0 ; K L E FF N E R K a sp a r U len
ber g a u s L i p p sta d t Con ver ti t Con tr over si st B i belfi ber setz er u H i s
21 5 —
. ,
, ,

in Cologne , where t hrough h is friendshi p with . , , .

S ee l sor g er X I
,
tor i lcer i n D er ka th ol 2 3 2 5 7 65 ; -

Johann N op eli u s and Gerwin Ca leni us ( Catho li c .

R E U ss E N K a s p a r Ulen ber g i n K d ln a ls E r zi eh er d er ba di sch

, ,

country me n of his ) , he had an opportun ity of b ecom M a r kg r af en W i l h elm u H er ma nn 1 60 0—

.
,

1 606 i n B e i tr d g e zur
‘

ing acquainted wit h Cat hol ic li fe and teachin g I n vor n eh ml i ch K Oln s u d er Rh ei n la n d e ( C ol og n e

‘
-

.
. ,

1 5 7 2 he became a Cat h olic and soon afterwards , ,

F R I E D R I C H L A U CHE RT
upon obtain ing degrees i n p hilosop hy at t he Uni ver
' .

s i ty of Cologne became professor at the Gymn asium ,

Ul f i las ( U L P H I L A S) , ap ostle of th e G oths , mi s
L a ur en ti a n um at Cologne In 1 5 7 5 he was ordained . si on a r y , translator of the B ible , and i nventor of an
priest and became p arish pr iest at Kaiserswerth In . alp habet , b probably in 3 1 1 ( see Bessel , p
. d at . .

1 5 8 3 he was made p arish priest of St C un i b e r t s .

’
Const an t inop le i n 380 or 38 1 Though U lfilas i n .

i n Cologne w h ere he labo ured z ealousl y b y preach in g

,
speec h and symp ath ies was thoroughly G oth ic he ,

and catec h et ical e x ercises and m ade m any conver ,

was descended not from Teuton ic an cestors b ut from ,

sions In 1 5 9 3 he became regen t of the Laurent ian

.
Cappadocians cap tured i n t he rei gn s of V aleri an ,

gymn asium retain ing this p osition for twenty two

,
-
and G alli enus durin the raids i n A si a M in or
,

years From 1 600 to 1 606 he d irected the ed ucation

. m ade by the G oths rom t he nort h of t he Danube .

of princes W i l h e lm and Herm ann of B aden sons of ,

There seems to be no vali d reas on for thinki n g U lfi las
M argrave E dward For tun atus of B aden Baden In -
. was not born a Chr istian ( Hodgk in p laces his conver
1 605 h e became p arish priest of St Columba s in .
’
si on durin g his residence at Constan tinople ) As a .

Cologne and from 1 61 0 to 1 61 2 was also rector of t he

,
young m an he was sen t to th at c ity eit h er as a hostage
un 1 ve r s1 t y . or an ambas sador and after occup y ing for some t im e , ,

U le nb e r g began his literary career at Kaiserswerth the p osi tion of lector i n the church he was consecrated ,

with the work “ Die Psalmen Dav id s i n allerlei ,

’
b is h op in h i s t h irtiet h year b y the celebrated A rian
deutsche Ge s a n gr e i me gebracht ” ( Cologne , b ishop of N icomedi a E usebi us Shortly after h is ,
.

an e x cellen t h y mn book for the common peop le -

,
consecration he returned t o Daci a and during t he
w h i ch was widel y c i r culated and often reprin ted ; the remain ing forty years of hi s li fe he laboured am ong
l ast and revised edi ti on was b y M Kaufman n ( Augs .
h is fellow count rym en as a m issionary The fir st
-
.

b urg ,
To the fir st ed it ion was appended a eight or ten years of h is m issionary life were spent in .

Katechismus oder kur z er Bericht der gan z en christl . Dacia after wh ich because of the persecution of h is
,

k a t h o l Religion sa mmt W arnung w ider allerlei

.
p agan coun trymen he was compelled w i th m any of hi s
 ULLE RSTON 1 22 UL L O A

eral pr iests and n uns w ho had o ff ered t hemselves for f or t h e se co n d h a lf , see h is L etter s . e d i te d b y t he sa me
t he work On hi s land in g he fo un d hi mse lf t he cen tre
.
, O t h e r a uth oriti e s : COO E R i n D i et Na t B i og s v ; G I L L O w , P
of oblo quy on acco un t of hi s evidence on the co nv mt
. . .
. . .

B i bi D i d E ng Cat h s v W i th f ul l er e n ume ra tio n o f U lla

.

R
. . .
, . . ,

q uest ion for it was supposed to be detrim ental to t he t h orne s works ; M a n t a }: B A D Y . Ca th oli c H i er a r ch y ; B i sh op
'

colony , w hi ch t hr ived on t he free la bour of t he co n U lla th or n e N u mb er o f Th e Oscoti a n ( o n d o n L AN CE Y . L . G

Cha r a cter i sti cs f r om th e W r i ti ng s of A r ch bi s h op Ullat h or n e ( Lo n
vic ts N e ver t h eless, hi s views in t he end prevail ed d on E N NY K
H i st of Cath oli ci ty i n A u str a lia
,
R R L
. .
. .

and transportation was abo lished In 1 84 0 U lla P U C E LL , L i f e of M a n n i n g ( LO n d o n . W A D i f e of W i se

.

ma n ( o n d o n , L B mr , B ened i ct i n e P i on e er s i n A ustra lia '

,

t h orne left A ustralia as it t ur ned o ut for good tra y e l , , , L

( o n d on , AR D i f e of N e wma n ( on d on W , L L
B E R NAR D W A R D
.

li ng to E ngland in company wit h B i shop Fo ldi ng .

H e had a lrea dy drawn out a sc heme for a reg ul ar

h ierarc hy , r endered possible by t he remarkable an d Ull er st on , R i chard , b in th e Du ch y of Lan caster .
,

rap id in crease in n umbers and organi z at i on , an d when E ng land ; (1 in A ugust or September , 1 4 23 . H av in g .

Dr Poldi ng went to Rome he obtain ed i t s substant i al been ordai ned pr iest i n December 1 38 3 he became
s Coll ege , O xford ( 1 39 1
. ,
’
adoption Dr Foldin g hi mself became Ar chb i shop
. .
l
fe low of Q n ee n

of Sydn ey ; b u t t houg h U lla t h or ne was more t han hold i ng othee ln t h e coll ege and proceed in g do ctor of ,

on ce pressed to accep t a bishopric there he remai ned ,

d 1 y 1 n1 t in 1 408 he became c h an ce llor of
staun c h in hi s refusal and ret ired to t he mission of ,
the un iversity and in t he same year wrote at the
Coventry Here he used his energy in b ui ldi ng a
.
request of t he B ishop of Sali s bury a sket ch of pro
handsome new c hur c h ; b ut after a stay of t hr ee years p osed ecclesiast i cal reform s : “ Pe ti t i one s pro ec
clesiae mili t a n t i s r e for ma t i on e
”
he had once more to move be i ng appointed V l ca r ,
H e also wrot e a .

A posto li c of t he W estern District of E ngland W i t h t he com ment ary on t he Creed one on t he Psalm s
.

t it le of B ishop of H et a lona Two years later how .

,
ano ther on the Cant icle of Cant i cles
ever he was transferred to t he Central Distr ict in
, ,
and D efe n sor i um d ota ti on i s eccle si ast i cae ” , a work
which he was dest ined to spend t he remain in g fo rty i n defen ce of the don at ion of Con stan t i ne A t t he .

one y ea rs of his life H e so on acqu ir ed in flue n ce .

req uest of Ar chb ishop Co urtenay he wrote a treati se ,
“
among his brot her bishops and in 1 848 he went to ,
De offici o m i li tari ” , addressed to Henry Pr in ce of ,

Rome as t he ir delegate to negot iate t he restorat ion W ales From 1 4 03 he held t he preben d of O xford
of t he E ng lish hierarc h y —a task for whic h he was
.
,

in Salisbur y cathedral , and from 1 4 07 t he rectory of

Spec iall y qualified in v iew of t he part he had t aken Beeford in Y ork sh i re
TA N N E R B i bl B n t H eb ( L o n d o n
.
,

i n t he sim ilar scheme already carried out in Australia . A W O O 1). H i st a n d’

.
-
.
, , .

A nti q of Ox f or d ( O x f ord 1 7 9 2 FI I TS D e i ll us t A n g l i a: scri p

.
’ ‘

H is negot iat ions were successful and after a delay

.
, , .

,
.
tor i bu s ( P a ri s ,E D W I N B U RTO N '

of two years due to t he Revolut ion i n Rome t he new

.

, ,

E ng li sh hierarchy was proclaimed by P ius I X on Ull oa ,

A N TON I O D E n aval offi ce r and scient ist , ,

29 September 1 85 0 Cardinal W iseman became t he

,
. b at Sev i ll e Spain , 1 2 J a n
. 1 7 1 6 ; ( 1 near Cadi z
,
.
,
.
,

fir st Archbis h op of W estm in ster , Dr U lla t h or n e being . Spa i n 5 Ju ly , 1 7 9 5

, H e ent ered the n avy in 1 7 3 3 . .

appointed B ishop of B ir mingham H e ruled t hat di o . I n 1 7 35 he w as appo in ted w ith J orge J uan , an ot her
cese for t hi rt y seven years On t he dea t h of Card ina l-
. youn g Sp an i ard a mem ber of a s ci ent ifi c e x p ed it ion ,

W iseman , he was c hosen b y Propaganda to succeed which the Fren ch Academy of Sc ien ces was send i n g
hi m ; b ut Pius IX overrul ed t he ir cho ice and a p to Peru to measure a de g ree of the mer idian at t he
po inted Cardinal M ann ing and Dr U lla t h or n e r e ,
. e quator They rem a i n ed there for near ly ten years
. .

mained at B irmingham H e took p art in all t he four . I n 1 7 4 5 , hav in g fin is h e d the ir sci en ti fic labou rs he ,

provincial synods of W estm i nster and in 1 87 0 he a t ,

and J orge J uan prep ared to return to Spa in agreein g ,

tended t he V at i can Counc il ; bu t for the most par t his to trave l on di fi ere nt sh ip s in order t o m in imi z e t he
episcopate was free from in cident beyond t he steady dan ger of losin g t he i mportan t fruits of the ir labours .

growt h and ad ministrat ion of his diocese W hen he . The sh ip upon w h i ch Ull oa was trave lli n g was cap
fir st took up hi s residence i n t he M idlands he found ,
t ur e d by th e Br itish , and he was tak en as a pr isoner
the fin a n ces in a deplorable condit ion : he l ived to see to E ngland I n that country t hr ough his s ci en t ific
.
,

his diocese thoroughly organ i z ed and many new ,

atta in ments he gain ed the fr iendsh ip of t he men of ,

m issions established as well as new com muni t ies of ,

scien ce and was made a Fellow of the Roy al Society
,

men t he most famous of which was N ewman s Con

,
’
of London In a short t im e , t hrough the in fluen ce of
.

g re g a t io n of Orator ians at E dgbaston Osco tt was at

—
. the presiden t of th is soc iety he was released and was ,

t hat t ime a m i x ed coll ege and i n 1 87 3 Bishop Ulla , ab le to return to Spa in H e becam e prom i nen t as .

t horne establi shed a regular d iocesa n sem in ary St . a scien t is t and was appo int ed to serve on various
Bernard s Olton H e also devoted himself in a
’
,
. i mportant sci en t ific comm i ssions In 1 7 66 he was .

special manner to the convents of hi s diocese i n a ll of , sent as G overnor t o “ La F lor ida O cc ident al ” ( Lou is
which he took a personal in terest One of his c hief . ian a ) where he remained two years and i n 1 7 7 9 he
, ,

assistants was the we ll known M ot her M argaret Hal -

became lieut enant general of the naval forces H e .

lahan who founded a conven t of t he Dom ini can Order

, i s to be cred ited w ith the est ab li shmen t of t h e fir st
at Stone from which t here were several branch museum of natural h i story the h i st metallurg ical
houses In 1 888 Dr U ll a t h or n e obtained lea ve fro m
, ,

. . laboratory in Sp ain and the ob se i va tor y of Cad i z , .

the Holy See to resign his d iocese being given t he ,

A s a result of his sci e n t ific work m Peru he pub li shed
“
t i t le of A rchbishop of Cabasa H e ret ired to Oscott .
( M adr id 1 7 8 4 ) Relaci on h isté rica del viaj e a la
,
”
College where he d ied the following year on t he feast
, Am r ica M erid ional , wh ich con ta i n s a fu ll accu
e ,

of St Benedict and was bur ied at St Domi n i c s Con

.
, .
’
rate and clear descrip t ion of t he grea t er p art of Sou th
,

ven t Stone , . America geographi cally and of its in hab it ants and ,

His chief works wr it ten during his last years are : , , natural h ist or y I n coll aborat ion wi t h th e Jorge .

“ “ “
E ndowmen ts of M an ” ( London Ground , Ju an ment ioned above he also wr ote N ot icias se ,

work of Chr istian V irtues Chr istian Pa cret as de A mérica " g iv ing valuable informa t ion , .

”
t i e nce H e also publ ished Reply to Jud e regard ing the early rel igious orders m Span is h A mer
'

Burton on Religion i n Austral i a ” ( Sydney 1 835 i ca This work was p ub lished b v David Barry i n
Lo n d o n 1 826
.
,
“ ”
La Salet te The Immaculat e Con cept ion
j
,
.

“ U LLO A Rela ci é n h i sf é ri ca d el ma
H istory of R estorat ion of E nglish H ier A mé r i ca fil m d i on a l
' '

d In
L
. e .

“ t r A D A MS ( 2 vol s on d o n 1 80 7 )
arch y The Db lli n g e r it e s An
.
,

s wer t o G ladstone s V at i can Decrees ‘

and a V E N TI '
RA F UE N T E S .

large num b er of sermons pastorals pamphlet s etc , , , . U l l o a , F R A N C I S C O D E d 1 5 4 0 I t is not known ,

. .

F r t h e fi r s t h a l f o f hi l i f e ( t o
o se e h i s A u l nbi og phy
s ra
when he came t o M e x ico nor if he accom pan i ed .

Hernan Cort és i n h i s fir st e x ped i t ion to C a h i or n m

, .

e d i te d a fte r h 1 s d e a t h b y TH E O DO S I A D rum s o f St o n e Co nve n t .

.
 UL R I CH 1 23 U LRI CH

Authori t ies are divided upon these q uest ions Dia z when he defended h imself against the charge of .

del Casti ll o relates t hat d uring the absen ce of Cortés nep otism in regard t o his nephew A d a lb e r o w h om he , ,

his w i fe , Do na Juana de Ju nej a sent letters t o hi m by had app oi nted h is coadj utor on accoun t of his own ,

Ulloa beggin g hi m to r et urn Ulloa in charge of two i llness and desire t o ret i re to a Benedi ctine abbe y .

ships loaded wi th provisions rea ch e ti Cort es when he D uring the struggle between Otto I and h is son Duke
, .

was sorely strait ened and he ret urned to M exi co i n Ludolf of Swab ia U lr ich had m uch to suff er from , ,

1 5 37 Ulloa soon followed E ager for new d is

. Ludolf and h is partisans W hen in t he summer of. .

cove r i es Cortés undertook an e x pedition at h is own

,
9 5 4 father and son were ready to att ack each other
e xpense in 1 5 38 d ispatchi n g a fleet of three boats at Ill ertissen in Swabi a at the l as t momen t Ulri ch
, ,

under the command of Fran c isco de U lloa A ccordi ng and B ishop H ar tb e r t of Chur were able t o mediate .

t o Cla vi g er o Ulloa sailed along t he coasts of t he Cali

, between Otto and L ud oif U lr i ch succeeded i n per .

f or ni a peninsula un ti l he was obliged by the scarcity of sua d i n g Ludolf and K onrad O tto s son i n law to
'
- -
, ,

provi sions t o ret urn to N e w Spain , where i n 1 5 4 0, ask the king s p ardon on 1 7 Dec , 9 5 4 Before lon g ,
’
. .

accord ing t o Dia z del Cast i llo he was stabbed by a t he M agyars entered G ermany plundering and , , ,

soldier and k illed Ot her hi stori ans relate however burn in g as they went and advanced as far as Augs
.
, , ,

t h at of t h e three boats wh ic h sailed from the port of burg wh ich they besieged with t he fury of b arbarians , .

Acap ulco the S Tomas” was soon lost ; t h e “ S A gueda” I t was due t o U lric h s ab ility and courage that A ugs
‘‘
. .
’

was obliged t o seek p ort i n M anzani llo t o repai r b urg wa s able to hold out against t he besiegers un ti l
damages was afterwards driven by a tempest to t he the E mperor Otto arrived Ou 1 0 A ug , 9 5 5 , a batt le
, . .

shores of C uliac an wh ere i t j oined the Trin idad ” re w as fought in t he Lechfeld , and the inv a ders were
, ,

t urn ing s h ort ly wi th the d iscon tented members of the fin a lly defeated The later assert ion that U lr i c h .

“
e x ped it ion and th e ship Tr i n i d a d un d er com mand of h imse lf took part i n the battle i s in correct as U lric h
,
"
, ,

Ulloa was lost no t race having been foun d of her

, , could not have broken through the ranks of t h e M ag .

P A LA CI O M éx i co d ( r a vés d e los si g lo s I I : D i A z D E L C A S T I L LO
I

.
yars who were south of h im, alt hough n ort h of t he . ,
,

H i stori c ve da de a d e la con qu i sta d e N u e va E s pa i ia ( P a ri s emperor

r r
’
.
,
.

C o nr é s H i stor i a d e N u e va E s p a fi a a u men ta da con doc u As m orn in g d awned on 4 July 9 7 3 Ulri ch had

me nt s p or D F a n c A n t L or e nza na A r za h d e M éx i co ( M e x i co
,
, ,

C LA V I G E RO H i stor i a d e la A nti g ua o B a ja Ca l if orn i a

o r
.

,
.

ashes strewn on the ground i n the sh ap e of a cross ;

. .
'

.
,

( M e x i co the cross was sprink led w it h holy water an d he was

C AM I LL U S C R I V E LL I
, ,

p laced upon i t H i s nep hew R i ch wi n cam e wit h a . .

m essage and greetin g from the E mperor Otto I I as

Ulri ch , S A I N T B ishop of A ugsburg b at Kyburg , t he sun rose and im mediately upon this wh ile the , .
, , ,
Zii r i ch Swit z erland i n 89 0 ; d at Augsburg 4 Jul y ,
, c ler gy san g t he Li tany , St Ulrich p assed away
, .
His , . .

973 . H e w as the son of C oun t H ucp a ld and Thet body was placed in the Churc h of St A fra wh ich had .
,

birga and was connected wit h the dukes of Alaman

, been rebui lt by hi m The burial was performed by .

n i a and t he imp erial fam ily of t he Ottos As a B ishop W olf an g of Ratisbon M any m iracles were
g
.
.

chi ld he w as sickly ; when old enou gh t o learn he w as wr ought at h i s grave ; and i n 9 9 3 he was canoni z ed by ,
sent to the m on ast ic school of St G all , where he John XV As early as the ten th cent ury there is a .
.
,
p roved t o be an e x ce llen t scholar H e resolved to very beaut iful m in iature i n a m an uscrip t n ow in t he .

,
enter the priesthood , b u t was in doub t whether t o l ibrary of E insiedeln ( n o 261 fol Other .
,
.

en ter t he Bened ictine A bbey of St G al l or to become m in iatures are at the Roy a l L ibrary of M un ic h , i n .

a secular priest H e w as sent before April 9 1 0 for l a r uscr i p t s of 1 4 5 4 ( Cgm 9 4 to 26V and Cgm n o
g
.
, , . .
, , , .
.
,
h i s further train in g to A d a lber o B ishop of A ugsburg 5 1i , ,

Sc a m p St U lr i ch B i sch of von A u g sbur g 89 0—

’
who m ade h i m a c hamberlain On A d a lb ero s death .
9 7 3 ( A ug sb urg , .
,

( 28 April 9 1 0) U lri ch returned home where he r e e n l a rg e d i n 1 9 04 b y a full b i bl i og ra p h y i n cl ud i n g t h e e a rl y

, ,
a uth o r i t i e s ; a re a d a bl e i ll ustra te d w ork W hi c h d o e s n o t c l a i m t o
m ained unt il t he deat h of Bi shop B ilt ine ( 28 N ov b e a sc h o l a rl y p rod uc ti o n Th e b a si s o f t h e a b ove i s U l ri c h s
—
.
, '

Throug h t he i n flue n ce of hi s uncle Duke b iog ra p h y w ri tte n b y a co n te mp ora ry G E RHA R D ca th e d ra l p r o

.

, , ,

B urch ard of A lam ann i a and other relatives , Ulrich vost o f A ug sb urg i n M on Ger m H i s t S cr i p t I V 3 7 9 4 28 ;
, , . .
, .

M I O N E P L C X X X V ; t r G R A N D A U R Gesch i ch ts sch ei ber d er

was appointed B ishop of A ugsburg by K in g Henry B i o g ra p h y b y B I SHO P
, . .
, r
deu tsch en Vor z e i t X XX I X 4 2 ,

and was consecrated on 28 Dec 9 23 H e proved hi m G E R H A R D ( 9 9 6 , . , .

p revi o usl y A bb ot o f E ll wa n g e n a nd t h a t
,
. .
,

self to b e a ruler who uni ted severity wi t h gent leness of t h e mon k B s n wo o r P uti n a fte rwa rd s A bb ot o f Re i ch e n a u . ,

( 1 008 B E R N o s Vi ta S Ouda ln ci w a s t ur n e d i n t o ve rse

' '

H e sough t to improve the low moral an d social , .

.

i n t h e tw e l f t h ce n t ury b y t h e mo n k A LB E RTU S i n Coder la ti n us

condi tion of t h e cler gy and t o en force a rigid ad h e r mon a cen si s 9 4 1 0 1 2 7
, ed S CHN E LL E R St U l i ch s L eben , . .
t .
. . r
'

ence t o the laws of t he Church Ulrich hoped to gain i n de utsch en Rei men M SS o f t h e fir st l ife a n d t h e ot h e rs
—
. .

this end by periodi cal visi tat ions and by buildin g as a26re1 afto lB a1 s4l0e (358 9 VtIeInI th3 2 nde leevleevnetnht hce netnutry )i e sa t Eni n si e d e l n ( n oll
,
. . . , .

a c ur ) a d a t St G a
m any ch urches as possible , t o m ake t he b lessings of ( no 5 65 e leve nth ce nt ury ) ; cf Por r m sr B i bli oth eca h i stor i ed
1 61 2—
, . . . .

’
.
, .
,

re li gion more accessible t o the c ommon people H i s med i i mm I I ( B erl i n A cta SS Jul y I I 7 3
’

1 3; . . . . .

success was largely d ue t o the good e x ample he set t1h35eca; Bh aA Ui Mo ArNN Ges ch d es A llg d us I ( K e mp te n B i bl i o ‘

. . . .

g g a p hi ca la ti na a nti que at me d i a: wta li s e d B O LLA N D

,

h is cler gy and d iocese For the p urpose of obtain in g I STS ( B russe ls 1 2 1 0 1 1 ; B R A U N Gesch vo n d m L eben un d
, .

. -
, , . e

relics he went on two j ourn eys to Rome , i n 9 1 0, and d en W u nd er wer ken d es A ugs bu r m ch e n B i sch of s d es hl U l i chs
'

s . . r

( A ug sb urg D E T Z E L Ch i stl i ch e I k n og a p h i e I I ( F rei b urg

65 9 ; F U N K L eh bu h d er K i r ch en oesch i ch l c ( P a d e r
in 9 5 2 or 9 5 3 .

i m Br
, , r
r c
o r , ,

U lri ch demanded a h igh moral st andard of h i mself born G I E S E B R E C H T Gesch i ch te d er de uts ch en K a i ser z ei t I
,

and others A h undred years after his dea t h a let ter ( L i p z i g

, . .

K N op i L E R L eh rb uch d er K i r ch m g s ch ( Fre i
K O CH Gc ch u K u ltus ri es hl U lr i ch B i sch of s
-
‘

. e . , c .
,
b urg i m B r
— —
apparen tly wr itten by h im w h i ch op p osed celi bac y s

— —
.
, , . . .
,

vo n A ug sbu r g ( H a ll e d isse rt a ti o n ; M on Ge m H i t
, ,

and supp orted the m arriage of p riests , suddenly S cr i p L I 5 0 5 6 68 69 7 2 85 : I I 7 5 —

—
, . r . s .

1 4 7 ; I I I 1 4 2 4 3 4 08 67 ;

—
- -
,

5 2 1 4 2 ( Vi ta sa n cti W l/ka n a i ; XX 9 — —
. . , . .

appeared The forger of the letter counted on the I V 3 7 7 4 28 ( Vi ta sa n ti Ud a lr i c i ) 4 29 45 ( Vi la sa n cti Ch a u n

. , c ,

r a di ) 8 3 : D i p lo

—
op in ion of the comm on peop le who would regard ma ta I 1 0 1 67 2 9 3 64 5 4 7 6 1 3 e o 1 5 6 2 1 . . o , .

: N cr ol m I 9 7 ( F r a g me nta
,
6
'

-
a
celibacy as un j ust if St Ulri ch known for the rigidit y n ecr olog i i N er esh ei mens i s) 1 04 1 20 28 ( N ec ol mlu m mom sl cr u S
.
,
. . , . ,

.
,

. r o
. .

of hi s morals upheld t h e marriage of priests ( ci Uda lr i ci ) : N E L K L ebe n sg csch i ch te d es h l B i s ch of s U l r i ch ( A ug s

’

,
b urg M I ON E C X V — 7 9 ; C X L I I 1 1 84
. , .

1 206 ; C X L I I I 1 361 —
“
A nalecta XX V I I 1 9 08, 47 4 ; against the let P L X X 1 0 1 0 , . .
, .

66 ( E p i stola s ub fi d o U lr i c i n omi n e a d N i co
,
“
la u m p a p m d e c nt i n en h a cler i cor u m) ; R A F F LER D er hl U l r i ch
”
ter H T h urston
,
. A Saint averse to Cel ibacy , i n ,
,

o
’

“
.
”
.
,

The M onth CX I 1 9 08 3 1 1 U lri ch was also B i sch of von A u g sbu g ( M un ich

, , , e Lm W i te mber g i sch e r . .
r

stead fast ly loyal as a prin ce of the emp ire , to the G esch I ( Stuttg a rt a n d Tub i ng e n V ON ST E I C H E LE , ,
,
Ges h d es B i l u ms A u g sb ur g ( A u g s b u rg 1 8 64 1 8 7 2 I I 39 : c
emperor H e wa s one of t he m ost importan t props I I I 5 0 ; I V 4 0 ; STUTZ L E L eben d es h l U l i ch B i ch f s non A ug s
. s , , . .

.
. , . . r , s o

of t he O ttonian polic y w h i ch rested m ainly up on t h e bu r g un d Pa tro n s d os B i stu ms A u g bu g ( A ug sb urg W AT s r

447 —
, ,

E N B A C H D e u tsch la n ds C m ch f h f qu lle n i fli i tt l lf er I ( 7 t h
ecclesias t i cal princes H e const ant ly attended the T .

4 9 ; 1 1 ( 61 11 cd B rl i n 4 2 1 5 7 : V O N W y s s ( each d er
.

e
r s n n c a ,

j ud icial courts held b y t h e k in g and in the d ie t s h i stor i og ra p h i c i n d er S ch n e i e ( Z uri c h . , , .

. '
,

No eve n t ook p ar t i n t h e Diet held on 20 Sept 9 7 2 U u u c n Sc H M i D .

, , .
 U LRI CH 1 24 ULTAN

Ul ri ch of Ba mb er g , ( U DA L RI CU S BAB E N BE RG E N writ i ngs H is p aren ts , p ious and r i ch , were Ber n h o ld

.

SIS) a cler ic of t he cat hedral church of B amberg , of

,
and B ucca , n iece of B is hop Gebhar d I I U lrich prob .

whom noth in g more is known t ha n that he li ved ably received h is educat ion at St E mmeram , but in .

about 1 1 00 at Bamberg H e i s probab ly iden t ical . 1 044 he was ca lled t o the cour t of h is godfather ,

w ith the pr ies t of B amberg of the same name (d H enry I V , and acted as p age to the E m press A gnes
Ordained deacon by h is un cle N i d ger , B ishop of F rei
.
.

7 J uly , w ho is often ment ioned in ofii c1 a l

do cuments and who bestowed large b e n e fits on t he s in g he was made archdeacon of the cathedr al On h is
, .

mon astery of M i chelsberg U lr ich s work is call ed .

’
return from a j our ney to Rome he d istr ib uted h is pos
“
Codex e p i stolar i s con tin e n s varior um p on tifi cum e t ,
sessions to t he p oor , m ade a p il gr i mage t o the Ho ly
i mp er a t or um R oma nor um ut e t S R E ca r d i n a li um Land and , after ano ther short v isit t o Rome , entered
et S R I
,
. . .
,

p r i n ci p um e ccle si a sti cor um se cula r i umque the Abbey of C luny i n 1 061 d ur i n g th e reign of St
'

H ug o Here he soon excell ed in p iety and di li gen ce

. . .
, .

”
e p i stola s Th is coll ect ion of documents was com
. .
,

p le te d in 1 1 25 and dedicated to B ishop Gebhard of made h i s p rofession , was ordai ned pr iest and a p
W ii r z bur g I t conta i n s letters from the year 9 00
. p o i n ted conf essor to t he conven t at M arc igny i n the
on an d was undoub ted ly i ntended for the trai n in g of D iocese of Aut un , and pr ior of the commun i ty of m en
Chan cellors and statesmen , giv i n g e x amp les as models in the same p lace H ere he lost an eye an d was ob liged .

for the form of letters and p ubli c documents N u . t o return t o C lun y .

merous important letters and c h arters of that p er iod ,

H e was then n amed pr ior at Pe t e r li n g en (Payerne )
whi ch are preserved in i t ofi er r ich m ater ial for the
'

, in t he D io cese of Lausanne b ut on account of troubles ,

h istory of the relat ions between the emperors and caused b y B ishop B ur chard v on O lt i ngen a p a r t i sa n o f
'

-
,

popes ; i n p articular the letters exchanged by E mperor Henr y I V , Ulr i ch aga i n went to Cluny w here he acted ,

Lotha ir H enry t he Proud and Inno cen t I g ive an

, , as adv iser to hi s abbot A nobleman had donated t o .

an imated and i nstru ctive p i cture of cond ition s at C luny some p roperty at Gr ii ni n g en near Breisach and ,

t hat t i me These letters also show how the s tates

. U lr ich w as sen t to in spect the p lace and eventually to
men at t he ep iscopal cour ts and probab ly also the lay the foundat ion of a monastery N ot findi n g the .

b ishop s were trai ned Af ter the collect ion had been lo cali ty suitab le , b e wit h his mo n k s i n 1 08 7 re t ired to
Zell (Sell Sella V i llma r szell e ) in the B lack F orest
.

closed by U lr ich several supp lements were added , , ,

t hat extend to 1 1 34 ; these add it ional documen ts are where t he rep ort of h is v i r tues soon brought h im many
generally addressed to B ishop O tto of Bamberg The . d iscip les H e en j oyed t he esteem of B lessed G eb
.

work has been well ed ited b y J affe in the “ B ib li otheca hard I I I , B ishop of B asle , who frequent ly visited h im
’

r e r u rn g e r ma n i ca r u m
”
V ( Berli n , , I n 1 09 0 he establi shed a conven t for n un s at B oles
Pc r r H A S r B i bl i oth eca h i stor i ca ( B e rl i n 1 8 9 6) 1 07 9 ; W A TTE N
' '
we i ler ( now B ollschwe i l ) , about a m i le from Zell
B A C H D euts ch la n ds Gesch i ch tsquellen I I ( B erli n
. .

, 1 8 4 sq Go d gran ted h i m the g if t of m ir acles The last two

P a m i oms S C H L A G E R
, . .
. .

.
years of hi s li fe he was b li n d H e was b ur ied i n t he .

Ulr i ch o f R i ch en t h a l chroni cler of t he Coun ci l Cloister but t hree years later h is body was brought
,
,

of Constance date of bi rt h un known ; d ied abou t ,

in to the chur ch H is feast was celebrated for t he fir st .

1 4 38 Ulr ich was a c iti z en of Constan ce , we ll

. t ime 1 4 J uly , 1 1 39 H is li fe of Herm an n von Zah .

educated and a good latin is t H e was a lando wner .

r i ngen , M a r grave of B aden later a m onk of Cluny is , ,
“ ”
and a lay m an p erhaps a son of the town clerk of ,
- also lost H is Consuetud i n es clun i a cen ses
.
(in
Constance Johann es R ic henthal who li ved in t he, ,
P L CXL IX , 65 7 ) were composed at t he request of
. .
,

second half of the four teent h centur y D ur i n g t he .

W i ll iam Abbot of H irschau i n t h ree book s
, The , .

session of the ( E cumeni cal Coun ci l of Constan ce fir st two wr itten be tween 1 07 9 and 1 082 treat of
, ,

U lr ich frequently came i nt o connexi on with the li turgy and the educat ion of novi ces ; t he t h i rd , wr it
fathers assemb led H e met the p apal d elegates who . ten not later than 1 08 7 , speak s of t he gove rnm en t of
had to provi de quarters for the members of t he coun m onaster ies .

cil H e was emp loyed i n busin ess m atters by prin ces A cta SS Jul y I I I 1 4 2 ; M A B i L L O N A cta SS
’
312 0 V I
2 7 7 9 ; H UR T E R N omen cla tor ; H E I M B U C H E R D i e O d e n u K o n g r
. , , , . .
.
.

who were p resen t i n t he ci ty dur in g the coun cil an d ,

,

I ( Pa d e r b om
,

25 1 ; H A W I L L E R U lr i ch vo n C l un y ( Bi ti n
,
r . .
,

o n W hi c h se e S ti mmen a u s M a r i a L a a ch L I I 328 a n d
a bishop li ved in h is house Ulr i ch foll owed the .
et e r ,
, ,

-
. , ,

council the great events that took place i n i t, the

, Th eol p m kt M ona tssch r i f t X I I ( P a ssa u ) 3 7 4
-
.
, , .

festivities and all the celebrat ion s of whi ch hi s nat ive

,
F R A N C I S M E R SH M A N .

town was the t heatre H e wrote in the G erm an .

d ialec t of Constance an e x ac t and careful accoun t of Ul t an of

A r db ra cca n , S A IN T, Ireland , was the
all introducin g muc h stat istical
, t ter Th is .
m aternal un cle of St Brigid , an d co llected a lif e of .

chron icle is preserved in several ma nuscr i p s of whi ch ,

that great Ir is h sain t for h is p up il , St Brogan Gloen .

one at St Petersb urg is in Latin The m anuscrip ts

. . of Rostuir c, i n O ssory There seem s to be some .

contain coats oi arms an d other i llustrations valuable - -

d iffi culty i n h is chr onology i n asmuch as t he a ssump
for the h istory of c ivi li zat ion H Sev in edited a he li o . .
t ion of h is relat ion t o St Brigid m ust in volve an .

graphi c reproduct ion ( Karlsruhe , 1 88 1 ) of the Aulen ext raord i n ary longev ity , n amel y 1 80 years , because
dorfer m anuscrip t the best on e A p hotograph i c , .
h is death is n ot chr on icled t ill 65 7 W in d isch , how .

reproduct ion has also been issued ( Stuttgart 1 8 69 ) of ,

ever , e x p lain s awa y t he seem ing in con sisten cy The .

a man uscrip t at Constance B uck p rep ared the best .

Irish A nnals descr ibe St U ltan as of t he royal race .

edi tion of t h e te x t whi ch appeared in the “ B ib li othek of O c onn or and he su cceeded St Br e eca n as Abbot
’
.
, ,
”
des literarischen V e reins , CL V I I I ( Stuttgart
'

,
B ishop of Ar db r a cca n about t he year 5 7 0 Fr om .

”
O C ler y s Irish Calend ar we learn that he edu cated
'
The Lat in text was ed ited by the Russian A r ch ze o
logical Society ( St Petersburg and fed thousands of p oor students from a ll p arts of
K A U TZ S C H i n Z ci tsch n f t f a r d i e Gesch i ch te d es Ober r h ei n s
.
,
’

Ireland Oi h is li terar y p owers t here are several

1 1 1 07 9 —
.

B a r e n t s i bi d P O TT H A ST B i bl h i st med i i a: vi ( 2n d
. . . . .
Spec imens among others li ves of St Patr ick an d St
H cy ck i n A llg em d eu t B i o g s v
. .
, ,
80
, . . . .
, . .

Brig id H is exqu is ite Lat in h ym n of t he latter

J P K ms c n
.

“ ”
sain t commenc ing Christus in n ostra in sula is
. . .

, ,

Ul r i c h of Z e l l , S A I N T ( W U L D E mc ; called also o r in corporated i n the Solesmes Chan t book s H e wa s

C L U N Y and o r R A T I S B O N ) b at Ratisbon at t h e b e
.

, ,
.
, also an accomp l ished i llum in ator of book s The .

ginn ing of 1 029 ; d at Zel l probably on 1 0 J uly 1 09 3 .

, , . exact year of h is death is un certa i n , the var ious annal
Feast 1 4 J ul y , Two l ives of h im are e x tant : the i sts giving 65 3 , 65 6, 65 7 an d 662 bu t probab ly we , ,
fir s t wri tten anon y mousl y c 1 1 09 b y a monk of Zell
, . are safe in follow in g the “ Annals of U lster ” w herein ,

at t h e re quest of A dalbert , a recluse near Rat isbon ; h is ob it is recorded under the year 65 7 H e d ied on .

th e other also anon y mous wr itten between 1 1 09 and

, , 4 Sep t , on w h ich day h is feast has alwa y s been cele
.

1 1 30 Part icu lars of h is life are also contained in h is b r a ted St U ltan s W el l is st i ll at A r d br a cca n
’
. .
. .
 UM A N A 1 26 U N A M SA NGTAM

Uman a . See A N CO N A AND U MANA . the Sp ir itual power has the right to establi sh and guide
t he secular power and also to j udge i t when it does , _

Un a m Sa n c t a m ( Lat the One Holy i e C hurch ) .

,
. .
, not act rightl y W hen however t h e earthl y power
.
, ,

the B ull on papal supremacy issued 1 8 N ovember , goes astra y it i s j udged by the Spiritual power ; a
,

1 302 by Bon iface V I I I d uring th e d isp ute with Phi li p

,
lower sp iritual power is j udged by a h igher t he highest ,

t he Fair K in g of Fran ce I t is named from its . Sp ir itual power is j udged b y G o d ( 4 ) Th is author .

,

openin g words ( see Bom m c a V I I I V o l I I Th e ,

.
,
i t y although granted to man and e x ercised by man
, , ,

Bull was promulgated in conne x ion wit h the Roman is not a human authority but rather a D ivine one , ,

Coun ci l of October 1 302 at wh i ch it had probably , ,

gran ted to Peter by D ivine comm ission an d con fir me d
been discussed I t is not impossible that Bon iface
.
in h im and his successors Consequent l y whoever .
,

V II I h imself revised the B ull ; st i ll i t also appears O pposes t his power ordained of God o p poses t he law

that [Egidiu s Colonna A rc h bishop of Bourges who , ,

of G od and seems li k e a M a n i ch ara n to accept two
, ,
“
had come to the coun c i l at Rome no twithstand in g pr i n ciples . N ow t h erefore we declare say de, , , ,

the royal prohib ition in fluen ce d the te x t [Kraus in ,

term ine and pronoun ce that for every human crea
(E st er r e i ch i sch e V i e r t a lj a h r sch r i f t f ii r k at h . ture i t i s necessary for salvat ion to be subj ect to t he
I 1 The original of the B ul l is n o authority of the Roman p on tifi ( Porro sub e sse Ro
longer in e x isten ce ; the oldest te x t is to be found in the mano Pon t i fici omn i human as cr ea tur w d e cla ra mus ,

registers of Boniface V I I I in the V ati can archives d i ci mus d e fin i mus, et p r on un t i a mus omn i n o esse de
,

Reg . L fol 387 ; cf t he facsim i le in D en i fle ,

,
.
'

. necessitate sa lut i s ) .

Speci m in a p a laeo gr a p h i ca r eg e st or um rom pon t ” . . The B u ll is un iversal in character As its conten t .

(Rome ,
tab I t was also in corporated in
. shows a carefu l dist in ction is to be m ade between t h e
,
“ ” “
th e Corpus j uris canon ici ( E x tr a va g I .
, fundamen tal prin cip les con cern ing t h e Roman pri
v i i 1 ; e d Friedberg I I
,
. The gen uineness of
, ,
macy and the declarations as to t he app li cat ion of
t he B ull is absolutely estab li shed by t h e en try of i t t hese to the secular p ower and its representat ives In .

in the offi cial registers of the papal Briefs and its , the registers , on the margin of the te xt of the record ,

in corporat ion in the canon law The obj ection s to . the last senten ce i s noted as its real d e fin i ti on :
“ “
its genu in eness raised by D a rnb er g e [ Sy n ch r on is r D ecla ra t i o quod sub e sse Roman o Pon t i fici est omn i
tische G eschichte der K irche und der W elt i m M ittel h uma nae cr e a t ur aa de necessitate sa lut i s ” ( I t i s here
“ ”
”
al ter X II ( Rat isbon
,
4 42 sqq ; K r i ti kh e ft , ,
. stated that for salvation i t i s n ecessary t hat every
“
1 18 and following Damberger by M ury [ La
, ,
human creat ur e be subj ect t o the author ity of t he
bulle Unam Sa n cta m in “
Rev ue des question s Roman pont iff ) This d e fin i t ion t he mean in g an d
9 1—
.
,

h i stor . XX V I 1 30] and b y V e r la que i mportan ce of w h i ch are clearly e vi d en t f rom t he .

“ ”
[ Jean XXI I sa vie e t ses oeuvres ( Paris ,
,
5 5] conne x ion wi th the fir st part on the necessit y of t he
are fully removed b y t h is e x ternal testimony A t a . one Church for salvat ion and on the pope as the on e ,

later date M ury w ithdrew h is op in ion [“ Revue des supreme head of t he Chur ch expresses t he necessity ,

questions XL V I 25 3 for everyone who wishes to attain salvat ion of belong

The Bull la y s down dogm atic proposi tion s on the ing to the Chur ch and therefore of be i n g subject to ,

un i ty of th e Chur ch th e necessit y of belong ing to i t ,

t he aut hority of the p ope in all religious matters .

for the attain men t of etern al salvat ion the position , This has been t he constant teachin g of the Church ,
of the pope as supreme head of the Church an d the ,
and it was declared in the same sense by the Fif t h
d uty t h en ce arising of subm ission to t h e pope in order (E cumen ical Coun ci l of t he Lateran in 1 5 1 6: “ De ,

to belong to the Church and thus t o attain salvat ion . necessitate esse sa lut i s omnes Christ i fid e le s Romano
”
The p O p e further em phasi z es t h e higher position of Po t fici sub esse ( That it is of the ne cessity of salva
n i
’
the sp iritual in comparison w it h th e secular order . t ion for all Christ s faithful to be subj ect t o t he Rom an
From these prem ises he then draws con clusions con p on t ifi ) . The tran slat ion by Berchtold ( see below )
cern in g the relat ion be tween the sp iritual power of of the e p ression h uma ne ; cr ea tu r az by
x
“
temporal
”
the C h urch and secular aut h ori ty The m a in prop . authorit ies is absolutely wron g The B u ll also .

o s i t i o n s of the Bull are the following : F i rst t h e , proclaims the subj ect ion of the secular power to t he
un it y of the Chur ch and its necessity for salvati on Sp iri tual as the one h igher in rank and draws from i t ,

are declared and establis h ed b y var ious passages from the conclusion that the representatives of t h e Sp iritual
t he B ib le and by reference to the one Ark of the Flood , power can in stall the p ossessors of secular authority
and to the seam less garmen t of C h rist The pope . and e x ercise j udgmen t o ver their admin istration ,

then affi r ms that as the un ity of the body of the ,

should it be con trary t o Christ ian law .

Churc h so is the un ity of its head established in Peter
and his successors Con sequently all who wish to
belong to the fold of Christ are p laced under the
domin ion of Peter and h is successors W hen , there
This is a fundamen tal prin cip le wh ich had grown
.
, out of the ent ire deve lopment in the early M iddle
A ges of the central posit ion of t he papacy in the
. Christian n at ional family of W estern E urope It .

fore t he G reek s and others say t hey are n ot subj ec t

, had been e x p ressed from the elevent h century by
to the authority of Peter and h is successors t hey t h us ,
theologians li ke Bern ard of Clairvau x and John of
a k n ow led g e t h at they do no t belon g to Christ s Salisbury and by popes li ke N i ch o la s I I and Leo IX
’

sfi
.
,

ce p . Bon iface V I I I gave i t precise e x p ression in opposing

Then follow some prin c iples and con clusions con the proced ure of t h e Fren c h k ing The ma i n proposi .

cern ing the sp ir itual and the secular power : ( 1 ) t ions are drawn from the writ ings of St Bernard .
,

Under t h e con trol of th e C hurch are two sword s that H ugh of St V ictor St Thomas Aquinas and letters of
.
,
.
,

1 8 two powers the expression referrin g to the me c

, li eva l In nocent I I I Both from t h ese authorities and from
.

theory of the two swords th e sp iritual and t h e secular ,

. declarations made b y Bon iface V I I I himse lf it is also ,

This is substan tiated by the customary reference to eviden t that the j uri sd iction of the Sp i ritual power
t h e swords of t h c A postles at the arrest of Christ over the secular has for its basis the con cept of t he
( L uke x x i i 38 ; M att x x vi
, , ( 2 ) Both swords .
, , Church as guard ian of the C h rist ian law of morals ,

are 1 1 1 th e power of the Churc h ; the Sp iri tual is wielded hen ce her j urisd iction extends as far as t h is law is
ln the Church by the hand of the clergy ; the secular con cern ed Consequen t ]
. when K ing Ph ilip pro
“ ”
is
to b e employed for t h e C h urch by the hand of the tested C lement V was a le in his Brief M eru it
. , ,

0 1 1 1 1 authority b u t under the d irec tion of the sp ir itual

, of 1 February 1 306 to declare that the Fren ch k ing
, ,

power ( 3 ) Th e one sword must be subord inate to and Fran ce were to su ffer n o d i sa dvan tage on accoun t
me mber : the eart h l y power m ust subm it to the
. .

“
of the B ull Unam sa n ct a m and t h at the i ssuin g of
s p m t u a l au t h orit y as th is has preceden ce of the , th is Bull had n ot made t h em su b j ect to th e au thority
secular on accoun t of its greatness and sublim ity ; for o f the Roman Church in any other manner than
 U N BA PTI ZED 1 27 U N I F O RM ITY

formerly I n this way Clemen t V was able to give . VI , l) w as called

0 . A n A ct for Un ifo rm ity of Ser ~
Fran ce and i ts ruler a guarantee of security from the v ice and A dm in istrat ion o f t h e Sacraments through
ec clesiastico p o ii t i ca l resul ts of the O pin ions elabo -
o ut t he Realm " Afte 1 a long preamble sett ing fort h
.

rated in the B u ll W h ile i ts dogmati c decision su ff ered ,

the l eas on s whic h had led to th e drawing up of The
no detri men t of any k ind I n the strugg les of t he . Book of the Common P1 a y er a nd A dm in istrat ion of the
G al i lean party against the authority of t he Roman Sacramen ts , and other rites and ceremon ies of the
”
See and also in t h e writin gs of non Catholic authors
,
-
Church after the use of the Church of E ngland , and
aga in st the d efin i t i on of Papal Infalli bi li ty the Bull ,
the desirabi li ty of having one un if orm rite and order
Unam Sa n cta m ”
was used again st Bo n iface V I I I as in use i n all churc hes t hrough E ngland and W ales ,

well as against the papal primacy in a manner not the statute enacts that after Pentecost 1 5 4 9 al l , ,

j ust ifie d by its con ten t The statemen ts concern in g . m in isters shall be bound to follow the same in all
the relat ions between the spiritual and the secular p ublic services Then follow penalt ies against suc h
.

power are of a p urel y h istorical character so far as ,

of the clergy as sha ll substi tute a ny other form of ser
“ ”
t h ey do not refer to the nature of the spiri tual power ,
vi ce or shall not use t e Book of Common Prayer
,
h ,

and are based on the actual condition s of medieval or who sha ll preac h or speak against i t Further .

W estern E urope . pen alties are decreed against all who in p lays or songs
S p eci mi na p a lazog r a p h i ca Reg es tor um Rom P a n t ( Rome shall mock the said book Private j e r son s were
i
. . . .

t a b 4 6 p 4 4 sq ; P or r iu sr R eg es ta I I 20 1 4 N o 2 5 1 8 9 ; M 1 R B T '

allowed to use the form s for M at in s a n< E ve n so ng i n

—
.
, . . . , , . .
,

Q u lle n z ur Ge ch i ch te d es Pa p sttu ms u nd d es r é mi sch en K a th oli

e s

zis mus ( 3 d cd Ti b i n g c n
1 62 1 64 : B A R O N I U S- R A Y N A LD U S , ,
Lat in Greek or Hebrew in the ir o wn private devo
, ,
l l
A n na es ecc es i a s t i c i a d a n 1 302 n 1 3 : D U U Y . i stoi r e d a di fi é
. . , . P H tions , and liberty was reserved to the un iversities t o
d d a p op e o n i f a ce VI I I a vec B
h i i p p e le B el ( a s. P l P ri have the service in the i r coll ege chapels conducted in
L
ren
H E RG E N RBTH E R Ca th o i c Ch ur ch a nd Ch r i stia n S ta te ( o n o n , l d
M R E S B any of these tongues There is nothing in t h is Ac t
.

A T N ez i ehu n g e n z wi sch en S ta a t u nd . i r ch e ( S u K t tt .

ga rt . M , D a s Va h ca n u m a nd I DE on i f a z V I I I ( M u n i c h
'

B . to enforce attendance at p ubli c worship b ut th e pro ,

B
E R C H TO D , D i e L
u e Una m sa n cta m, i h r e wa h r e B ed e u B ll visions of the Act apply to every k ind of publ ic wor
l u n g a nd Tr a g we i i efii r S ta a l u n d i r c h e ( M un i c h G R A U E RI ’ K '
“ ”
ship or open prayer as i t was called , wh ich m ig h t
,

in H i stor i s ch es a h r uch J b
1 3 7 5 1 ( o p p ose to e ch o ); d B r t ld
FU K
-
,

E H RM A .NN
Die u e Una m sa n ctu m ( W fi r z b ur g . B ll N , take p lace The Act itself d e fin e s “ open prayer ” as
.

Z ur B ll
u e Una m sa n ctu m i n K i r ch e n g e s ch A h a n u ng en u n d b dl that prayer wh ich is for others to come unto or near ,
—
.

Un ter s uch u-n g en ( a e o n, I P d rb r

4 83 - 4 8 9 ; H E F E L E , on z i K l
— ei ther i n common churches or private chapels or ora
.

i e n g e s ch i ch te , V I ( 2 nd 3 4 6 35 1 ; H E R O E NRb TH E R R SC H , KI -

H db u ch d er K i r ch e n y es chi ch te , (4 th 5 93 94 For II tor ies common ly called the servi ce of the Church ”
G
an -
. .
,
rt r b i bl
fu h e i og a p h y cf r
L A . Re p er tor i u m d er ka th th eo og L i t . . l .

This Ac t was con fir me d by 5 and 6 E d w V I 0 l,

cra tu r I P t ( a e o n, I I P d rb r
6 1 5 sq ; a so t h e i i og a p h y l b bl r .
,
.

repealed b y I M ary sess 2 e 2 revived by 1 E li z ,

. . . .

to B o m n c s V III . ,
.
, .
,
.

J . P . K mscs . c 2 and 1 James I c 25

.
, and m ade perpetual so far as , .
,

i t relates to t he E stablished C h ur ch of E ngland by

Un b a p t i ze d I n f a n t s , STA TE OF . See B A PTI SM , 5 Ann e c 5 ( or c 8 accord ing to some comp utations ) .

Subt i t le X I
. .
,
.

The ne x t of these Acts ( 3 and 4 E dward VI c 1 0)

H OL Y
, .

See E XTRE ME U N CTI ON ; O I L S ,

“
Un c t i o n . .
w as p assed i n 1 5 49 under the tit le A n Act for t he
abol ishing and p utting away of d ivers books an d
U n g a va , a Canad ian terr itory ly ing north of the im ages ”
The preamble of the A ct recites that the
.

Provin ce of Quebec detached ( 1 8 7 6) from the G reat ,

kin g had of late set for th and established by authority
Labrador pen insula Ungava whose area .
,
of Parliament an order for com mon prayer m a book
sq rn ) surp asses that of Quebec
. . sq .

entitled The B ook of Common Pray er and A d mi n i s

“

was anne x ed to t he latter prov i nce ( 1 9 1 2 ) by the t r a ti on of the Sacraments and other rites and cere
F ed e r a l G overnmen t I t is bo un ded on the west by
’
.

m on ies of the Church after t he Church of E ngland " ,

,

H udson s Straits comp rising Ungava B ay , on t he ,

The fir st se ction then suppresses and forb ids all books
n orth east and east by Labrador p roper , on the
-

or wr itings i n Lati n or E nglish used for church ser

south b y the Prov in ce of Quebec on t he west by , vices other than such as are appoin ted by the k ing s ’
’
H udson and James B ay s Th is land was v isited .

m aj esty And a ll such books are t o b e collected by

b y the Basq ues b y Cabot W eymout h
.

,
the m ay or and other civil authori ties and del ivered
H udson and by the Jesu its D a b lon ( 1 661 ) and to th e bishop t o be dest royed .

A lbanel on the ir j ourney by land to H udson Bu t as t h e F i rst Prayer book of E dward V I d i d no t -

B ay During the last cent ury the Oblates of M ary

.

sat isf y the reformers it was soon supplanted by t h e ,

Imm aculate B abel ( 1 866 and 1 87 0 ) and Lacasse ,
“
Second Pray er book ” issued in 1 5 5 2 and also sanc
-
,
evangeli z ed the I nd ian s of the in terior The .

t i one d by Act of Parliament This Act of Un iform i ty

M oravian Brothers began prosely ti z in g the E sq u i
.

is the fir st to be e x pressly called by that n ame being

m au x in 1 7 7 0 Ungava n ow depend s sp i r i tuall y on . “
ent i tled A n A ct for the Un iform i ty of Servi ce and
,

the V icar iate Aposto li c of t he G u lf of St Lawren ce . .

A dm in istration of Sacraments throughou t t h e realm
I ts immense forest and m i neral resources fert ile soi l , ,
( 5 and 6 E d w V I e I t goes m uc h further than
.
, .

and unparalleled hydrau li c power reveal a br ig h t the previous A ct for i t en forces church attendance ,
prospect for colon i z at ion and i ndustry Railway .
on Sunday s and hol y days A fter the preamble
lines are in preparation between Quebe c and W estern
.

declaring the desirabil i ty o f un iform i ty t he second

Can ad a and H udson B ay The census of 1 9 0 1 gave .

sect i on en acts t h at after 1 N ovember 1 5 5 2 all person s

,

a pop ulat ion of 5 1 1 3 souls compr ising the abor igi nes ,
shall attend their parish c h urch on Sund ays and holy
, ,

( E squ im aux on the coast M ontagnais and N a sca u p i s ,

d ays and be presen t at the common p 1 a y e r p r e a e hi ng
i n the inter ior ) and wh i tes .
or other serv i ce , under pain of punishmen t by the
, ,

G E N E S T Un ga va i n B u ll eti n d c la soci été d c aéoar a p hi e d c

censures of the Church The arc h bishops andybish
,

Q ué bec ( M a y .
.

L I O NE L L a s u r .
ops are charged wit h t he t ask o f enforc ing the A c t
.

U ni a t G r ee k Ch ur ch See G R EE K C H U R C H .
( sect . and th ey are t o i n fli ct the censures of the
Subt itle I I I
,
Church on o fi e nd ers ( sect The fif th section refers
—These statutes
.

“
to the new Book of Common Pray er ” t o wh ich had
.

Uni f o r mi t y A ct s
,

, p as sed at d if been added a Form and M anner of m ak in g and con

.

f er e n t t 1 me s, were vain e f orts to secure uni form i ty se cr a t i ng archbi shops bishops riests and deacons ”
_

1 n p ubh c worship throughout E ngland

p , , , ,

O
B ut as the . and declares t hat all the p rov i sions of t h e previous
p r 1 n ci p le of uni t y had been lost when commun ion A c t shall apply to i t By t h e si x t h and las t sect ion .

wit h the See of Peter was broken of all such attempt s , any person convi cted of being presen t at any other
were foredoomed t o failure They were resisted by .
form of comm on pray er or adm in is trat ion of the sacra
Cat holics on the one hand and the N oncon tor mist s
’

ments s h all be imprisoned for s i x mon ths for t h e firs t

on t he ot her The firs t of these Acts ( 2 and 3 E dward .
o ffence one year for the second , and sha ll s ufi c i;
,
’
 U NI GEN I TUS 1 28 U NI GENI TU S

imprisonment for li fe for the thi rd The A ct was to . repealed and now t hey app ly on ly to the E stab lished
b e read in chur ch four t im es during the fo llo wing year C hurch of E ngland ; b ut to that exten t they are st ill
and once a y e a r afterwards I t was repealed b y I . on t he statute books and as late as 1 87 2 a statute
-

“
M ary sess 2 c 2 but revived wit h certai n altera
,
.
, .
,
ent itled Ah Act for t he Amendment of t he A ct of
”
tions by 1 E li z e 2 and con fir me d by 1 James I c 25
.
, .
, , . . Un iform i ty was p assed ( 35 and 36 Vi c , c 3 5 ) As . .

I t was made perpetual so far as it relates to the E stab lon g as t he Church of E n g land IS the estab li shed r e
li sh e d C h ur ch of E ngland by 5 A n ne 0 5 ( or c 8 ,
. . lig i on its worshi p w ill be regulated by stat ute so t hat ,

according to t he chronological table of stat ut es ) . A cts of Un i form ity in one shap e or an other w ill r e
Queen M ary contented herself with rep eali ng these m a i n p art of t he E ngli sh code of law un less , and unt il ,
statutes of E dward and thus restoring the an cien t d is estab li shmen t t akes p lace .

Th e S ta tu tes a t L a r g e ; Ch r on olog 1 ca l Ta bl e a nd I n d ex of Sta tutes

'

liberty y N 0 fres h U n iform ity A ct ap peared on t h e

.

( L on d o n L ILLY A N D W A LL I S M a n ua l of th e L a w sp eci a lly

a fi e cti n a Ca th ol i cs ( L o n d o n to th e La ws of
st a tut e book ti ll Protestant ism retur ned und er E li z a
, ,
'
-

“ ,

beth T h en the well k no wn A ct for the Uni formi ty E n g l a n d a ff e ti n g R ma n Ca th ol i cs

c o

of Common Prayer and Servi ce in the Chur ch and E D W I N B U R TON .

Adm inistration of the Sacraments ” ( 1 Eli z c 2) was ,

.

p assed The fir st eff ect of thi s statute was to repeal

. U ni g e ni t u s, a celebrated A posto lic Const itut ion
the A ct of M ary as and from 24 June 1 5 5 9 and to , , of C lemen t X I , conde mn i n g 1 0 1 prop os it ions of P as
restore the “ Book of Common Pray er ” from t h at date .
qui er Quesn el I n 1 67 1 Quesnel had p ubl ished a book
.

“
The “ Second Pray er book ” of E dward VI wit h certain -
ent it led A brégé de la morale de l E va n g ile ”
’
It .

additions and alterations was t hen cefort h to be used , cont ain ed t he Four G ospels in French , w it h short
and any clerg y m an neglecting to use i t or subst itut notes e x p lanatory of t he text , at the same t im e serv i ng
i ng a n
y ot h er form of Open prayer or preachi n g as a ids for m ed itat ion The work was approved by .

against i t was on conviction to suf fer p enalt ies whi ch

,
B ishop V i a la r t of Ch alons Ah enlarged edit ion , con .

in creased wi t h each o ff ence ti ll on the th i rd conviction
t h ey mounted to deprivation from a ll Sp i ritual pre
ferment and i mprisonment for 1ii e Similar ly seve re
penalties culm inat i ng 1 n the forfeiture of a ll good s and
chat tels and i mprisonment for li fe were decreed
against a ll persons who spoke i n derision of t he “ Book
of Common Prayer ”
Attendan ce at chur ch servi ce
on Sunday at t he p ari sh chur ch was rendered com
p ulsor y and any person absen t wi thout reasonable
, B i shop of Ch alons W h ile t he fir st ed it ion of t he
tai n i ng an ann otated Fr ench te x t of the N e w Testa
men t , appeared i n thr ee small volumes in 1 67 8 , and a
. l at er edit ion i n four volum es appe a red under t he t it le
“
L e nouveau testament en franca i s avec des r é fle x
ions m orales sur eh a que verse , p our en rendr e la lec
tur e p lus ut i le e t la m ed itat ion p lus aisée ” ( Par is ,
. Th is last ed it ion was h igh ly r e com
mended by N oaill es , who had su cceeded Vi a la r t as
.

cause was to p ay a fin e of t welve pen ce whi ch would work con tai ned on ly a few J a n sen i sti c err ors its J a n
'

, ,

b e equivalent to ten shi l lin gs i n modern E nglish sen i st i e tenden cy became m ore app aren t in t he sec
money or two doll ars and a half
,
Long and ext en . ond edit ion , and in i ts comp lete form as i t app ear ed ,

sive provisions for enforc in g the Act are included an d , in 1 69 3 , i t was pervaded w ith pract ically all t h e errors
one section provi des for un if orm it y i n the ornament s of J anse n i sm Several b i shop s forbade its read in g i n
.

of the Churc h and m i ni sters Th is en acts that the . t heir dioceses and C lement X I condemned i t in h is
,

same ornamen ts shall be retained “ as was i n thi s Brief , “ Un iversi Dom in ici Gr eg i s ” dated 1 3 J u ly , ,

Chur ch of E ngland by aut h ori ty of Parli amen t in , , 1 7 08 The p ap al B r ief was however not accep ted
.
, ,
”
t h e second year of K ing E dward V I . in Fran ce because its word in g an d its m anner of p ub
“
T h is A ct proved a p owerful weapon agai nst t he li ca ti on were not i n harmon y w it h the G alli can L ib
”
Catholi cs who could n ot conscientiously obey i t and
, , er t i e s N oa illes w ho had become A rc h b ishop of
.
,

it was used consisten tl y as a mean s to harass and Par is and card i n al was too proud to wi thdr aw t he
'

i mpoverish t hem So eff ective was it that it needed . approbat ion wh i ch he had in advertent ly given to the
no amending and a centur y elapsed before t h e ne x t
, book wh ile B ishop of Ch alons and J ansen ism aga i n ,

Un iform ity A ct was p assed Thi s was t he celebrated . rai sed its head To p ut an end to th is situat ion sev
.

Act of Charles I I ( 1 3 and 1 4 Ch a s I I c 4 : according .

, . eral bishops and especia lly Lou is X I V asked t h e pope
, ,

to some comp utations it i s quoted as 1 5 Chas I I .

, to issue a B u ll in p lace of the Br ief wh i ch th e Fren ch
c. It was foll owed by a short Act of Relief ( 1 5 Govern men t d id no t accep t The B u ll was to avoid .

“
Chas I I c . Thi s Act is of li ttle or n o sp ecial
, . every e x p ression con trary to the Galli can Libert ies
interest to Catho li cs for it was pri mari ly desi gned to ,
and to b e subm itted to the French G overnmen t b e
regulate t he worship of the Churc h of E ngland and so ,
fore p ub licat ion To avo id fur ther scandal t he pope
.
,

far as Catholics were con cerned i t added nothing to y ielded to these hum ili at in g cond it ion s and i n Fe b , .
,

t he provisions of the E dwardine and E li z abet han A cts . 1 7 1 2, appo in ted a sp ecial con gregat ion of card i nals
Reli ef from the Acts of Un if orm i ty was gr an ted t o and t heolog ians t o cu ll from t he work of Quesnel such
'

Catholi cs b y the Second Cat holi c Reli ef A ct (3 1 G eo . proposit ions as were deserv ing of ecclesiastical cen
III c, _
. though the b en e fit s of t he A ct were l i m ited sUr e The most in flu e n ti a l member of this congrega
.

to t h ose who made the declaration and took t he oat h t ion w as Card in al Fa b r on i .

under the Act So mu ch of th is statute as related to

. I t took the congregat ion eighteen months to per
th e declarat ion and oath was repealed in 1 8 7 1 by th e form its task , the result of wh ich was t h e p ublicat ion
Prom issor y O at h s A ct (3 4 and 35 V ict c Th ere .
,
. of th e famous B u ll U n i g e n i tus Dei F i li us at Rom e
“ ”
,

were certain restr ict ions and cond it ions as to Ca t h oh c 8 Sep t 1 7 1 3 . The B u ll beg ins w it h t he warn i n g of
,
.

places of worsh ip b ut these were changed in 1 832 b y ,

t h e A ct 2 and 3 W m I V , c 1 1 5 b y wh ich Catholics
were p laced on th e same foot i n g as Protestant d is
senters i n t h is and some other respects In ciden ta ll y
this stat ute m ade i t comp u lsory to cert i f y Cat h olic
chapels to the A ngli can b ishop and ar chdeacon and
C hr ist against false prop hets , espe ciall y such as
.
,
secret ly Spread ev il doctr i nes under the gu ise of
p iety and i n troduce ru i nous sects under t he im age of
. sanct ity t hen it p roceeds t o t he condemnat ion of
1 0 1 proposit ion s wh i ch are taken verbat im from t he
’
last ed it ion of Quesnel s work The prop osi t ions are .

t h e q uarter sessions B ut t h is restr ict ion was abol . condemned respecti vely as “ false , cap t ious 1 11 s o u n d ,
-

ishod in 1 85 5 b y 1 8 and 1 9 V i ct c 8 1 wh i ch prov ided .

,
.
,
ing o ffensive to p ious ears scandalous pern ic ious
, , , ,

t h at such bu ild ings could b e n o t i fie d t o th e reg i stran ras h in j ur ious to t he Church and i ts pract ices con
, ,

general instead E ven th is prov ision has lon g fallen . t ume li o us to ~ C l1 1 1 r eh and State sed itious imp ious , , ,

into d isuse and i t is not customar y to reg ister Cat h o lic blasphemous susp ected and savouring of heresy i a
, ,

churches e x cep t for th e solemn i z at ion of marriage vour i n g heretics h eres y , and sch ism erroneous bor
, , ,

T h us for Cat h ol ics as for N o n con f o1 ml s ts t he pro ,

dering on heresy often condemned , heret ical and , ,

v isions of the Un iform ity Acts have been gradually reviving various heresies , especially t hose contained
 U N I ON 1 30 UNI ON

j oined by m any priests and religious especi ally from ,

the Dioceses of Par i s and Reims To swell t he li st
of appe llants the names of laymen and even women
were accep ted The num ber of appe llants i s said to
have reac h ed 1 800 to 2000 p i tif uh y sm all if we con
sider that about li vr es
was show i n g her i m mense reli gious and moral supe
. r i or i t y .Some loyal and honourable members of the
Ort h odox clergy and lai ty graduall y bec am e con
. vi n ce d that only a ret urn t o the Roman obedi en ce
, ,
could secure for their Church anyt hi n g li ke sound
were spent condi tions .

by them as bribes . The Jesui ts who h a d been establi shed at V iln a i n

,
“

On 8 M ar c h 1 7 1 8 appeared a Decree of the Inquisi , ,

1 5 69 at Y a r osla fi in 1 5 7 4 , and successivel y at Polotsk
, ,

tion approved by Clement X I whi ch condemned t h e

, ,
Grodn o and other c it ies of Southern Russi a soon
, ,

appeal of the four bishop s as schi smat ic and heretical ,

set about t o con c iliate the friends of uni on among the
and that of N oai ll es a s sch ismat ic arid approaching Orthodox and to second t he i r e ffo r ts They began .

to heresy Sin ce they di d not with d raw the i r appeal

. p ub li sh i n g works of reli gious controversy emp h a ,

wi thi n a reasonable t ime t he p ope issued the B u ll ,

si z ing the sp i rit ual , mor al and poli ti cal advantages ,
“
Pas tora li s 0 1130 11
"
on 28 A ug 1 7 1 8 e x communi .
, ,
whi c h m ust accrue t o the so call ed Orthodox C hur ch -

cat ing a ll that refused to accep t the B ull “ U n i g e n i frorn uni on wi t h Rome E m inen t i n t hi s labour of .

”
tus B ut they appealed a lso from t h i s second Bu ll
. . prep ar i ng op inion for ret urn to the Roman Church
N oaill es fin a lly made an ambi guous submission on were Father Peter Skar g a ( 1 5 36 one of the
1 3 M arch 1 7 20 by si gn ing an e x p lan ation of the
, ,
greatest apostles and a literary and p oli ti cal gen i us
, ,
“
B ul U ni g e ni tus drawn up by order oh the French
l - of Poland and Father Benedi ct Herbest ( 1 5 3 1
,

secretary of State Abbé Dubois and later approved , , , ,

The former p ub li shed , at V iln a i n 1 5 7 7 , hi s fam ous ,
“ ’
by ni nety five bishops Af ter much pressure from
-
. work on The Un ity of God s Ch ur ch u nder One
the ki ng and the bishops he m ade publi c t h i s amb i g u Only Pastor ( O j e d n osci kosci ola b oz ego p od j ed ny rn
ous acceptan ce of the Bull in h i s p astoral i n struct ion p a ster ze m) and it filled t he Orthodox wi th co n fusi on ;
,

of 1 8 N ov 1 7 20 But this did not satisfy C lement X I

.
, .
,
t h ey burned n umerous cop ies of i t so that a new ,

who requi red an uncondit ional accept ance After . edi tion had to be p ubli shed in 1 5 9 0 Father H erbest .

the deat h of Clemen t X I 1 9 M arc h 1 7 2 1 the appel , , ,

t hen p ub lished , also i n Polish hi s “ E xp osit ion of the ,

lants cont i nued in their obstin acy d ur i n g t he p on Faith of t he Rom an Church , and H istory of the Greek
t ifi ea tes of I nnocen t X I I I ( 1 7 2 1 —
”
24 ) and B ened ic t Servitude ( Cracow , These two works helped
X I I I ( 1 7 24 N oai lles the soul of the opp osition , ,
greatly t o di spel the doubts of t he Ort hodo x fr iends
fin a lly made a s i n cere and uncondi tion al subm ission on of uni on and bring them st i ll nearer t o Rom e ; a
1 1 Oct 1 7 28 and died soon after ( 2 M ay
.
, , ,
result that was greatly fur thered by t he writings and
The Apostoli c See in concerted act ion W it h the new , labours of Anton ius Possevin us H owever the .
,

Ar chb ishop V in t im ille of Paris and t he Fren ch Gov Orthodox remained sti ll un decided Jerem i as I I .
,

e r nm e n t gradually brought about the submi ssion of

, Patri ar ch of Constantin ople v isit ed M oscow i n 1 5 88 ,

most of th e appe llants ( See J A N SE N I U S A N D J A N . and i n 1 5 9 9 arrived at V i ln a where he convoked a ,

S E NI SM : Th e Con vuls i on a r i es Dec li n e a n d E n d of ,

sy nod to h nd remedies for the most seri ous ev ils of
J a n sen i s m) t he Rutheni an Chur ch Received by Sigismund I I I
S CHI LL
. .
,
D i e Con sti tu ti on Un i g en i tus (
, e i ur g i rn B r Fr b Ki ng of Polan d ( 1 5 87 W i th hono ur and costly
L AF T A I E U H i stoi r e d e la con sti tuti on Un i g emtu s ( A i g n o ns
,
’

v ,
gifts he consecrated M i chael R a h osa , M et rop oli ta n
C R O U S A Z C R é TE T L ég li se et l éta t a u X V I I I e si écle ( a r i s ,
-
,
' '
P ,

L E R O Y , L e ga i ca n i s me a u VI I I ‘ s i é cle la ll r a n ce et X , F of Ki e ff and H a li cz ( 1 5 8 8 Find i n g th at som e

Rome d e 1 7 00 d 1 7 1 5 ( a i s P r
TH U I L L I E R L a secon e p ha se d of t he Orthodo x Rutheni ans di d not conceal their
j é
d a a n s n i sme ( a i s 1 9 0 1 ) P r
L es d e r m er s a n s n i stes ( a i s ,
,
’
,

j é P r .

UR desir e for recon ci li at ion w ith Rome Jerem ias I I to

,

D D
AN Le j a n se n i sme c u X VI I I C si écle et oa chi m Col
,
’

J , ,

b er t é vé qu e d e Mon tp e i er ( Tou ou se ll
G I LA R D O N E L a l b i n d t hem more closely to his own aut hority and the
j
, . ,

B ll
u e Un i g en i tu s e t la fi n d a a n s n i sm e en Ch a mp a gn e ( V i y, é tr Orthodox C h ur ch by a decree of 6 August, 1 5 8 9
B UER
A Q uesn e u n d di e u e Un i g en i tu s i n S ti mmen a u sl B ll
— I—
, ,

L
Ma r i a - a a ch V I ( e ur g 1 1 11 B r ,
,

Fr i b
1 4 7 64 ; M , D er DE appo i nted Cyr i l Terlecki B ishop of L ut zk hi s exarch , ,

for the metropoli tan j ur i sd ict ion of Ki e fi The

, .

K da r i na l
Noa i es u n d di e A p p ella n ten ll i , V I I , 1 67 8 7 , 4 9 2 , ib d . . .

5 1 8 : B A RTH é L E M Y L e ca r i na N oa i es ( a r i s d
D o n rs l ll P o p atri arch a lso imp osed a precep t that a synod of
ll
Co ecta n ova a ctom m p u con sti t
,

C e m Um g en i tu s ( ey e n , bl . . l . L d
.

b ishop s must be held every year to remedy the di s

P F A FF , A d a p u i ca con sti tu ti on i s Un i aen i tus ( Ti b i n g e n ,
bl
F
r a ces ver a u x d es a ssem -
b
es d a c er g d e ra n ce , V I ( a i s, blé l é F P r orders of t he Rutheni an Chur ch .

l
C emen ti s X I p on ti fici s ma x i mi op er a omn i a , c d C A R D A . IN L In 1 5 9 0 the metropolitan R a h osa convoked a
L
A B AN Y ( F a n kf o r rt
Th e i e s of t h e i mme n se n u m e of
. t tl b r syn od at Brest for 24 June A few days before t he
, ,

J t
a n se ni s i c p a mp h e s h a l t t t
we e i e c e a g a n s t h e u U ni r dr t d i t B ll .

"
d
in D i cti on n a i r e d es i vr es j a n sén i s tes ( A n we p , l t r Rutheni an bishops assembled , Terlecki had a con
gg éf
ru t s a r e f ou n
s ference at B els wi th t he Bi shops of Lemberg ( Bala
M I CH A E L OTT .
ban ) , Pinsk ( Pelczy cki ) , an d Chelm (Zbi r ui ski ) and ,

U n i o n , H Y PO STA TI C See H Y P OSTA TI C U N I ON they j o in t ly d rew up a d oc ument un derta k in g t o

— sub mit t heir will and t heir i ntell igen ce t o the Pope
“
. .

Un i o n o f B r e st Brest i n R ussian Brest .

, ,
of Rom e and begg i ng that their rites an d their
L i tovsk i ; in Po li sh Br z esc ; in t he old chroni cles call ed ,
ecclesiasti cal pri vi leges shoul d be preserved This .

B r es tii , or Brestov ; a c ity i n Lit huan ia wi th some ,

documen t was presen ted t o t he Syn od of B rest a t ,

i nh abi tants , fam ous in t he h istory of the whi ch the metropoli tan an d the B ishop of V ladi m i r
Catholi c Chur ch and the Orthodo x Chur ch of Russi a assisted ; it was accepted an d approved , but kep t
for the uni on of the Ruthen i an s w it h Catholic ism . secret for reasons of pruden ce Terlec k i was charged
, .

A fter the ann exat ion of Red Ruthen ia , or the Ukra ine
to Poland , in 1 5 69 the Rutheni ans who had become
,
to present it t o Sigism un d I I I and obtain t he royal
, ,
sanction for i t b ut a year and more passed before
,

p olit icall y subj ec t t o Poland began t o compare t h e ,

he f ulfilled his charge Sigism und I I I , havi n g at .

lamentable condit ion of their Churc h wit h the last received the document repli ed t o i t on 1 8 ,

development and v itali ty of Catholi cism an d t o t ur n M arch 1 5 9 2 e xpressing hi s j oy at t he decisi on of

, ,

their eyes towards Rome The Rut heni an clergy . the Ruthe n ian episcopat e prom isin g t hem h is assi s ,

were steeped in immorali ty and i g noran ce ; t he bishops tan ce aga inst possible persecutions by the Orthodox ,

made no scrup le of sett i n g their flocks an evi l examp le ,

and assurin g t hem t hat the nat iona l rit e should be
living in open con cub i nage , and practis i n g the most respected an d safegu a rded N evertheless , the pro .

bra z en simony Russi an documents of the si x teen th . posal of uni on t hough warmly approved by Terlec k i
, ,

century bear wi tness t o thi s m elancholy deca of the d id n ot attain reali zat ion Terlecki was soon sup .

Orthodo x Ch ur ch in the Polish provinces an t o th e p orted by Adam Poci e j who was consecrated B ishop ,

i mpossibili ty of appl y ing any remedy Face t o . of V ladim ir in 1 5 9 3 in succession t o M eletius Chr eb
,

face wit h this spiritual ruin the Catholi c Church , ,

t ow i cz deceased
,
Poci e j was a sin cerely conv in ced
.

re invigorated by th e accession of Jesu i t m ission ar ies , advocate of the uni on , though b e well understood

the obstacles to it s accomp lishmen t An other syn od
of Rut hen ian bishops met at Brest on 24 June 1 5 9 3
but avoided the quest ion of un ion and con fin ed it self
to depriving G ideon Balaban of t he adm in istration of
h is d iocese Balaban refused t o recogni z e the privi
. The bishops asked to b e dispensed from the obli gat ion
lege gran ted to t he Orthodo x patriarchal comm un ity
of Lemberg by Jerem ias I I
O u 24 J une 1 5 9 4 the Ruthen ian bishops again
, ,
assembled at Brest b ut their meet ing had n o synodal
, senators
character as Sigismund I I I was in Sweden , and n o
syn od coul d be held in the absence of the soverei g n
A few days later B ishops Terlec k i B alaban Zb i r uj
, ,
sk i and K op y st e n ski met a t Sokal and r ea ffir med
, and p ubli cly proclaimed i n t h e Hall of Constant ine i n
t he i r ad h esion t o t h e act of un ion drawn up at Bels
and approved at B rest i n 1 5 9 0 Terlec ki had fu ll
powers t o treat of t he un ion w ith the Court of Poland
“
and the H oly See They composed a Decree on . nal S ilvi o A ntoni ani thank ed the R uthen ian e p i s co
receiv i n g back and entering into the commun ion of
”
t h e Holy Roman Ch urc h ( Decretum de recip ienda e t
s usci p i e n d a comm un i on e sanct a: Rom an s; E cclesi a
i n whi ch , after deplorin g the evi ls result in g from the
schi sm t hey begged t o subm it t hemselves t o t he
,
-
j ur isd ic tion of t he v isible pastor of G od s Church
on condi t ion that t he sacred rit es and li turgi cal
cust oms of the E astern Chur c h were preserved ,
saving suc h po i nt s as m ight be j udged contrary t o
the un ion and prej udi cial t o the un ity of fai th Ter
le cki began t o solic i t the adhesion of the Ruthen ian
bishops to th i s document whic h was dated 2 Decem
ber 1 5 9 4 I t was subscribed b y the met ropol itan
, .
R a h osa Po ci e j
,
Terleck i Zb i r uj ski
, Pe lcz y ski ,
Gregory of Polotsk and Jonas H ohol of Pinsk , .
O u 1 2 June , 1 5 9 5 Ra h osa t h e metropoli tan an d
, ,
the B ishops of V ladi m ir , L u t z k and Pinsk met at
Brest and dr ew up two pet itions one t o Clemen t
V I I I and the other t o Sigismund I I I The former
protested that t hey des i r e d t o renew the union con
c luded at the Coun ci l of Floren ce sa vin g always t he
E astern customs and rites ; i n t he latter the same
desir es were e x pressed and i t was added that t he
R uthen ian Churc h adopted t he Gregorian Calendar
P oci ej and Terlec k i betook themselves to Cracow to
’
conf er wi t h the k ing s delegates and the Apostoli c
n uncio as t o the basis and cond it ions of t he un ion
These condit ions were accepted On 2 A ug , 1 5 9 5
Sigismun d I I I declared that t he Ruthenian clergy
en j oye d t he same privi leges and rights as t he Latin
t hat t hey were free of t he excomm un ications and
censures i n fli cte d by t he Patriarc h of Con sta n t i n op le
t h at Rut heni an sees should be ent rusted on ly o
R utheni an prelates , that the R ut hen ian Chur ch
shoul d reta i n t h e free posses sion of i ts property , that
R ut hen ian ch urches and monasteries could not be
latini z ed and t hat the E astern prelat es were thence
,
forward t o have n o j ur isdi ct ion over the Rutheni an
clergy The A p ostoli c n un c i o a greed t o the conces
. b ishops who had signed the decree of un i on an d de
sion of th ese p r i vi leg es and Sigism und I I I required
t hat delegat g es of the Rutheni an ep iscopate should go
t o R ome for t he d e fin i t i ve sanct i on of the ac t ot
uni on . B ut it s con clusion was already kn o wn , an d
t he B ishops of Lut zk Chelm Pr zerny sl and Lemberg , ,
ann oun ced it t o their flo cks i n p astoral letters dated
27 A ugus t Unfort unately the metropoli tan , R a h osa
.
d id n ot act loyall y : after sign in g t h e decree of un i on
he endeavo u red secretly to hinder its exec ution , and
instigated Const ant ine , Prin ce of Ostrog to assemble
t he R ut h e n i an bishops and d issuade them from sub
m ittin g to the H oly See B ut R a h osa s in trigues
were to n o p urp ose and on 25 N ovember 1 5 9 5 , , ,
Poci e j and Terlec ki arri ved at Rome wit h the decree
of uni on of 2 December 1 5 9 4
The arr ival of the Rut hen ian b ishops overwhelmed
Clemen t V I I I an d the R oman Co urt wit h j oy The
delegates were recei ved wi th great honour ; the p ope
and t he card i nals discussed the condit io ns of reun i on
proposed by the R utheni an ep iscopate and uh grud g
in gly con ceded that the integr i ty of the Ruthen ian
U N I ON 1 31 UN I O N
. Rite should be maint ained ; i t wa s also agreed that
“ ”
, , th e i
Fi l oq ue should not b e inserted in t h e N icene
, Creed although t h e R uthen ian c lergy professed and
,
taught t h e procession of t h e H oly Spi ri t from t h e Son .
of introducin g th e Gregorian Calendar so as to avoid ,
. popul ar d isconten t an d dissensions and in sisted that ,
t h e ki n g shoul d grant t hem as of right the d igni ty of , ,
To a ll these request s C lemen t V I I I
.
acceded .
. A ll obstacles having been removed , the un ion of
, t he Ruthenians wit h t he Roman Chur c h was solemnly
the V ati can Canon W oll owi cz of V i ln a read i n
.
, ,
, . Rutheni an and Lat in t he letter of the R uthen ian
episcopat e to t he pope dated 1 2 June 1 5 9 5 Cardi
, , .
pate i n t he name of the pope and exp ressed h is j oy ,
at the happy event Then Poci e j i n his own name .
,
e) , an d that of the R uthen ian ep iscopate read in Lat i n ,
t h e form ul a of abj ur at ion of the Greek Sc h ism Ter ,
le cki read i t i n Ruthen ian an d they a ffi x e d the i r ,
’
, si gn at ures Clemen t V I I I t hen addressed to them
.
an a llocut ion e x pressin g h is j oy and prom isin g the
,
Ruthen ians h is suppor t A medal was struck t o .
commemorate the even t wi t h the inscript ion : ,
“
. R ut h e ni s r e ce p t i s” Ou the sam e day the B ul l M ag
.
n us Dom inus e t la ud a b i li s ” was p ublished a nn oun c ,
, ing to the Catho li c world the re t urn of the Ruthenian s
, to the uni ty oi the R oman Ch urch The B ull rec ites
‘
, , the events whic h led to the un ion the arrival of ,
Poci e j and Terleck i at Rome the i r abj urat ion and , ,
, the con cession t o the Ruthen ians t hat t h ey should
, retain t heir own rit e saving suc h custom s as were ,
, opposed to the p ur i ty of Cat holi c doctrine and i n com
. p atible wi th the comm un ion of the Roman Church .
On 7 Feb , 1 5 9 6, Clemen t V I I I addressed t o t he
.
, R uthen ian ep iscop ate the Brief “ B ened ictus si t
”
Pastor ille bon us , en j oin in g the convocat ion of a
, synod i n W hich t he R uthenian bishops were to rec ite
. t h e profession of t he Catholi c Faith V arious letters .
were also sent to t he Polish k in g pr inces and mag , ,
nates e x hor tin g them to receive the R uthen ian s under
. the i r p rotection Another Bull “ D e ce t roman um
.
,
. .
, p o t fic
n i e m ”
,
dated 23 Feb 1 5 9 6 defi ned th e right s .
, ,
of the Ruthen ian episcopate and t heir relat ions i n
, subj ect ion t o t h e H oly See .
A bout t he beginn ing of February 1 5 9 6 Terleck i , ,
, and Poc ie j retur ned to their o wn country arr iving at ,
Lut z k i n M arch and ee leb r a t ing a solemn “ Te Deum
for the success of the ir m ission Bu t t he enem ies of .
the un i on , their re li gious fan at icism aroused re ,
doubled t heir act iv ity A t the Diet of W arsaw .
,
whi ch opened i n M ay 1 5 9 6 the Rutheni an dep ut ies ,, ,
led by t he Prin ce of Ostrog , protested against t he
, cla r e d that the y would n ot acce p t i t The Orthodox .
com m un ities of V i ln a and Lemberg st irred up the peo
p le agai nst the un i oni st bi shops To cut thi s reli gious .
agit ation short Sigismun d I I I ordered the Ruthen ian
,
, episcopate to b e convoked in a synod at Bres t 8 O c ,
tober 1 5 9 6 and the un ion to b c solem nly proclaimed
, , .
, , About 6 O ctober the metropoli tan R a h osa the , ,
,
Rut h eni an B ishops of Vlad im ir Lutz k Polo t sk Pinsk , , , ,
Chelm the Latin B ishops of L emb er g L 1 1 t z k Chelm
, , , ,
, Father S h arga and other prel at es met at Brest The
, .
Orthodox had sen t m any of t h eir lay represent at ives ,
.
’
various arch im andri tes N i cep h or us t h e p r ot osy n , ,
, ce llus of the Pa t riarch of Constantinop le and C y r il ,
Lu ca r i s representing the Patriarch of Ale x andria
, .
, . The Orthodo x under the Prince of Ost rog pet itioned
, ,
for the deposit ion of the bishops wh o had withdr awn
. from t he obedi ence of t he Pat r iarc h of Constan ti
n op le for the m aintenan ce of the Old Calendar , and
,
for the abrogat ion of t h e ac t of un ion They m ore .
,
over held a co n e i li a b ulu rn to concert measures of 0 p
’
posi tion I n vain d id the k ing s comm issioners la
.
 U N I ON 1 32 U N I ON

hour to all ay the ir hosti lity and induce them t o accep t is not a lost ideal to be recovered but a stupendous ,

the union ; they would not y ield and t hey refused t o ,

rea li ty whi ch has alway s been in stable posses sion .

recogni z e R a h osa as t heir metropoli tan . For not only has thi s C a th oh c C hur ch ever t aught
A ll at tempts fai li ng to win over t hi s oppositi on to that uni ty is an essenti al note of the true Chur ch of
the un ion the Rut h eni an b ishop s on 9 Octo b er ,
, ,
C h r ist , b ut t h roughout her long h is tory she h as been ,

wearing t he ir p on tifi cal vestments, wen t in procession to the ama z ement of the world dist i ngui shed by t he ,

to the Chur ch of St N icholas and celebrated t he . most conspicuous uni ty of faith and governm en t , and
Litur gy , at the con clusion of w hi ch Herm ogenes ,
this notw ithstandi ng that sh e h as at a ll t imes em
A rc h bishop of Polotsk m ounted the pulp i t and read ,
braced wi thi n her fol d n ation ali ties of the most
the declaration of the R uthen ian episcop ate accep ting di fferent temp eraments and has had t o contend wit h ,

the un ion with Rome W h en thi s had been read t he .

,
incessant oscillat ion s of m ental speculati on an d
Latin and Rut heni an b ishops embraced eac h other polit i cal power St ill , i n anot her an d broader sense
.

and then repair ed to t he Lat i n Chur c h of the M ost of the term w h i ch is als o t he m ore usual and is fol
,

B lessed V irgi n to sin g the “ Te Deum ” again N ex t . lowed i n t he presen t article , Chri stendom in cludes
d ay another solemn ceremony was celebrated i n the not merely the Catholi c Chur ch , but together with ,

Chur ch of St N i ch ola s and Fat h er S h a rga preached .

,
i t the many other re ligious com m un ion s wh ic h have
, ,

on t he un ity of G od s Chur ch B ish ops G i deon B al ’

. either d irec tly or i nd ir ectly sep arated from i t and , ,

aban , of Lernberg and M ichael K op y ste nski of , , yet although i n con fli ct both wi t h i t and among them
,

Pr z emysl hav i n g declared t hemselves opp osed to the

,
selves as to various poin ts of doctrin e an d practi ce ,
un ion , were dep osed and e x com m un icated Their agree wi th i t i n thi s : that th ey look up t o our Lord
Jesus C hr ist as the Foun d er of t heir Faith , an d cl ai m
.

d ioceses remained in schi sm unt il 1 7 20 The enem ies .

of the un ion p ub li shed on 9 October , a protest , to m ake Hi s teaching t he rule of t heir li ves A s these .

against t he Rut h enian ep iscopate The Prince of . separated commun i ties when m assed t ogether , indeed
Ostrog became t he soul of the opposi tion and the , in some cases even of themselves coun t a vast n umber ,

struggle was m ain tained p articular ly i n the field of ,

of souls , amon g whom m any are consp i cuous for their
theolo gy B ut Sigismund I I I e ffica ci ously un der
. religious earnestness t hi s e x t ension of t h e term ,

took the defen ce of th e union ; in an edi ct of 5 De Ch r i s tend om to in clude them all has i ts soli d j ustifi
cemb e r 1 5 9 6 he ordered the Ruthen ian s to recogn i z e
, , cation On the ot her h an d i f i t is a ccep ted , i t
.
,

as
bishops only t hose who had accepted the ac t of becomes n o lon ger possible to speak of th e uni ty of
u n1 o n
'

. Chr istendom b ut rather of a C hr istendom torn by

,

Thus came to p ass one of the m ost ausp i cious d i visions and ofi er i ng the saddest spectacle t o the
events i n t h e histo ry of C atholicism am ong t he Slavi c eyes An d t hen t he q uesti on arises : I s th is scandal
.

peoples The Uni on of Brest would h ave produced

. always t o contin ue ? The H ol y See h as never tired
m ost abun dant fruit an d woul d have contributed , of appeali n g i n season and out of season for its removal ,
greatly to the triump h of Cat holi c i sm in Russia if the but wi thout meeting wi th m uch response from a world
statesmen and t h e Lat in clergy of Poland h ad w hi ch had learn t to live contented ly w ith i n its sec
reali z ed i ts poli ti cal and reli gi ous u tili ty , and had t arian en clos ures H app ily a n ew sp i rit has lately
.

used a ll their eff orts to favour i t an d i i after the p ar , ,

come over these dissent ien t Christi ans n umbers of ,

t it ion of Poland Russi a had n ot destroyed i t in the whom are becom in g keenl y sen si tive t o th e p ar a ly z i ng
‘

con quered provinces b y met hods of t he m ost brutal e fi ect s of d ivision and an act ive reun i on movemen t
,

v iolen ce . has ar isen which i f far from be i n g as widespread an d

,
SKA RG A Sy n od br z eski : obr ona sy n od u br zeski eao ( Th e Sy n o d o f solid as one could wis h i s at least cherished on a l l
B re st : A D efe n ce of t h e Sy n o d of B re st)
.

re p ri nte d i n sides by devout m inds

,

Pa mj a tn i lci p olemi tch eskoi li ter a tu r y v za p a d n o i R us i ( M on ume nts .

o f t h e P o l e mi ca l L i tera t ur e o f W e stern R us si a ) ( S t P e ters b urg

9 39 —
1 002 ; E XOw w, a bo kr otki e z ebra m e s p r e w kwr e s i c
“ '
.

,
,
In summari z in g i n t his arti cle t he various m atters
th at bear upon th is q uesti on of t he un ity of C h risten .

d l
z i a y n a p a r ty cu la r n y m sy n od z i e w B r z es ci u li tewski m ( Sma C ol ll d om, its presen t default and the hopes for it s rest o
l t
e c i o n of D ocu m e n s e a i n g t o t h e Sp e c a t r l t
Sy n o of es ) i l d Br t ,

r
( C a cow , 1 5 9 7 ; M oscow 1 87 9 ) i n P a mj a tn i ki ,
b r 329 7 6; PH I I A LE TH E S , — ( St e e s
a bo od p ow i ed z n a
. III . P tr rat ion t he fo llow in g p oin ts w ill be con sidered : I
,

The Prin ciples of t he Church s Un ity ; I I Uni ty in ’

.

F
u g ,

l t r rk
.

0 sy n od z i e br zes ki m ( Re p y t o a h e Sk a r g a s W o
'
on th e
Sy n o of d Br t
e s ) ( V i na l
1 5 9 7 ; 1 5 9 9 ; R ussi a n t r Ki e fi , 1 8 7 0) i n
'
the E arly C hurc h and it s Causes ; I I I T he Di visions .

of Christendom an d t hei r Causes ; I V Reun ion

.

P a mj a tn i ki 1 1 1 1 003 1 820 ; A R CU D I U S ; ’ A w i pp nc r v9 a p o a p o o gi a
-
l .

—
, . ,

p r z eci wko K r zy stof owi P h i la le to wi ( A p o o gy a g ai ns Ch i s op h e l t r t r M ovements i n t he Past ; V Re un ion M ovements

il
.

P h i la le t h e s ) ( V n a 1 600 ) i n P a mj a tn i ki , 1 1 1 , 4 7 7 9 8 2 ; Z oc
L
a
l
o w sx r , Col oqu i u m u e s ki e ( e m e g 1 680) K U LC ZY N S KI S p ecil bl
,

b r i n t he Presen t ; V I Condit ions of Reuni on ; V I I Pros

—
. .

, .

men ecclesi az r u th en i a z ( R ome 1 7 3 3 ; a i s, H AR A SI E W I CZ P r p eets of Reun ion

L
.

I P R I N C IP L E S or TH E CH U R C H s U N I TY
, ,

A n na es ecc l r ut h en az l
( em e g 1 1 1 6 1 ; LI KO W SK I b r A As
’

D eter mi n ed by Ch r i st —I t is t o the G osp els we m ust

.
, ,

H i stor y a un i i kosci ola m s ki eg o z r zy ms ki m ( i s o y o f t h e U n i on H t r

. . .

t
o f t h e R u h e n i a n C h u ch w i h Rome ) ( o se n r
e n ch t r t P Fr
L , .

o o g n e a vec l ég r om r P l go i n t he fir st p lace if we desir e t o k now w hat i n t he

’
u n i on d e I ég li se g r ecqu e u th en e en
'

i
L
con .

l
c ue d B
r es t en i th ua n i c en 1 5 9 6 ( a s) ; M A u N o w s K 1 , D i e
, P ri i ntent ions of its Founder were t o be t he fundamen ta l
m
_ ,

K i r ch en un d S ta a ts S a tz un g e n bezzi g li ch d es gr i echi sch ka th ol R i s

‘

L
- - -

d er Ru th en en i n Ga i zi en ( e n e g l
B a nr osz s w w z S z ki c r b r ,
'
.

element s in t he const it ut ion of the Ch ur ch n or do ,

t he i nstru ct ions H e gave to H is Ap ost les leave u s i n

,

d z i ej é w kosci ola r us ki eg o w a a ce ( i s S e ch o f t h e R u h e n i a n
. P l H t . kt t
r
C h u ch i n o a n ) ( C a cow , P l d r
P E LB S Z Gesch (1 88 Un i on d er , .
doubt on the sub j ect H is last words as rep orted
K
i r ch e mi t Rom , I
.
,
r u th en ( W ii r zb ur g , 49 8 5 5 6 -
“
b y St M atthew , are All power is gi ven t o M e i n
. .

Th e c h e w o s b y Russi a n O h o ox w r i e s on t h e U ni o n o f :
i f rk rt d tr .

Br t e s a r e : KA M E N S K U I z vé s ti e vom i ké ei v P ol ’ § i e u n i i ( N o e s o n
, t heaven and o n ear t h G oing therefore m a k e di s .

l d d P l d
,

t h e U ni o n co n c u e i n o a n ) ( M oscow , 1 805 ) ; FL E R o v Ox p ra , ci p les of a ll n at ions bapt i z in g t hem i n

vos la z m y h cer kovn y h br a tstwa h p r oti vobor stvova vshi h u m i ( O h o o x '

rt d the n ame oi t he Father and of the Son , and of the

'
,

l
E cc C onf a e n i es w h i ch Op p ose r t r ti t h e U n i on of es ) ( St d Br t ,

L j
. .

P trb r
e e s u g, K O J A LO V I C i tovska y a cer ko vna j a a n i a Holy G host , t eaching them to observe a ll t h in gs what
Lt , .

( i h ua ni a n E co U n i on ) ( St e e s u gl . Th e p r i n c i p a P trb r l soever I h ave com manded you and lo I am W it h

—
. .

t l
R U SSIQ II W O I RS , C a h o i c a n d n on C a h o i c a r e gi e n i n A M E R t l v P L I I , , ,

—
‘
-

Th eoloma d oom or th o ( o en ce , 7 4 8 5 1 , 7 83 9 8 I Fl r
, .
you all days un ti l t he cons ummation of the world
PA LM I E R I
.
.
’
A ( x xvii i 1 9 , St M ark s account is to the same
, .

—
. .

e ffect , but adds i mportan t det ai ls : G oing into all

U ni o n o f Ch r i s t e n d o m The Cat holi c Church . t h e world , proclai m the G osp el to every creat ur e He .

i s b y far the lar est , the most widespread , and the that bel ievet h and is bapti z ed sha ll be saved , he t hat
mos t a n c i e n t of h r i sti a n communi on s i n the world ,
o
d i sb e li e vet h [6 ae d m a r fiaa gJ shall be condemn ed An d
-
.

and i s m oreover the m ighty trunk from w h i ch the these signs shall follow those that bel ieve : in my name
ot h er commun ion s claiming to be Christi an have they shall cast out devi ls speak w ith new ton gues and , ,

broken off at one t ime or an other I i then we l im it .

, , take up serpen ts an d if t h ey shall drink any deadly
,

the appl ication of t h e term Ch ri s ten d om t o this i ts , drink i t shall not h urt them ; and they shall lay thei r
most authent ic e x pression th e un ity of Christendom ,
.
hands on th e sick and t h e v sh a ll be healed An d . .
 U NI ON 1 34 UNI ON

ded icating them by baptism to the w orshi p of (ci s H aving thus declared and authenticated their
7 6 6m m ) and t h erefore to belief i n t he Trini ty i n , commi ssion and having received a fur ther confi r ma
,
,

Uni ty .
( 6) A t t he same t i me t hat t he h um an mi nd , ,
tion of i t by t he mi r acles wrought thr ough t hei r inter
i n th us gi vi ng its assent to doctr i nes so d ifficult for cession ( Acts i v 1 0 29 , 3 0 ; v, 1 2 , w h i ch m ade a
, , ,

i t to con ceive may do no violence to its own rational

,
deep impression on t he p eople , t hey t a ke up a posi ti on
n at ur e t he above passages tell us of t he promise of
,
of the utmost author ity ( A cts v proclaim the i r , ,
’
t h e Sp i rit to ab ide for ever i n the Chur ch to gui de at , M aster s teachi n g and on the faith of the i r sole word ,
, ,

all ti mes t he min d of t he teaching body organi z ed
under its v isib le head so that it may always be kept
from corrupt i ng the sacred doctr in e , and presen t in g
i t for accep tance in a for m foreign to its origin al
, demand creden ce for i t and obed ience t o its requ i re
“
, men ts . Therefore let the H ouse of Israel know that
G od hath made t hi s s a me Jesus whom you cr uci fie d
-
both Lord and C hrist Repen t and be bapti zed every .

p ur ity Lastly ( 7 ) that we may unders tand the

.
,
one of you i n the name of J esus Christ for the rem is
vi tal importan ce of thi s u ni ty of com muni on of this , sion of sins and you sha ll recei ve t h e gift of the H oly
,

un ity of t ruth for the d ue car ry i n g out of the Chur ch s

,
’
G host ” (A cts i i , 36, Thus di d t hey teach and
,

work we h ave the prayer of Chr ist to H is Father t o

,
clai m to be beli eved , and thus d id t hey cal l up on thei r
teach us t hat the spectacle of i t was in tended by H i m hearers to enter t he n ascen t Chur ch by Bap tism and
t o furn ish the world wi th the most si gnal and con to place themselves as di sciples un der the Ap ostolic
v i n ci n g proof of t h e Divin ity of t he C h risti an re ligi on : instruction and rule A n d th is is what the hearers d id .

“
That even as t h e Fath er is i n M e and I in H im , ,
i n large n um bers O u t he day of Pentecost itself .

so they m ay b e one i n U s t hat the world may be lieve , there were added t o t he Ch ur c h we are told thr ee , ,
t hat T h ou hast sent M e W e can appreci ate t he . thousan d soul s ( ibid , i i a n umber whi ch a few .
,

character of th is motive we who li ve in an age when
the d ivisions of Christendom are cast in our faces as
evidence of the uncertainty on w h ic h the Christ ian
, days later after another discourse from St Peter
, .
,
swe lled into five t housan d ; and from then ce the mu l
t i tud e steadi ly grew , not on ly i n Jerusalem b ut in ,

pretensions rest W e can see how i t would facilitate

. J ud aza , and Samaria and un to the ends of the e a rth ,

Christian work at hom e and i n the m ission fie ld i f , ( iv , In stri ct conformity wi th t he words of Chr ist
we could sti ll say as i n the time of the Apostles ,
“
, ( make disciples of all nat ions H e that beli evet h .

The un iversality of t hose that beli eve are of one an d is bapti z ed shall be saved ) th ose who t hus j oi n ,

heart and one soul ”

W e can un derstand how dis
. t hemselves to the A postles are described invariably
cern ing observers weighing the n atural tenden cy of
, as “ believers ” (m a r ol A cts x or again as “ d is -
, , ,

(ua fima l A cts i x 1 ; xi 26; x v i

”
human m inds to diff er would , in the presence of such , ci p les , or in other , , , ,
“
a world wide unity be fain t o e claim T h is is some
-
x , , places as those who are being saved ” ( a cugéae vot ’

,
thing t h at s urpasses the power of n ature ; t he hand of Acts 1 1 4 7 ; I Cor i
, , Oh these pr in c ip les the
.
, ,

G od is here ” . Ch ur c h was founded and from t hese prin ciples un it y ,

“
( B) A s u n ders tood by the A p os tles a n d th ei r D i s of fait h and comm un ion resulted They cont i nued
ci p les —
.

. I n the Acts and t he E pistles we have a we read “ steadfas tly in t he Apostles teac hi ng an d
,
’

record of the way in wh i ch the Apostles understood commun ion and in the break ing of bread and in
,
”
t heir commission , and i t is obvious that the two prayer ( Acts i i , and again the m ultit ude of
,

th ings correspond After receivin g t he prom ised . t hem that believed were of one heart and one sou l ”
gift of the Sp i rit the Apostles g o forth con fid en tly
, ( iv , Later i ndeed d isp utes arose and led t o
and commen ce the i r preachin g Peter is the ir leader . critical situat ions That was to b e e x pected for .
,

and in those ear ly days so far their sp okesman as

, , h um an m inds necessari ly approach subj ects t hat
for the moment to t hr e w h is fellow A postles a lmost -
challenge t heir at ten t ion from t he standp oin t of the i r
entir ely in to the shade E ven St John great as he
w as and as we may gather from a comparison of t he
, ,
. .
,
own antecedents w hich means that their j udgments
are ap t to be one sided and to di t er B ut the p oin t
,
— .

writ ings of the two great ly St Peter s i ntellectual , .

’
t o note is t hat in t hose t imes the authority of the
superior accomp anies hi m as a silen t companion
, ,
Apostles w as universall y recogn i z ed as competent to
t hus i ll ustrat i ng t he completeness of t he uni on that decide such controversies and t o requi re obedi ence t o
bound toget h er the Ap ostoli c band In hi s preaching i ts decrees Accordingly t hey were controversies
F i r st
. .
,

St Peter follows an easily recogni zable plan

. . w h i ch led t o no breach of comm un ion but rather t o ,

he seeks to accredi t h imself and hi s co lleagues by a strengthening of the b onds of comm un i on by e li ci t

appea ling to the character of t heir M aster W h ose , ing clearer statement s of t he trut h s t o whi ch a ll
li fe had been led before the eyes of the people of bel ievers were com mitted by their fai th One .

Jerusalem H e was Jesus of N azareth , “ a m an

. instance of a con troversy thus happ ily t erm inated we
approved by God amon g you b y m i racles and wonders have i n the fif tee n th chapter of the Acts It is a .

and si gn s wh i ch G od wr ought t h rough h i m i n t he valuable i llustration of what has been said for it ,

m idst of you ” (A cts i i One , therefor e to W hose

, , ,
was settled by t he authori ty of the Apostles who m et ,

teac h ing t h e peop le were boun d to attend and W hose t ogether to consider i t an d ended by a ffir mi n g the ,

representat ives they were bound t o receive It w as . e quali t y of Jews and G ent iles i n the Christian Church ,
true that H e who had thus been ap proved by G od together w it h the non necessity of cir cum cision as a -

among t hem had afterwards fa llen int o the hands of condition of p arti cipat i n g in its full b e n efits ; and by
wicked men who had taken and slain H im , t hereby recom mending to the Gent ile converts a certain
appearing to show si gn s of weakness hard to recon ci le ( app arent l y temporar y ) con cession t o J s wish fee li ngs
with suc h stupendous claims B ut the Twelve who .
,
wh i ch m ight soften t he d i ffi cult i e s of their m ut ual
were now addressing the people were also k nown t o ,
i ntercourse I t has s eemed good to the Hol y G host
.

”
t h em as h aving each and all been the compan ion s of and to u s ( xv 28 ) was t he ground on wh ich t hose,

the Lord Jes us all t he t ime H e wen t in and out from Ap ostles claimed obedien ce to their decree thereby ,

the Bapti sm of John (Acts i 2 1 and t hese c ould , , ,

setting a t yp e of procedure and language wh ich sub
t est ify from t h eir own i mmediate e x p erience t hat seq uen t rulers of t he Churc h have consistently
W hat had befallen t heir M as ter so far from bein g a , followed .

real sign of weakness had been ordained for H is ,

From t he secon d p a r t of the Acts and from the remain
“
g ol r i fica ti o n b y t h e determ inate counsel and fore ing book s of t he N e w Testament we have t he means
k nowledge of G od ”
W h o after thus permi tting H is
, ,
of ascertain ing how St Paul and the o ther A post les .

Son s death for our sakes had “ raised h im up ” from

’

,
con ceived of t h e ir m ission and aut hority It i s clear .

the dead whereof t h ey the Apostles W ere t h e wit

, , ,
that the y too regarded themselves as clo thed by J e sus
, ,

nesses ( A cts 1 1 as t h ey were also of H is sub se

, ,
C h rist wi th authorit y bot h t o te a c h and t o rule t hat ,

quen t Ascension . they , too exp ected and received i n every place a l i ke
,
 UN I ON 1 35 UN I ON

assent to the ir teachi ng and a lik e obedi en ce t o their and it is in structive t o compare such modern j udg
com mands from their disc ip les w ho j ust by t h i s
.

, ments W i t h t hose of the Apost les because the com ,

means were held toget her i n t he un i ty of t he one p ar i son ena b les us to reali z e better how strong was the
un d ivided and in di visible Chur ch w hi c h the Apostles feelin g of t he latter as to t he es sen tial i mportance of
had founded T he foll ow i n g text s may be cons ulted
.
bas i n g uni ty of comm uni on on a d herence to t he
on thi s p o i nt , b ut i t is n ot necessa ry for o ur presen t ’
Apostles doctr ine and as to the exceedi n g s i nf u lness
,
p urp ose t o do more than refer to them : Acts xv 28 ; , , of di s sent in g from i t Thus St Pa ul ca lls thes e ali en . .

Ro m i , 5 ; xv 1 8 1 9 ; x vi 1 9 , 26; I Cor i v, doctrin es “ o ld wives fables ( I Ti m , iv , “

l 7— 21 ; v 1 —
’
.
, , , , .
, doc .

” “
5 ; x v 1 1 ; I I Cor ii i
, 1 0;
, .
, , i
tr nes of de vi ls ( ib id , a nd profani t ies the .

E p h ii 20 ; iv 4 6 1 1 1 2 ; I Thess , ii 1 3 ; iv 1 2 3 8 ;
I I Thess , i 7 —
.
, , ,
-

, , .
, , , , , p reac h in g of w hi ch w ill sprea d and devour li ke gan
1 0 ; ii 1 5 ; 1 2 0 ; iii , 1 5 ; I I Ti m 1 1
I I Ti m , ii , 2 ; Tit , ii 1 5 ; Heb x ii i , 7 —
.
, , grene ( St Peter calls t h em
.
, , .

“ ”
. 9 ; I John i v .
, .
, , , k l l
fables s i ful y made up ( I I Peter i and in a , , ,
6; I I I Jo h n 1 0 ; Jude 1 7 20 W e must not however
, , , .
, , p assage where t he word h er es y un der C h r is t ian infl u
’
p as s over St Paul s j ub ilan t descrip tion of thi s uni ty
.
e n ce s has a lread y acqu i red its tra d it io nal meani ng
,
“ ” “
in his E p istle t o t he E p hesia ns standi ng out so con , damn able heresies or heresies lead in g to damna ,
”
sp i cuously as it does i n the N ew Testament wr it ings , -
t ion ( ib id 1 1 .
,The preachers of t hese heresies
,

t o con vin ce us of i ts deep si gni fica n ce its a ll pen e ,

-
St Paul calls “ men of corrup t m in ds ” ( I Ti m , vi
. .
,

t r a t in g c haracter and t he fir m foun dat ions on w hi ch

i t w as set : “
One body , one Sp i rit one H e pe one
, who “ Speak falsehood in t he i r hyp ocrisy and have
consciences seared wit h a red hot i ro n ( I Ti m iv ,
” — ,

Lord one F ait h one Bapt ism one G od and Father of

, , .
,

, , , St Peter c alls them

. false teachers who deny the
us a ll W h o is over a ll and t hr ough u s a ll and in us
, , Lord that bought t hem an d br i ng upon t hemselves
” ”
a ll. S uch w as t he spectacle of Chr i st ian uni ty born speed y damna t ion ( I I Peter 11 an d St Jo h n , , .

“ ”
o f t he Ap ostol i c preac h in g whi ch presented i tself to calls t hem ant i chr ists ( I I Jo h n 7 ; I John ii 1 8 ; , , ,
the eyes of t he e nrap t ured Apostle some t h irty years iv, M oreo ver so far from w ishi ng to tolerate suc h
,

from t he t i me w hen St Peter preached hi s fir st sermon . p ersons in the Ch urch St Paul warn s the fait hful to . .

on the day of Pen tecost

C A s Restated by the E a r li est H er eti cs —To cla im
. avoi d t hem ( Rom x v i , calls upon those W h o are
.
,

. . set o ver Chur ches to cast out the recalc itrant hereti c ,
thi s wonderful un ity as distin ctive of the followers of as one who is “ subverted and self condemn ed ” ( Ti t -

J csu s Chr i st in t he A postol ic d ays i s not to forget that

.
,

m 10
, , and , in a p art icular in stance tells St , .

“ ”
there were sad e x cep t ions to t h e general rule There T im othy t hat he has de livered two such heret ics
to Satan —that is cast t hem out of t he Chur ch
.

were i ndee d no rival comm un i ons t hen whi ch w h i ls t , ,

cla im ing to be Chr ist ian were ma i n ta in ed in formal ,

“
that they ma y learn not t o blasp heme ” ( I T im i .
, ,

opposit ion to t he Chur ch of t he Ap ostles I t is . Finall y St John is most severe towards t he

, .

exp ressly stated by Te r t ullian (Adv M arc ion , IV , v) . . C h rist ians of Pergamos for neglect in g to e x pe l fro m
t hat t he M ar cio ni tes , i n t he mi ddl e of t he second the i r mi dst t he two classes of heret ics whom b e de
cent ur y were t he fir st who , when e x pe lled from t he scribes ( Ap oc 1 1 1 4
S umma r y —
, ,
.
, ,

C hur c h Catholi c created an opposit ion Ch ur ch for , I n short accord in g to t he teachi n g

.
,

the exp ression of their p eculiar views B efore t hat . and record of t he Scriptur es the C h ur ch is one every ,

t ime t he di ssent ients contented themselves wit h w here W i t h a onen ess which is des ired by Chr is t on
formi ng p a rties an d schools of t hought an d of t hi s , i ts own accoun t as b e fitt i ng the obedi ent chi ldr en of
mode of sep arati on w h i ch suffi ced to p ut m en outside , one G od one Lord and one Sp i rit and lik ewise as the
, , ,

t he Chur ch we fin d clear traces in the N e w Testament

,
-
necessary outcome of fait hf ul a d herence on t h e pa r t
wr it i ngs together wi th predi ctions that the evil thus of its members to t he concordant te ach in g of t hose
ori gi nat in g woul d become m ore pronoun ced i n after whom H e app oin ted to be its rulers and whom the ,

t imes M en of what wo uld nowadays be called

. Holy Sp irit preserves i n a l trut h St ill i nas much as .
,

i ndepen den t te mperamen t were d i ssa t is fie d wi t h t he each is left free t o accep t or rej ect thi s one teac hi ng ,
’
A post les teach i n g in some p art i culars and refused to , th is wholesome doctrine t here were , side by side w it h ,

accep t i t w it ho ut f ur ther warrant t han the mere
“
word of an Apost le ” Thus we m ay gat her from
t he E p istle to t he Galat ians t hat , in sp ite of the dec i
sion of t he Counci l of Je r usalem , t here cont in ued to
t he general body of the t ru e be li evers some ap par ,
. ent ly small groups who held ali en do ctr i n es ; for wh i c h
they had been rej ected from t he comm un i on of t he
one Chur ch and t hese were regarded as h a vmg placed
,

be a p arty w hi ch ins isted that the observan ce of the themselves outside t he pale of salvat ion There is .

Je wish Law was obligatory on G ent i le C hr istians , n ot a trace , however , of any thi rd class separated ,

an d from t he E p istle to t he Colossians t hat t here was from the commun ion of t heir brethren but sti ll ,

l ik ew is e a J ew i sh p arty probably of Hell eni st ic origin ,

w hi ch m in gled i nsistence on Jewi sh legali t ies wi t h a
, regarded as members of the true Chur ch
I I U N I TY m TH E E A R L Y Ca m e m I n the wr itings
.
— .

superst it ious worship of t he angels (CO L ii , At , of the earl y Fathers whi ch con ta i n t h eir te s t i mony ,

E p hesus we may detect the adepts of an in cip ien t to t he natur e of the C hurch as i t e x i sted in t h e ir da y s
G nost ic is m in St Paul s warnings agai nst giv i ng heed .
’
we fin d the same format ive pr i n ciples whi c h m oulde d
“ ”
t o fables and endl ess genealogies ( I Tim i 4 ) .
, ,
i ts origi n s cont inu in g to determi ne t he character of i ts
and aga ins t “ profane and va i n babb lin gs and Opposi st ruct ur e and t he d ist inc tive sp ir i t of it s members .

t ions of gn osis falsely so call ed ” ( I Tim vi

‘ ’
-
.
, ,
The C h urch is n ow w idely Spread thr ough the known
H y me n azus and Ale x ander are ment ioned by n ame as regions of the world bu t i t is st il l as i n t he days of , ,

denyin g th e resur rect ion of t he flesh at the last day St Paul everyw here one and the same a ll its mem
.
, ,

( I I T i m ii , 1 8 Ci I Co r , xv
.
,
St John in the
. . .
,
.
,
bers in whatever place bein g un ited in the profession
A pocal y pse ( ii 6 tells us of t he N i cola i tes who
, ,
of the same faith in t he parti cipation of the same
,

seem to have fa llen into some ki nd of O riental adm ix sacraments and i n obed ien ce t o past ors who t hem
,

t ure of immorali t y w it h worship and in h is second ,

selves form one corp orate body and are uni ted by the
E p istle ( verse 7 C i I John iv , 2 ) he wa rns hi s r e a d e rs
. .
,
b ond of an int imate sol idarity W e learn t oo from .
, ,

t hat many deceivers are entered i nto t he world who these contemporary w itnesses that the princ iple of
confess n ot t hat Jesus C hr is t h as come i n t he flesh ,
t h is remarkable uni ty i s st ill that of a strict adherence
wh ich t he c hur ch h istorians refer t o t he Docetism o f t o t he Apostles d octrine but here a n ew elemen t from
’
,
.

C e r i n t h us . the n at ure of the c ase comes in The A postles n o .

O ur modern adm i rers of comprehensive Ch ur ches longer li ve t o proclai m t h e ir doctr i ne ; i t can be

would regard t he coe x i stence side b y side of these obta i ned however , wi t h perfect sec uri ty from t he
,

beli efs with t hose of th e A postles as a healt h y si gn of A posto li c trad ition In other words i t h as been .
,

mental activity in t hose e ar ly Chr istian communi t ies , handed down in corrupt by oral transmi ss ion through
 U N I ON
the lin es of b is hops who are the d uly appo i nted suc
cesse rs of t he Apostl es , and who, li k e t hem are
guarded i n their teachi n g by the assistance of the
H oly Ghost Thus the word tra di ti on now comes in to
. hereti cs of hi s ti me and the in consisten cy of t heir
promi n ence , and , j ust as St Paul said to Ti mothy , .
“
keep t he deposi t ” ( I Tim , vi , t hat is the
. trast t he method of the Chur ch “ W hen you refute
sacred doctr i ne commi tted to hi m by t he Apostle as a
sacred trust so the Fa th ers of t he Chur ch say , keep
“
,
t he trad i tion ” Thi s is ever their fir st an d most
. contradi ctory statemen ts, an d deny that the t ruth
decisive test of soun d doctri ne , not W hat recommends
i tself t o t he reason of t he i ndi vidual or hi s p ar ty , b ut
what i s san ctioned by t he Apostoli cal tradi t ion ; and
for the ascerta i n in g of thi s tradit ion t he Fathers of
the second and thi r d centur ies refer the searcher to
t he C hur ches founded i m medi ately by the Apostles ,
and before a ll others to t he Chur c h of Rome W e
learn , moreover , from t hese early wi tnesses that thi s
C hur c h of Rome in prep ortion as t he ecclesi ast ical
,
system p assed out of the state of emb r yo t o that of
fu ll format ion , became m ore and more exp licitly
recogni z ed as the see whi c h had i nh erited th e p r er og
atives of B lessed Peter , and was , therefore , t he
auth ori ty whi ch i n a ll cases of controversy mu st ult i
m ately decide what was i n accordan ce wi th the tradi
t i on , and i n a ll q uestions of j ur i sd iction and di scip lin e
was t he v is ible head , commun ion wit h whi ch was
communi on wi t h t he one and i ndi visible Ch ur ch As
these p oin ts of ecclesi astical hi stor y are di scussed
elsewhere , we need n ot demonstrate t hem by brin g
i n g forward t he cop ious Patristi c test imoni es whi ch
m ay be foun d in any good treatise on t he Chur ch :
W e m ay , however usef ull y q uote , n ot so m u ch in
, these men madly teach Y et , if the Apostles had
proof as i n i llustration of wh at is said , a pas sage or
two from St Ir enaeus s treatise “ Adversus h mr ese s " ,
.
’
he bein g the ear liest of the Fathers from whom we
have extant a treatise of any fulln ess , and t hi s partien
lar treatise deali n g wi th j ust the points wi th whi ch
we are con cerned . them as successors by deli vering over to t hem their
“
The Chur ch wh ich i s n ow p lanted t hroughout the
whole i nhab i ted globe , indeed even to t he ends of t he
eart h , has received from the Ap ostles and their di s
ci p les that faith whi ch i s in one God , the Father
omni potent who made Heaven and earth and t he sea
and a ll that is in it and in on e Lord J esus Chr ist , the
Son of G od , W h o W as in carn ate f or o ur salvat ion an d
in the Holy G host H avin g received thi s preach
. of Rome in t he fir st p lace as h avin g a tradi t ion W i th
ing , an d t his faith , as W e have said the Ch ur ch ,
t hough spread thr ougho ut t he whole world , preserves
i t with t he utmost care and di li gen ce , j ust as if she
dwelt in one house and beli eves t hese truths j ust as
, it
i f she had but one an d t he same soul and heart , and
preaches them and t eache s them and h ands them
down [tra di t] j ust as if she had but one m out h For ,
alt hough the lan guages of the world are di verse , t he
force an d meani ng of the tradi ti on i s everyw here t he
same N or do the Ch ur ches whic h are in G ermany
. well kn own t o a ll whi ch was founded an d est ab li shed
believe di ff erently or p ass down a d i ff erent trad it ion ,
as neither again d o the Chur ches i n Spain or G aul or
i n t he E ast , or in E gyp t or Africa or t hose situated in , and t he fait h i t h as ann oun ced t o men , both of whi c h
t he mi ddle of the eart h [that is the Ch urches of Pales
t ine ] B ut as t he sun , whi ch is G od s creat ur e , is one
. B ishops For t o thi s Chur ch , on accoun t of i t s
and the same t hroughout t he whole world so too d oes
t he preac h ing of th e truth sh in e everywhere an d
illum in ate a ll men who des i re t o come t o t he kn owl
edge of the truth An d neither d o those of the
.
—
Chur ch ’ s rulers who are p owerful in speech add t o this
trad i ti on for n o one is above t he [great] teacher
n or do those who are i nfir m in speech subtract from
it
. For s i n ce the Faith i s one and t he same , neither
d oes he who can say more add to i t nor b e who can
( Adv h a m, I x , n
” ”
sa y less d im in ish i t .
,
This strik in g passage shows not merely how com
p le te was the unit y of fait h throughout the world i n
those days , but how th is un ity of faith was the
response t o the un i ty of the doctrine everyw here
preached t o the un ity of the trad ition everywhere
, Church or w ithou t i r z “ For in th e C h urch G od has
handed down E lsewhere St I r e n ze us testi fies t o the
. .
1 36 U N I ON
so urce of thi s uni f orm tradi tion , and w ha t w as un der
, stood to be the safeguard oi i ts p ur i ty I n t he fir st _
.
thr ee chapters of hi s th i rd book he is cri ti ci z in g t he
methods ; and i n so doi n g sets forth by way of con
.
them o ut of Scrip tur e ” , h e says “ they accuse the
,
Scrip tur es themselves of errors , of lack of authority , of
can be gathered from t hem save by those who kn ow
”
i
the trad ti on B y trad i t ion , however they
.
,
mean a ficti t i ous esoteri c tradi tion whi ch they c lai m
to have received , “ someti mes from V alen tinus som e ,
times from M arc ion , s omet im es from Ba si li d es, or
“
anyone else who is in op posit ion W hen i n your
. tur n you appeal to t he tradi tion that has come down
, from the Ap ostles thr ough the succession of t he
presbyt ers in the C hur ches, they reply that they are
wiser t han t he presb y ters an d even than the Apostles
themselves, and kn ow t he un corrupted truth ” To .
t hi s Ir enaeus observes t hat “ i t i s diffi c ul t t o br i n g t o
rep entance a soul capt ured by e rr or , bu t that i t is n ot
altogether i mp ossible t o escape err or by sett in g truth
”
by the side of i t H e t hen proceeds to state where
.
the true tradi tion can be f oun d : “ The trad it i on of the
Apostles h as been made mani fest t hr oughout the
. world , and can be foun d in eve r y C hur ch by those who
W is h t o k n ow t he t rut h W e can n umber too, t he .
,
bishop s who were ap pointed by the Apost les in t he
Chur ches an d their successors down t o o ur own day ,
non e of whom kn ew of or taught t he doctri nes wh ich
.
kno wn of t hese secret mysteries and used t o teach
them secretly wi thout the kn owledge of others t o the
, ,
perfect , t hey would have t aught t h em t o t hose ch i efly
to whom t hey con fi ded t he Chur ches t hemselves .
For t hey desir ed t hat those w hom they left behi n d
,
own off i ce of teac hi ng should be most perfect and ,
blameless inasmuch as if they acted right ly , much
'
, ,
good , b ut if they fell away the gravest calamity, woul d
ensue .
To e x emp lify t hi s method of referring t o the t rad i
t ion of t he C hur ches , h e app lies it t o thr ee of t he
,
Chur ches : Rome Smyr n a and E phesus se tti n g that
, , ,
,
, whi ch t hose of the ot her Chur ches are necessarily in
accord T he p assage i s well kn o wn b ut for i ts in t i
.
,
m ate bearin g on our present sub j ect we m ay transcribe
“
. B ut as i t would t a ke too lon g in a volum e li ke
t he present t o enumerate th e successions of a ll the
Ch urches , we confo und a ll those who, i n any way ,
. whether t h rough se lf wil l or vain glory , or b li n dness ,
-
,
or e vil mi n dedness in ven t fals e doctrin es by di r ect
-
, ,
i ng t hem to t he g reatest an d most ancient Chur ch ,
,
at Rome by t he two glorious Apostles , Peter and Paul ,
,
and to t he trad it ion i t h as received from t he Ap ostles
h ave come down to us thr ough t he successi on of th e
—
’
.
, greater aut hority ” the Greek t ext being defect ive
,
here it is im possible to say e x act ly what Greek word
,
li es behind t he Lati n p r i n ci p a li ta s but t he context ,
indi cates authori ty ” as givi ng t he in tended sense
i t is necessary that every Ch ur ch—that is the
—
“
,
faithf ul from a ll par t s shoul d have reco urse as t o
that i n wh ich the Ap ostoli c t rad i tion is ever pre
served by t hose —if we follow Dom M orin ’ s h ighly
, probab le c orrection of an apparen tly defective
. read ing who are set over i t .
One more quotat i on from St Iren ae us we m ust .
per mi t ou rselves , as it ev idences so clearly the feeli ng
of thi s Father and h is contemp oraries as to the
relative cond i tion s of those who were in the one
set Ap ostles , p rop hets and doctors , together wi th all
,
 U N I ON 1 38 UNI ON

o ch and th en ban ished to t he Greater Oasis in Upper by intens ify i ng the crisis precip itated a far reaching ,
-

E gyp t his personal in flue n ce over his discip les ceased

,
. schism Al though hell eni z ed on the surface by t heir
.

B ut hi s doctrin e was undoubtedly derived from h is i ncorp orat ion fir st i n the M acedoni an E mp ire and
former master , Theodore of M 0 p suest i a , an d as , then in t he Roman the p opulations of E gyp t and
,
’
Theodore s memory was cherished as t hat of the Syri a were raciall y di sti n ct from t he By z antin es who
greatest t heological li ght of Syr ia t h e condemned , governed them and the Greek coloni sts who had
doctr in e found many friends in t he E astern Patr i sett led amon g them H en ce t he i r attit ude towards
.

a r ch a te and was taken up w ith sp ecial zeal at E dessa

,
. the domin an t race was one of di s li ke a n d resentment ,

From t hen ce it spread to the neighb ouring ki ngdom and t hey welcomed t he opp ort uni ty whi ch en abled
of Persia where i t was welcomed and protected by t he
, them to assert in some measur e t heir national di s
Persian kin g as tendin g to eman cip at e hi s C hr ist ian t i nctn e ss Accordi n gly , when t he E gy p tians were
“

subj ects from By z ant in e influen ce S hort ly after . assured that their great hero St Cyr il had been out .

wards the prevai ling sen t im en t at Ant ioch became raged by a condemnat ion of hi s doctr i ne , t hey ralli ed
M onop hysite , and t he N estorians of t he p atri ar c h ate round Ti mothy JElur us t he usur p i n g successor of ,

had to take refuge i n Persia wit h t he result that the ,

D i oscor us , and embraced hi s doctrin e The Greek .

subsequen t develop men t of the heresy had i ts centre colon ists of co urse took the orthodox side , or rat her
of propagat ion i n the Persian t own of Seleu cia took t he side of t he Cour t j ust as it happened to be at ,

C tesiphon on t he Ti gris where was i ts m etropolitan

, ,
the t ime whether orthodo x or M on otheli te according
, ,

see These N estori a ns had a fine m issionary Sp ir it

.
,
t o the person al p oli cy of the successi ve emperors ; b ut
and evan geli z ed m any countries in t he Far E ast from the t ime of Chalcedon the great m a ss of t he
'

some even reachi n g Chi n a , and other s fo unding t hose Chr istian p op ul at ion of E g yp t became M onop hysit e
C hrist ian com mun i t ies on the M alabar Coast of Indi a and was lost t o t he uni ty of the Chur ch T we cen .

called the Thom as C h rist i ans or C hr ist ians of St , . t ur i es later the M oham medan in vasion came bot h t o
Thomas This N estor i an Chur ch reached its highest
. emphasi z e and t o enfeeble t his e x tensive schism .

p itch of prosperity in the elevent h cent ury b ut the ,

During the i n terval though the people were set
,

M ongol invasion in the th i rteen th an d four teen th against orthodoxy , the imperi al p ower could do m uch
cent uries involved its adherents i n ruin and the great ,
to enf orce i t, but when t he M ohammedans came t he
mass of their p osterity became absorbed i n the general
M ohammedan pop ulat ion They are n ow r ep r e .
—
whole i nfl ue n ce of the cali phs was used t o con fir m the
sc h ism that i s, in t hose whom they could not suc
sented by a small body who d well on t h e borders of ,
cee d i n gain in g over to the religion of Islam I n t he .

Lak e U r umi y a h i n K ur distan and i n the n eighbour Patriarchate of An tioch and t he smaller Patri ar chate
i n g highl ands They are not a very c iv ili z ed race and
. of Jerusalem events p ur sued a correspondi n g course .

probably know li ttle of the doctrin e whi ch was the The Chr isti ans of Syri an race were pred isposed to take
orig i n al cause of the i r secessi on ; or kn ow i t only as up with M onophysitism j ust because their By z ant ine
the p atriot i c wat chword of their race A st i ll . r ulers were on t he side of orthodoxy , and so fe ll away
smaller body of Uni ats of the s a m e sp ir itual an cestry in to a schi sm wh ich although from t im e t o t ime
,

and the same li tur gical r it e are ca lled Chaldees an d checked or modi fied by the act ion of t he Cour t as
li ve in t he E uphrates and Ti gris valley In 1 87 0 their . lon g as By z ant ium retained its soverei gnty over those
c atholi cos seceded on a p urely personal m atter and ,
p arts settled down into a permanent separat ion , when
,

induced hi s people to refuse acceptance of t he V at ican the M ohammedans h ad obt ained p ossession of the
decrees They ret urn ed t o un ity seven ye ar s later
.
,
coun try besides losing vast n umbers of its adherents
,

but the episode seems t o show t hat thei r faith is not by perversion s t o M ohamm edani sm .

very fir m
C M onop h y si li s m
.
.

The M onophysite sch ism had

'
.
— The Christian s of the present day wh o represen t
the former p op ulati on s of t he t hr ee sp lend id Patri
st ill more serious conseq uen ces Its d ist in ctive doc . a r ch a t es of An ti och A lexandr ia, and Jerusalem are
,

trin e is associated wit h the name of E uty ch e s, former few in n umber , an d fall into five classes Fir st t here .

arch i mandrite of a m onastery near Constan tin ople , are t he schismati c Copt s in E gyp t , descendants of
and D i oscor us the nephew of St C y ri l and h is suc,
. t he n ative E gyp tians wh ose n um bers are est i mated
,

cessor i n the p atri archal See of A lexandr i a This . at about Second ly the Abyss ini an s These .

doctrine which was condemned at t he Coun cil of

,
were in early days converted from Al e x an dr ia an d ,

Chalcedon i n 45 1 , con trasted w ith N estori an ism by so in d ue cour se passed i n to schism alon g wit h i t .

r unni ng to the opp osite ext reme I t m aintained that . They form t he great mass of the i nh abitants of Abys
i n Christ t here is not only a single person ali ty but ,
sini a about three m i lli on and a half , an d have kept
,

also only a single n atur e “ Oi two n at ur es but not . their faith well but are very i gn orant of its teachi n g
,

i n two n atures ” was its phrase ; for the M onophysites and duties Thirdly the J a cobi tes of Syr i a , w ho bear
.
,

were zealous upholders of the decrees of E phesus and f

,
t he same relati on to the an cient Syr ian s as the Copts
a ffir me d that M ary was the Theotokos , from whom to the anci ent E gyptian s and are called Jacobi tes ,

her Son received a p erfect h uman n at ur e ; bu t they after Jacob Barr a d a i ( Ba r a d aeus) who preserved t he
‘

m ain tai ned that the e fi e ct of t he un ion was that the episcopal succession when it was t hreat ened by J us
Divi ne n atur e absorbed t he h um an so that there t in ian The Jacobites are t o be fo un d most ly in
.

were no longer two n atures b ut one only ; anyt hin g ,

M esopotam ia , Syria and K urdistan , and a r e est i
,

short of th at seemed t o them t o dissolve the essential mated as n umbering some Fourthly , the
’
un ity of Chr ist s p erson A t E phesus the two t h eolo . Thomas Chr istian s on t he M alabar Coast who may ,

gians mentioned had stood by t he side of St Cyr il and . n umber ab out These were originall y N est o
had fought hard for the condemn ation of N estor i a n r ians havin g been first evangeli z ed as we have seen
, , _ ,

ism j ust on th is groun d th at it amoun ted to a den ial ,

by the early N estorians ; t he Portuguese sough t t o
of the un ity of Chr ist ; and now it seemed to them that catholi ci ze t h em by very h ar sh means and succeeded ,

h is doc trine , wh i ch h ad trium phed so splendidly at only in attract i ng t heir dislik e W hen t he Dutch .

E phesus had been condemned at Chalcedon

, N or . succeeded t h e Portu guese in In d ia an d began t o , .

can i t be den ied that some un gu arded e x pressions used persecute the Cat holics t hese M alab a r comm uni t i es
,

by St Cy ril though n ot so intended by hi m were

.
, ,
returned t o schism , but n ot being able t o find a ,

susceptible of a M onop hysite interpretati on Besides . N estorian b ishop , procured a Jacobite bishop from
E uty ch es and D i oscor us, some of those wh o had Jerusalem , to r enew their episcopal succession and
t hus ended i n becom in g M onophysites F if tli ly t he
,

si gned the decrees of t he new coun ci l felt that St . .

,
’
Cyr i l s e xpressions were a fie cte d by i ts decisions , and Armen ians if we in clude wit h t hose who d we ll i n
, o

t hey returned home d i ssa t i sfie d . Armeni a Pro e r those of the same race and relig i on
B ut here , too , it was ch i e fly racial feeli n g wh ich , W h o are sett ed in Asia M inor , E ur opean Turkey ,

Gali cia Arme ni a and elsewhere may perhaps amo un t
, ,
t o some t h ree m i llions and a h alf t hough trustworthy
statistics are d i ffi cu lt to obtain As in the case of t h e
N estorians b y the side of each of t h ese sect ions of
, Len t impose the yoke of celibacy on t h eir clerg y
M onop h ysites is a c orrespond ing body of Un iats who
once M onop hysites have at one date or anot her i n the , priest s and have added th e Fi li oque ” to the creed
pas t renoun ced their heres y and been reconc i led to t he
Cat holic C h ur ch wh ich has cord ia lly sanct ioned t he
, seq uent letter to t h e B ulgarians namel y t h at t hey
retent ion of t h eir nat ive rites Oi these t he M elchites ,
Copti c an d Syrian included amo un t to about
the Uniats of St Thom as to about . and the
Un iat A rmen ians t o about
.
or Oi
Abyssi nian Uniats t h ere are practi cally none
D P h oti a n i s m —
. The ne x t great schism whi ch
. the ground of whi c h this man was prepared to break
d ivided C h ristendom was that whi ch is known as the
Ph oti a n schism and led to the separat ist e x istence of
, schism thus caused was on l y transi tory P h o tius
that vas t bod y of C hr istian s whi ch has come to be
called “ the ort hodox Churc h ” W e shall emp loy bot h
these names as names w h ich have become c urrent d es i g
n ations t hough without accep ting the i mp licat ions
,
that attac h to them Certai nly Ph o ti a ni sm is a
name w hi c h well e x presses the character of a separa
t ion mot ived , at all events in the fir st instan ce no t
by any doctrinal reasons b ut by one man s endeavour
t o reali z e his personal ambit ions t hat one man being
Photi us the usurpin g Patriarc h of Con stan tinople
,
i n 85 7 . It is true that the schism in i ti ated by Phot ius
did not lon g surv ive h i s death but he was a man as
re m
arkable for h is learn ing and ab i li ty as for his
—
unscrup ulousness and so was ab le to creat e doubt
less out of pre e x ist ing materials —and to eq ui p wit h
,
an e ffect ive cont roversial armoury an ecclesiastical
part y an imated b y h is own separat ist ambit ions and
an ti Lat i n an imosities
-
The h istory and v icissi tudes of this most lamentable
of all schisms have been suffi ciently told in other
articles ( I G N A I I U S or C O N STA N TI N O P LE
' ‘
S A I N T;
P H OTI U S O F C O N STA N TI N O PL E M I CH A E L CE R U L AR I U s ;
G REE K C H U R C H ) b u t we m ust note here how entirely
,
unprovoked i t was both i n the t ime of Photius and ,
in that of M ichael Cze r ula r i us, by any harsh or i n con
siderate act ion on the p art of the p opes W hen
B ard a s t he un cle of t h e E mperor M ic hael I I I ,
,
presented himself to the Patriarc h Ign at i us to receive
Com mun ion wh ile li vin g in incest wi th his d aughter
i n law when the empress mother an d her daughter
- b i tter sp ir it , St Leo sen t two legates to Constant i
were brough t to t h e patriarch against the ir will to
receive the vei l of religion —what else could a con
s ci e n t i o us prelate do save refuse what was so i mp ro p
erly sough t ? Y e t i t was j ust for t hi s that the Patri
arc h Ign at i us on refusin g to resign his see , was
,
’
ban ished to t h e i sla n d of Tereb inth us and under j ust
these c ircumst an ces that Phot ius mounted the sti ll
occ upied p atr iarc h al throne and soug h t con fir ma t i on
of h is appointmen t from Pope St N icholas I The
letter w h i c h h e addressed t o St N icholas
in P G C I I 5 86 61 8 ) mi srepresen ted the facts and
. .
, ,
— .
besides bore on i ts face suc h si gns of unr eali ty as
could not b ut arouse the suspicions of the pope who
when at last he found out what t h e true facts were
d id t h e onl y t h ing that a conscienti ous p ope could do
pronounced the election of Phot i us n ull and void
and laid Phot ius under excommun i cat ion Later
when Photi us saw that Rome could not be induced t o
san ct ion hi s usurpation he threw 0 5 h is d isgu ise and
professin g to have d iscovered th at cert ain usages of
the W est were scandalous and even heret ical a d
dressed an en c y clical t o t h e o t her Orient al prelat es
inviting t h em to meet in a general coun ci l at Con
st a n t i n o p le and pass j udgment on St N i cholas
’ '
Though t h e p ope s real o fle n ce i n the eyes of
Phot ius was t hat a s successor of St Peter he e x er
, ,
ci sed an aut h ority wh i c h stood in the way of By z a n
t in e amb iti ons t h e schismatic fel t that if he would
, ,
recommend his cause to the rel igious world he must
provide i t wi th a dogmat ic bas is and accordingly he
fo r m ulated the foll owing charges only one of which
U NI ON 1 39 UN I ON
, ra ised an issue wh ich had even the appearan ce of
, be i ng dogmatic Th e W esterns h e said fast on .
, ,
. Saturdays use la cti c i n i a during the firs t week in
,
, ,
, r e co n fir m t h ose who have been co n fir me d b y simp le
, .
To t h ese five points he added four others in a sub ,
, ,
. s a cr i fice a lamb along wi th t h e Holy E uc h arist on
,
E aster Sunday , ob lige the ir priests to s h ave their
beards make the i r c h rism of runn ing water and
, ,
consecrate deacons p er s a ltu m t o the episcopate .
N othing could be more trivial than these c h arges on
.
u p the un ity of C h ristendom ; b ut for the t ime the
.
h imself was q uickly d isplaced by a fresh court intri gue ,
. and t h oug h on the death of Ign at ius he attained t o
, ,
a more legi timate p ossession of the p at riarchate he ,
d ied in 867 after whi ch t h ere was a recon ci li ati on
,
. wit h the Holy See which lasted for the ne x t two cen
t ur i es .
Then came the Patri a rch M i chael Caer ula r i us who
in 1 05 3—that is at a t ime w h en not on ly was there
, ,
’
,
, n o tension between the emperor and the pope , but
t he N orman invasion of Sicily j ust then occurring
—
made i t peculiarly desi rable t h at the y should un ite
to oppose the common enemy caused letters t o be
'
,
— written and brought to the noti ce of the pope i n ,
which he renewed t h e old condemnation of the Latin s
for fasting on Sat urdays cons ecrat in g the Holy ,
E ucharist in un leavened bread a nd req uiring clerical ,
cel ibacy A lso at Constant inople he invaded t h e
.
, ,
. churches bui lt for the use of th e W esterns where the ,
Lat in R ite was used and ignom in iously h andled t h e ,
B lessed Sacramen t t h ere reserved on t h e plea that , ,
, being consecrated in unleavened bread i t was no t ,
truly consecrated Again t h ere was a saint on the .
throne of St Peter and St Leo IX in a temperate
.
,
.
letter contrasted the violence ofi e r e d b y M i chael to
’
the Latin Church at Const an tinople with the pope s
. cord ial approval of the many mon asteries of t h e
Greek Rit e in Rome and i ts neighbour hood Furt her , .
at the req uest of the E mperor Constantin e M ono
ma ch us who by n o means shared the patriarch s
,
’
.
n Op le to arrange mat ters Th ere was n othing
.
,
however to be done as the emperor was weak and
, , ,
the patriarch was allowed to carry all before h im .
Se th e legates returned home havin g fir st left on the ,
'
altar of St Soph i a a let ter in the pope s name by
.
,
wh ich M ichael Cze r ula r i us and one or two of h is
agents were deposed and e x comm un i cated Oi course .
t h e e x com municat ion touched only t h e persons
. . n amed in t he documen t and not the whole By zantin e ,
,
Church ; indeed th e e x comm un icat ion of a whole
C h urch is an unkn own and un in telli gible process .
If the whole Church or patriarc h ate from that t ime
, ,
fell away from un ity and has remained out of i t ,
,
ever since it was because and in so far as it s members
, , ,
,
of their own i ni tiative adhered t o M ichael and h is
,
successors in breaking o ff relations wi th Rome .
.
,
Th is fact however must remind us of the mi st ak e
, ,
we should m ake were we to regard the vagaries of a
, ,
patriarch like M i chael Ca mi la r i us a s the adeq uate
cause of so persisten t and far reach ing an cfi ee t -
.
, Undoubt edl y h e had wit h h im in his secessi on if
, ,
not t he whole population of h is pat riarchat e at all ,
events a part y strong and i n flue n t i a l enough to compel
. . th e subm ission of t h e rest T h is part y was the one .
to whi ch we have referred as form ed a n d consoli dat ed
,
.
, b y Photius In a less pronoun ced fo r m i t is traceable
.
back to the secular st ruggle between t h e G reek and
Latin races for un iver sal dom in ion ; and since t h e time
, of Phot ius i ts an tipa t h ies had been furt h er st imulated
, b y t h e growth of W estern k in gd oms host ile to the
, emp i re and by the amicable relat ion s in which the i r
 ti mon 1 40 UNI ON

rulers stood to the Rom an b ishops Thi s th en was . or more who represen t t h e old Patri
the main cause of the sep aration whi ch has endur ed so a r ch a t e of the W est n or co uld an y one n ow co mpare ,
,

lon g and st i ll endur es but to estimate i t at its full

, ,
to the a d va n ta e of the former th e reli gious cult ure ,

strength we m ust take into account t he accompany and act ivi ty 0 the E ast wit h that of the W est
ing negative cause For , t hough Photi us i n on e of
.

. Indeed unt il a qu ite recent date stagn ation an d i g no

, ,

h is letters claimed for his see that it was “ the centre rance is the j udgmen t passed on the Orthodox clergy
and supp ort of the truth ” , and though h is foll owers and laity by observers of all sorts ; and if dur in g the
‘

would h ave us seek our standard of doctrinal p ur ity l ast century there has been a dist in ct i mprovemen t i n
exclusively in the prescripti ons of t he fir st seven t he leaders amon g priests and peop le i t has derived ,

e cumeni cal coun ci ls St Leo IX in hi s letter to , .

,
m uch of its insp i rat ion from Protestan t sources ,

C&r ula r i us en umerated n ineteen of the latter s p rede ch i e fly from German un iversit ies an d has n ot been
’
, ,

cessor s as hav in g fallen under the condemnat ion of obtai ned without some sa cr i fice of the i ntegr ity of
these seven councils while D uch esn e: ( E g li ses sép arées , ,
t heir an cien t tradit ion and without some adm ixt ure
p 1 64 ) calculates that i n t he i n terval of 464 years
. of the m odern Protestant spirit .

which separates the accession of Constantine the In another very seri ous respect the Orthodox
Great from t he celebrat ion of the Seventh Coun cil Christi a ns have lost by their sep arat ion from
Constant in ople and its ecclesiasti cal dependen Catholi c uni ty , for they have succumbed to pro
cies had been in sc h ism for 203 years This means gr essi ve d is i ntegrat ion the fate of all comm un i ties
-
.

that the sense of un i ty so strong i n the W est had i n

’

, ,
t hat are without an e fi ect ua l centre of un ity .

the E ast owin g t o t he perversity of emp erors and

, The Patri arch of Constan tinop le s original claim ’

patriarchs no fair chan ce of stri ki n g deep roots

,
to be e x alted to the second i f n ot to t he fir st place i n
, ,

among the people and so could seldom o t er e ffectual

,
C hr istendom was ( though never form ulated dis
resi stance to t he forces mak in g for schism . t i nctly ) t hat Old Rome had been chosen for t he seat
Un lik e the N estorians an d the M onophysites ( whom of primacy because it w as t he i mperi al city , and
the Orthodo x regard as hereti cs j ust as m uch as hen ce wi th t he transference of the emp ir e , thi s
,

do the Catholi cs ) t he Ph oti a n schism com men ced ,

pri macy had passed to N e w Rom e Such a clai m .

nearly n ine cent uries ago by M i chael Caer ular i us is qu ite lost i ts si gn i fica n ce when the Byzan ti ne E mpire
n ow represen ted not b y a few scatt ered groups wh ic h was overthrown i n the fift een th century, an d the
taken altoget her number not more than s1 x or seven sultans sat in t he seat of the former sove r el g n s of the
mi lli ons but by vast populat ions whi ch in the
, ,
E ast . For the t ime in deed , the n ew order of th i n gs
,

aggregate n umber n ot far short of a hundred m illions

, . brought wi th i t even an accessi on of power to t he
This i s ch i e fly t hough n ot solely because , the
, , patriarchs The sultan saw the advantage of keep in g
.

Russians having been converted by mi ssion aries from ali ve a separat i on wh i ch a lien ated his Chri st ian sub
Constantinople about a century before t he ti me of j e cts from the i r brethren in the W est Accord in gly .

Cmr ul a r i us t heir direct reli gious i n tercour se was wi th

, he made the p atri archs whom he could appoin t keep
, , ,

Constan tinople and not wi th di st an t Rome ; an d or change at hi s pleasur e to b e under h imself the
, , ,

accordingly they drifted gradua lly fir st in to un con ci vil as well as t he ecclesiasti cal govern ors oi t he
scious and lat er into con scmus accep tan ce of its
_

, , Chr isti an s of whatever race , with in hi s dom i ni ons .

separatist at titude The upshot is that out of the . Still , the condit ion of p atriarchs thus boun d hand and
at which the Orthodo x Christian s are foot t o the c hief en emy of C hrist endom was but a
estimated by statisti cians , some are gilded ser vitude for whi ch i t was d iffi cult to feel
Russian sub j ects t h e remain i n g 25 000 000 being
, , ,
respect ; and as racial consciousn ess developed am ong
,

di vide d amon g the pure Greeks of the Turk ish E mp ire t he many n ati onali t ies of the p atri archate i t became ,

and the K in gdom of G reece t he Rum an ians , Servian s , , more and m ore reali z ed th at the N ew H om e theory
and B ulgarians of the Ba lkan Peninsula t he C yp , could n ow be given a fresh app li cati on .

r i o te s, and the comp aratively sm all number m ostly ,

Russia was the first t o revolt and in 1 5 89 the Tsar ,

Syri an s wh o reside in t he former t err i tories of the

, Ivan I V in sisted t hat th e Pat ri arch Jeremi as should
A le x andrian and t wo E astern Patriarchates ( For recogni z e t he M etropoli tan of M oscow as the head of
parti culars see G R EE K C H UR C H ) As against these
.

. an autonom ous p atri ar chate W h y should he n ot .

,

m ust be set a group of Uni ats who sin ce t he di sr up ,

W hen M oscow was fast becom i n g what Const an ti
t ion , have been con verted from their schism and are n op le had formerly been , the metropoli s of the great
now in commun ion wi th the Holy See though keep in g ,
Christian E mp ir e of the E ast ? Later to br in g t he ,

re li giously to t heir an cien t By z a n ti ne Ri te , whether ecclesiasti cal governmen t m ore eff ectually under the
in i ts G reek Slav or other vernacular form These
, , . th umb of the Crown and convert i t into an instrumen t
are estimated by the author of the art icle j ust cited of poli t ical governmen t t he whole con stituti on of the
,

as numberin g in all about of whom the Russi an Chur ch was chan ged by Peter the Great who , ,

greater part are Ruthen ians an d Ruman ians in the in con temp t of every canon ical prin ciple suspended ,

A ustrian dom in ions . t he p atri arch al j urisdi ct ion of M oscow and put the ,

Probably when th e Ph oti a n sch i sm was fir st

,
whole Ch ur ch under a syn od consist i n g of the t h ree
eff ected i t seemed t o the By z an t ine leaders th at ,
metrop oli tans who sat ex 0175 0110 an d some prelates
, ,

though by an unfortun ate chan ce t he see from wh i cli an d others person ally appoin ted b y the tsar wi th a ,

they were separati n g was the one W hi ch could claim layman as ch ief proc urat or t o dom inat e their ent ire
the inheritan ce of t he prom ise made t o B lessed Peter ,
act ion Till the last cent ury t h is was th e only d i min u
.

i t was with themselves rather th an with the W esterns

’
'

ti on of t h e Pa tr i ar ch of Const antinople s j ur isd iction ;

’
th at the m ai n p ortion the very substan ce , of Chris b ut wi th the weaken in g of t he sult an s power the
, ,

t e nd om was and would always be found Cert ainly . various n at ion ali t ies over wh i ch h e former ly re i gned
the cen tre of the world s culture and ci vi li zat ion ’
,
suprem e have succeeded one a fter an other i n g a mmg
religious as well as civil was then on th e H elle sp on t , ,
their independen ce or autonomy and have concur ,

and i t ma y be that even in act ual n umbers the sub r e n t ly establ ished the autonomy of their na t1 ona l
—
j ects of this one patri archate sur passed the h ordes of
half converted barbarian s ( as they y would h ave
Churches Though adhering to the same litur gy a n d
.

to the same doc trine as the other Orthodox Churches ,

called t hem ) who formed the p op ula t i ons of the new they have followed the example set by Russi a an d ,

W estern k in gdoms
‘

Regarded un der th is aspect ,

castin g off all subj ection t o the p atriar ch have 1 nst1 ,

h owever i t cannot be said that th e com p ar ison still

, t ut ed h oly syn ods of their own to govern them e cclesi
tells 1 n thei r favour or that the sch ism has p r ofite d a s t i ca lly under the supreme con trol of the ci vi l power .

them . Impressive as is the Orthodox Ch ur ch n umer G reece began in 1 8 33 and since then the Ruman ians ,
,

1 cally , i t i s far surpassed i n that respect by the th e Servi ans , and t he Bulgari a ns , wit h t heir r e sp ectw e
 UN I ON 1 42 UN I ON

striving to destroy for i f in the last resort the j udg for their salvation are suffi ci en tly expres sed It
'

, ,

ment of the i ndi vi dual be for hi m the supreme author then goes on to declare t hat “ the i n terpretat ion of
i ty in matters of reli gion , i t is impossible that any Scrip ture belongs neither to a ny private or p ubli c
e x ternal authority can be entitled to deman d h i s sub person , or to a ny Chur ch b ut thi s righ t a n d
m ission to i ts j ud gments when contrary t o hi s own . authority of i nt erpretation belongs solely t o t he
The early Reformers probably rea li zed thi s but they , Sp ir it of God by W hom the Scrip tures were comm itted
”
felt the necessity of bui ldin g up som e sort of a Chur ch to writin g Thi s , n o doubt is what the other R e
.
,

whi ch could bind together its members into a corpo formers i n G ermany , Swi tzerland and elsewhere ,

r ate body professin g uni ty of beli ef and worshi p , an d woul d also have said , but they p rudently passed the
wh ich , in con trast wit h th e pope 5 Church whi ch they , po i n t over i n their c onf essi ons half consc ious that t o ,

ca lled apostate could be call ed t he tr ue Ch ur ch of

, clai m the right of in terpretation for t he Sp irit of G od
G od A n d se regardless of t he con tra d i ct ions i n
.
,
w a s but a m i sleadi ng way of clai m ing it for each
wh i ch they were i nvolving themselves they set t o ,
1 n d 1 v1 d u a l who m ight conceive hi mse lf to have caugh t
work to e x cogitate a theory of chur ch const it ution to -
t h e m i nd of t he Sp i rit ; foreseeing too , that if n o , ,
sui t thei r p ur poses This theory is e x hibited i n the
.
Chur ch could claim t he right to in terpret wi th auth or
sevent h a rticle of t h e Augsb urg Confession of 1 5 30 ,
1 ty, n o Chur ch Protestant any more than Catho li c
, ,
t o whi ch type the other Protestant Confessi ons both , could clai m the right to i mpose i ts doctri nes or worshi p
L utheran and Reformed ( that is , Calv i n isti c ) of the , on others .

n ext few decades conf ormed “ The Ch urch of .

However , the Reformati on leaders kn ew what they
” “
Christ says the A ugsbur g Conf ession
,
is , i n its , were about They mean t t o have a Protestan t
.

proper mean ing the con gregation of the members of

, Chur ch or at a ll even ts Protestan t Chur ches t o
, ,
Chr ist , that i s of t he Sain ts who truly be lieve and , opp ose to th e pope ’ s Chur ch and they intended t hat ,

obey C h rist ; alt h ough in t his li fe many evi l men an d these new Chur ches should profess a very d efin i te
hyp ocrites are interm ixed wit h this con gregat ion un ti l creed and enforce i ts acceptan ce together wi th sub
, ,

the day of j udgment Th is C hur ch , p rop erly so

. m i ssi on to its d iscip li n ary arrangement s , on a ll whom
termed , has moreover its signs namely the pur e an d
, , , , they could rea ch b y the e x ercise of a very efi ecti ve and
sound teach ing of the G ospel and t he righ t use of the coercive j uris d i cti on Accordingly these Protestan t .
,

sacraments And for the true un ity of the Church

. confession s of faith , whi ch were the formal e x pression
i t is eno ugh to agree as to t h e teach ing of t he G ospel of t heir doctrinal creeds con tained and prescribed , ,

and the admin istration of the sacramen ts . quite after the m anner of Catholi c professions of fai th
This idea of the Church h a s some surface resem or decrees of coun ci ls , li sts of very d efin i te art i cles ,

blan ce to the Ca t h oh c idea but is in reali ty its e x act , often with added anathem as d irected against those
converse The Cathol i c t oo would say that h is
.
, , who should vent ure to deny them The m in i sters .

”
Church is the home of true teachi ng and true sacra were to be call ed before they could exercise t heir
ments but there the resemblan ce ends The Ca th o
, . f un ctions those en titled to call them bein g govern in g
,

li c fir st asks h imself whi ch is the t rue Church th at bod ies con sisting of clergy and laity in fix e d propor
Chr ist has se t to b e t he guardian of H is Revelation t ions and formed hi erarch i cally in to local regional
—
, , , ,

the teacher and ruler of h is people T hen havin g .

,
and n at ion al consistories To these governin g bodies .

id en t ified i t by t he m ark s set upon i ts face b y i ts app ertained also the right of adm in istration of decid ,

contin uity w ith the pas t which in virtue of i ts inde , ,

in g controversies an d of excomm un i catin g The , .

f e cti b ili ty i t m ust necessarily possess its un i ty cat h d i fficulty was to equip them wi th coercive power , but
oli ci ty , and sanctity —h e subm it s himself to its author
, , ,

for t hi s the Germ an Reformers had recourse t o t he

i ty accepts i ts teaching an d receives its sacram en ts
, , , secular p ower The secular p ower was they assur ed
.
,

in the full a ssur an ce that j ust because they are san c their princes bound to use its sword for the defence
,

t i on e d by it s authority i ts teach ing is the true teach ing of right and the suppression of evil ; and i t a pp er
and i ts sacramen ts are the true sacramen ts The Prot . ta i ne d t o this department of i ts f un ction s t hat in
on the other h and if he follows the course t imes of reli gi ous crisis i t should tak e upon itse lf t o
further the cause of the G ospel —that i s , of the new
est a n t , ,
-

marked out for h im by these Protestan t confessions

d octrines—and root out the old errors
,

begins by as k ing hi mself and decides by the app li ca , .

ti on of a wholl y distin ct and independen t test , W hat The G erm an prin ces had h itherto stood off from the
are the true doctrines and true sacraments Then . new evangeli sts , whose democrati c tenden cies they
he looks out for a Church wh i ch professes such doc suspected but thi s appeal for their in tervention was
,

trines and uses such sacraments ; and ha vin g found baited wi th t he suggest ion t hat t hey shoul d t ak e away
one regards it as the true Church an d j oin s i t The
, . from th e Cat ho li cs their ri ch endowment s a nd apply ,

fatal tenden cy to d isuni on inherent in this latter them to m ore becom ing uses The bai t took , and .

method appears when we ask what is that d istin ct and

independen t test by wh ic h the Protestan t decides as N orthe r n Germany —
wi thi n a few year s on e after another the p rin ces of
no very edifyin g class d eclared
, ,
—
to the truth of his doctrines and sacraments for i t is , ,
themselves to be on the side of the G ospel and rea dy
as the whole h istory of th e Reform ation movem ent to take over the responsibili ty for its admi ni strat ion .

declares th at ve ry rule of the B ible given over t o the

,
Then from 1 5 25 onwards following the lead of Ph i li p
, , ,

private i nterpretat ion of the indi vi dual wh ich i s Land grave of Hesse one of the most immoral m en ,

in consistent W i th any real submission t o an e x ternal of t he age they sei z ed the abbeys and bishoprics
,

authority Imp ortant however and fundamental as

.
, ,
w ith i n t heir dom in ions the revenues of wh i ch they ,

thi s poi nt i s the Augsb urg Con fession p asses it over

,
mostly applied to the in crease of their own and pro ,

wi thout th e slightest menti on So t oo do m ost of t he .

, ,
ceed e d to found n ational Churches b as ed on the pri n ,

other Protestan t Con fessions an d n one of them dare ,

c i p les short ly afterwards accepted by t h e Au g sbur g

to go to th e root of th e d i ffi culty . Con fessi on wh i ch shoul d be autonomo us for eac h

,

The Scottish Confession of 1 5 60 (oi wh ich the d om ini on under the supreme spiri tual as well as tem
W estm inst er Confession drawn up in E n gland d ur i ng poral rule of i ts secular sovereign For t hese nat ional .

the Commonwealth is an a mp li fica t i on ) is the m ost C h urches they drew up codes of doctrine , schemes of
e x pli cit i n t his respect After claim ing that the . worsh ip and orders of m in isters observan ce of w h i ch
, ,

Presb y terian Churc h recentl y establ ished by John they enj oi ned on all their subj ects under penalty of
Kno x and h is friends holds the true d octrine and . e x i le a pen alty wh i ch was a t once i n fli cte d on t h ose
,

right sacramen t s i t gives as i ts reason for so a ffi r min g

,
of the Ca t holi c clergy wh o remained fa ithful to t he
“
that the doctrine wh ic h we use in our Ch urches i s religion of their a ncest ors as w ell a s on mult it udes of ,

con tained i n th e wri tten W ord of G od in which Catholi c laymen .

we a ffir m that a ll things that must be believed by men This system of national Churches d id n ot n ecessa
 U N IO N
ri l y i nvolve the imposition of Protestant creeds d ifi er
i ng among t hemsel ves for i t w as wi thi n the power , a severe defeat at K a p p ell ( 3 1 O ct
as cribed to t he pr i nc es that t hey shoul d agree together
as to what they woul d enforce a n d no doub t to a
cert ai n extent t h is was what happened , an d by
happen in g caused Lutherani sm t o be the prevaili n g
form of reli gion in Protestan t Germ a n y Still the
system did involve t hat t h e prin ce had the p ower
if he j udged fit to i ntroduce a creed di ff er i ng from
, m Sw i t z erland was n ow pract icall y dead thi s meant
that of t he neighbour i ng do mi n i ons and eventuall y
thi s was what occur red when t he Lut heran an d
Reformed parties sett led down wi t hi n the li mi ts of
the E mp ir e in to formal opposit ion among themselves
Some principali ties —and i t was the same wi th the
free cit ies which went over t o Protestan tism —enf orced
one of the forms of Lutheran conf ession others one
of the forms of Reformed conf ession and t here were
even osc ill ations in the same principali ty as one
soverei gn succeeded an ot her on the thr one The
signal i nstance of this was in t he Palat in ate the
i nh abitant s of wh ich were req ui red t o c h ange back
wards and forwards between Lutherani sm and Cal
v i n i s m four t imes within the years and 1 623
This pretens ion of the German p ri n ces t o d i ct ate a
reli gi on to the i r subj ects came to b e k nown as the j us
r ef orma ndi and gave r ise to the m axim Cuj us regi o
, ,
ej us r eli gi o By the Peace of Augsb urg 1 5 5 5 t h is
.
pretens ion was reluctantly con ceded as a temporary
e xp ed ien t t o t he Protestan t prin ces and by the
Treaty of W estphali a ( 1 648 ) it received a more formal
k ind of i mperi al sanction against which an i ne fi ectua l
protest was made on beha lf of Pope Innocen t X by
h i s n uncio Chigi .
. Calvin ism on the other hand in Germany itse lf
In Swi t z erland there were no prin ces t o put them ~
selves at t h e head of the n ew n at ional Chur c hes but
their place was taken by the cantonal gove rnm ents
wherever these had been cap tur ed by the Protestan t
faction Thus Zwin gli who began h is fie r y preach
.
, an endur i ng rival to Lutheran ism on G erman soil
ings against t he Catho li c Ch urc h in 1 5 1 8 and in a
few years ’ time had gathered round h i mself a ban d of
fanatical foll owers with the i r aid and by hold ing out
, destined to b e last i n g i t superseded t h e Lutheran
t he co n fis ca t i on of the church property as an induce
ment was able by 1 5 25 to dr aw over t o hi s side th e
, ,
m aj ority of the members of the State Coun ci l of
Z ur ich By t his maj ority the Catholi c members of
. steadil y decreas i ng number for a whole centur y and
the co un c il were overpowered and e x truded wh ich
done at the i n stigation of Zwingli the Catholi c reli g
, ,
i on , though it had been the reli gion of their an cestors
for many cen tur ies and was st ill the reli gi on of the
quiet people in the land was summ ari ly proscribed ,
even t he celebration of the M as s being forb idden
under the severest pen alties ; whi le to make its re stor a
t ion forever impossible fier ce crowds led by Zwi ngli , and a fervent admirer of hi s theocratic sy stem
i n person were sen t to vi si t the various ch urches and
stri p t hem of their st atues and o r namen ts on the plea
that th e B ible commanded them t o put do wn idola
t ry The groun d bein g thus cleared the state Coun
.
cil by its o wn authority set up a nat ional Chur ch
conf ormed to the Germ an t ype Berne B asle
Sch a flh a usen St Gall and Appen z ell fo llowed qui ckly
'
.
, .
,
i n the foot steps of Z urich , t he same methods of vi o
lence be in g employed i n ea ch case The des ir es of
the people t hemselves coun ted for not hi n g The
op ini on s of yesterday adopted by the fanat ical leaders
were at once e x alt ed i n to do gm as for w hi ch was
cla i med an authori ty over the conscien ces of a ll far
e x ceed i n g t hat whi ch had been e x ercised by the vener
able Chur ch of the ages
N or were these Protestan t cant ons sa t i sfied with
imposin g the i r n ew doctrin es on their own subj ect s
H av i n g combined with certain cities of the E mp ire
to fo r m a “ Chr istian Lea g ue ” in i ts name t h ey
summoned the Cath ol ic cantons Sch wy t z , Uri
Unterwalden Zug and Lucern e to foll ow their
, ,
e x ample in supplant in g the old Fai th by the new
The latter however were resolute i n their refusal and
, ,
although the i r m ilita r y stren gt h was in feri or to t h at
1 43 UN IO N
'
of their antagoni sts they eventually i n fli cted on them
,
a defeat i n .
,
whi ch Zw in g li hi mself and several other preachers
, were sla i n on the fie ld I t was a crushi n g blow to .
Zwmg li a n i sm whi ch , as such never recovered and i t
, , ,
sav ed th e Catholi c can tons from the d anger of per
. ver5 1 on , w h il e ope ni ng the way for the Catholi c
.
, restorat i on that was to ensue B ut if Zw in gli ani sm .
,
,
, n ot that Protestant ism had become e x t in ct there ,
but that i t was about to pass thr oughout Swit z erland
int o Calvin is m Jo h n Calvi n a nat ive of Picard y
.
, ,
. after imb ib i n g i n Paris t he Lutheran views w hi ch
“ ”
later on he recast in hi s Instit utes , i nto the form
,
ever sin ce associated wi th his name settled do wn a t ,
, Geneva
~ i n 1 5 36 The desire of t h e citi z ens to cast
.
, ofl the y oke of Savoy b y a llying themselves wi th the
Swi ss Conf ederat ion gave hi m t h e opportunit y of
. acqui r in g a p ower over them thr ough the e x ercise of
, whi ch he w as enabled t o force upon the c ity that a ll
penetrat i n g t heocrati c desp otism w h ich stands out in
h i story as the supreme e x ample of sp i ritual tyr ann y .
. From Germany and Swi t z erland , th e sour ces r esp e c
t i vely of Lut herani sm and Calv ini sm Protestant ism ,
was propagated i n to other lands but in th is respec t ,
Calvi ni sm showed i tself more successful than Lut h er
, , a ni sm . Lut herani sm spread i nt o De nmark and t h e
Scandi navian Pe n insula in eac h case ow i n g its begin ,
, n i n g s and consoli dat ion to the compulsion and perse
cut i on practised on an unwi lli n g people by un worthy
'
, soverei gns ; but except t h at i n Poland also i t made
,
some headway thi s was t h e extent of its conq uests
,
.
, ,
supplanted Lut herani sm and became the domi nan t
, reli gion in some parts especially i n th e Palat inate , ,
, besides gain in g over a suffi ci e n t number of adherents
in the predom inant ly Lut h eran distri cts to make i t
.
, M oreover in Trans y lvani a and H un gary and sti ll
, ,
more i n the N etherlands where i ts dom i n ation was ,
,
apostolate whi ch had been fir s t in the fie ld In
F ran ce t hough fro m the t ime of th e Revocati on of
.
the E di ct of N antes ( 1 687 ) its adh erents became a
,
, a half it wa s so ow e r ful that at t i m es it seemed
dest in ed to a b sor the country ; yet there also it
owed i ts progress chi e fly to the mi li tary vi olen ce of
it s leaders In Scotland i t was tyrann i call y forced
.
, on the people by a corrupt and lawless nobi li t y wh ich ,
covet ous of the chur c h propert y lent it s suppor t ,
, t o the hery energy of John Kno x a pupi l of Calvin ,
.
E ngland was a case apart Hen ry V I I I coq uetted .
with Lutherani sm , whic h was of service to h im in hi s
campai gn against the pope b u t he d isliked Prot es ,
, t a n t i sm, whether in its Lutheran or its Calv i ni st form ,
and devised h is Si x Art icles to aid h im in suppressing
.
, , it. Under E dward V I Calvini sm wa s favour ed by
the two regents and the m ore in fluent ial bishops and
t heir legislation was d irected towards the establish
. men t of this system in the coun try , wi th the sole
. d i fference th at episcopac y in name at least , was to b e ,
ret ained The short li ved react ion under M ary left
.
-
Eli z abeth a free soi l on wh ic h to build and she pre ,
fe rred an ep iscopal sy stem with a considerable t on ing
down of the as perities o f Co nt i nen tal Protestantism ,
. as more in harmony wi th a m on archical and arist o
crati c regime and better ad apted to gai n over a
. populat ion whi ch was at heart Catho li c St i ll s h e .
had t o employ th e p ers onn e l at her disposal a sec t ion ,
, of w h ich was of t h e same m in d as herse lf w h ile
_ ,
, ,
another sect ion had strong Cal vi n isti c leanings The .
, result was t h at a double tenden cy developed in her
. n ewly formed C h urch one w h ich though hating
-
, ,
,
Catholi cism as a system clung t o some of the c h ar ,
a c t er i st i c features of Catholi c worshi p and organi z a »
 U N I ON
t ion the other whi ch strove perseveri n gly for a root
,
and bran ch subversion of the E li zabethan sett lemen t
-
and t he substi tut ion of one conformed to t he Genevan
model D ur i n g the Comm onwealth t he latter party
. an d how elemental is the i r character ; how i n fact ,
obtain ed for the t i me t he upper hand , b ut w ith t he
Restorati on i t was e x truded altogether and became
t he parent of those N onconf ormi st sects whose pro
gr essi ve d i visions and subd i vi sions have always been
the gravest scandal of E ngli sh re ligious lif e The
other party meanwh il e wi th some oscill ati ons t o the ,
r ight or to the left ( un der the n ames oi t he H igh a n d
Low Chur ch parties ) , maintained i tself wi th a p p r ox i
m ate consistency as e x hib it in g the dist i n ctive sp i ri t
of the E stabli shed Ch ur ch of t he co un try
Towards t he m iddle of the n i n eteent h century
however , t wo qu ite nove l tenden cies asserted t hem
selves in that comm uni on ( and t hese have s i n ce
become so in fl ue n ti a l that before lon g t hey are li kely
t o d i vide between themselves the race of An glican
Chur chmen ) , one based on a far reachi ng appreciati on
(b ut w i th some reservations ) of the Catholi c sy stem ,
deli ght ing to call i tself Catholi c , and stri vi n g t o
assi mil ate the n ational worsh ip to the Cat h oli c
pattern , the other wh ich call s itse lf L iberal and , ,
push in g to its bitter en d the app li cat ion of the Protest
ant prin cip le of private j ud gment has by its rat ion
a li sti c crit icism d ifl use d a wi despread scept i cism as
’
to t he authent ici ty of the Christian records an d t he
t rut h of the most fundamen tal art icles of the Chris
t ian creed Thi s theologi cal Li berali sm has likewise
. had recour se to the civi l p ower or some dom i nan t
e x ercised a disastrous i n flue n ce on the E n gli sh N on
conform ist bodi es , and one m ore deadly st ill on Con
ti n en t a l Protestant ism Germany being the prim ary , i mpose the i r system on the people and sustain it by
sour ce from whi ch i t has sprung Oi G ermany in
fact , i t must now b e said t hat , as in the si xteen th
centur y it gave b ir th to what i s called orthod ox Prot
esta n t i s m so in t he presen t age i t is engaged in
,
thr ott li ng its off spring in the t ig h t grasp of i ts cr i ti
ci sm . Oi the form s whi ch Protestant ism has assumed
i n t he Un ited S tates Can ada , and other countries ,
coloni z ed from E ur op e , it i s suffi ci en t to say that the
i mmigrants have t aken their beliefs an d forms of
worsh ip with them t o their new hom es and the world
of ideas be in g n ew one , t his m any headed hy d ra h as
di splayed i n the new coun tries t he same d iversit ies
as i n t he old . an d sought to fomen t t hese by campai gns of bi tter
E x cept for its Pur itan variety whi ch dep ended for
i ts prop agation chi e fly on the p owers of p hysi cal
coercion i ts leaders could d isp ose oi , Protestantism
was an easy goin g re ligion whi ch had abo lished many
-
of t he ascet i c Observances and restri ct ions on liberty
and li cense t hat held i n the old Ch urch It was to be
e x p ected therefore , that i t shoul d sp read rapid ly in
,
an age when m anners were alar m ingly corr upt , nor
must we be surprised that wi t h such a start , i t was
enabled soon to present the appearan ce of a g roup of
Ch ur ches peop led by very m a ny thousands of a dh er
ents Sin ce those early days , however , i t cannot be
. under these later cond it ions
sai d t o have ext ended its con quests m uch and the
mi lli ons to which i t h as now grown are due not much
t o conversions but rat her t o the n at ural in crease of
, ga ti ons with d efin i te creeds an d organ i z ati on s the
population s In the present day t he total number
. bodies of men t hat have preferred the prin cip le of
of Protestants i s esti mated at about an
enorm ous number n o doub t but one whi ch un like , ,
the Catholi cs who all stand together , is
only an aggregate made up of a mult itude of sep arate
communi ons under separate governin g bodies , whic h
,
not only d i ffer am ong themselves as to importan t
points of doctrin e b ut—such is the i n creas i n g ind ivid
ua li sm among their members—
,
are fast approach ing
a goal in whi ch each mem ber W i ll have become a
Church and a creed to h imse lf
S umma r y —
I t w ill be useful as in the cases of the
.
prim itive and the great E astern d i visions , to fix
attention on the forces m ak in g for d isintegration
wh ich have brough t these Protestan t d ivi sion s
mto being If t he e ffect of such a summary is to
. .
1 44 U N I ON
show the essent ial sim il ari ty of the forces at work in
a ll t hese cases that wi ll be advantageous for i t wi ll
'
, ,
reveal to us how few are these disi ntegrat in g forces ,
,
they spr i ng from the very hear t of human nature ,
whi ch c an only hop e to counteract t he d ivision s
towards wh ich t hey tend if sustain ed an d elevated by
some other for ces of a d iff eren t order a lt og ether In .
. two respects then , t hese sep aratist bod ies t o w hi ch
,
Protestantism h as g i ven b i rth need to be considered ,
. i n t he ir separations from t he p aren t com m uni ons and
i n the i r cohesion among themselves as corporate ,
bodies end uri n g for a certain ti me arid in a certai n
. d egr ee The p 1 in ci p le of private j udgmen t h as been
.
, the undoubted cause of the i r sep arat ions and i n cessan t
subdivisi ons for the pr in ci ple of private j ud gment i s
,
essent iall y d isin tegrat in g The cause of such c oh e
'
sion as t hey have e x hi b ited has been as t he i r h istory ,
shows of the fo llowin g n at ure F1r st under the
, .
-
i nflu en ce of private j udgment one or more strong ,
w illed men have con ceived a doctrin al system a n t a g
on i s ti c t o that of the re li gious comm uni ons to wh ic h
t hey originall y belonged h ave gathered a party of ,
others like m inded aroun d them , and have undertaken
-
on behalf of the ir system a propaganda whi ch has
,
attain ed a certain success N ext wish in g t o estab li sh.
,
a Chur ch whi ch shall be an embodi men t of t heir
system but fin d in g themselves unab le by p ur e p er sua
,
sion to h old t he m ultit ude t o the ir vi ews , they have
,
faction of n ob les or democrat s , and have i nd uced i t ,
i n v iew of t he temporal advan t a ges to be ga ined , t o
.
, physical forc e Or , ex c on verso resistan ce to the ,
ruling p ower or its estab lished Ch urch when it has ,
been able t o mai n tain itself w ith comp arat ive success ,
has caused t he sep arat ists t o reali z e th at t hey m ust
uni te together under d e fin i te rule and govern ment if
they are t o make the ir resistan ce e ffect ual —as has
been the case wi th the E ng lish N on conformist b odies .
Thirdl y reali z ing that n o system i mp osed by vi olen ce
,
can hope to be lasti n g unless the mass of its peop le
, , can be brought round t o voluntar y acceptan ce of i t ,
-
they have exp loi ted the p assion s and prej udices of
the people p articularly its race an d class exclusivisms
, ,
, controversy and calumny Fourth ly where thi s .
,
p oli cy has succeeded in the earli er stages of a schism ,
a m ore internal and durable prin cip le of cohesi on has
eventua lly been generated under the i nfluen ce of
.
custom and hered ity of antagoni sms an d mi scon cep
,
t ions hardened by long con tinued i solat ions an d —
estrangements of a ffecti on s deep ened by long
,
continued int imac ies cherished mem ories e x p e r i
, ,
, e n ces and associat ions and of the good f ai t h and even
, ,
high sp i r i tua li tx nour i shed by t he detached truths
reta i ned i n such fals e creeds wh ich can prevail ,
.
, Such speak ing genera ll y has been the cha i n of
, ,
causes whi ch h as welded int o chur ches and con gre
private j ud gmen t as a rule of fait h t o t hat of sub mi s
, sion to the aut hority of the Catholi c Ch ur cl1 But the .
spec i es of un ity thus attained i s always in its outer
relat ions separative , i n it s inner relations precar ious ;
for the very mot ives that cause the members of such a
body t o cohere amon g themselves are those that
separate them from other simi lar bodies ; wh ilst within
i t eatin g away i ts structure t here 1 s always the laten t
, ,
consci ousness am on g its members that their ru li n g
.
,
body an d it s doctrinal formulae have n o vali d t it le
t o enfor ce subm ission ; and i t only n eed s a cri sis or ,
that spiri t of radical in qu ir y wh i ch is now so comm on ,
to arouse this consc iousness to act ivi t y ( See PR o r .
'
E S TA N TI S M ; Lur s s na m s m; C A L V I N I S M ; A N G L I CA N
I S M ; N O NCO N FO RM I S I S ; RI TU A LI SI S ; R a r i o wa u s u )
’ ‘ ' ‘

far towards creating the tone of mi n d whi ch rendered
the outbreak of Protestantism in the ne x t centur y
p ossible St i ll w hen we compare t his schism w ith
.
,
sc hisms li ke those of the Orthodo x and the Protestants
an essential d iff eren ce between them appears In t h e
other cases t he division was over some quest ion of
pri n ciple ; here i t was over a question of fact only
On bot h sides of the divid i ng li n e there was e x actly
the same creed and e x actly the same recogn ition of
t he essent ial p lace of the pap acy in the const itut ion of
t he Chur ch of th e method by wh i ch p opes shou ld be
,
elected , of the right to the obedien ce of the whole
Church wh ich attaches t o their o th ee The only
m atter in doub t was : Had t his person or that f ulfilled
the cond it ions of a vali d election ? W a s the elect ion
of Urban V I d ue to t he terrorism app li ed by the mob
t o the electors and therefore invali d ; or had i t been
,
una ff ected b y this terrorism and was therefore val id ?
If Urban s election was vali d so t oo were those of h is
’
successors of the R oman line ; if h is elect ion was
i nvalid Clement V I I s and Benedi ct K I I I s were valid
’ ’
,
B ut the ver i fica ti on of facts is through the testim on y
of t hose who have taken p art in t h em and in this case
t he witnesses were at varian ce To decide between
t hem belongs to t he speci al arti cles on that schism
In th is article what concerns us is to appreci ate the
d ifi er e n ce between a schism of t his sort over a q ues
t ion of fact and a schism over a question of prin ciple
like the others that have been instan ced W e may
help ourselves by an analogy ; for we m ay comp are
th is d ifferen ce wi th that bet ween a sword stroke
wh ich has dissevered a li mb from t he body and on e
whi ch has caused a deep woun d in the body i tse lf
In the former case the li fe of the organ ism ceases at
once t o flow in to the dissevered p aTt and it begin s to
d isintegrate ; in the latter all th e powers and processes
of the organism are at once set in motion for t he
repair of t h e inj ur ed part I t may be that the i n j ur y
wrought is too serious for recovery an d death must
be expected but the l ife is st i ll t here in t he organism ,
, empire the two d istingui sh ed prelat es Bessar i on of
and of tenti mes it i s ab le to ach ieve a complete resto
rat ion To app ly this to the h istory , whereas in
. Uniat bod ies Th ough adverse circum st an ces have
schisms properly so called a depreciation of t he value
of uni ty i s won t to m ark their com men cemen t i n
t hi s sc h ism i t was most rem ark able how strong was
the sense of un ity wh ich e xp ressed i tself on every
side , so soon as the n ews of the rival lines set up
became kn own an d how stead il y earnestl y d is , ,.
cer n i n g ly and un an i mously th e d i ff eren t p arts of the
, i ncluding the Divine in stit uti on of the Roman pri m
Ch urch laboured w ith ult im ate success t o ascertai n , ,
wh i ch was t he true pope or to obtain the election of
one
I V R EUN I O N M O V E M E N TS I N TH E P A S T —
.
A In
the E a s t —
. .
As Constan tin ople had so often been in
'
.
schism for a season the p opes took some t ime t o
reali z e that the sc h ism accomp li shed by the Patriarch
C azr ular i us was destined to cont inue E ven when
they were at last d isi llusioned t hey n ever ceased t o
reg a r d the E astern Christi an s as a choice portion of
’
Christ s flock or to work for t he restorat ion of th at
, in 1 5 9 6 ( see U N I O N o r B R E ST )
portion t o uni ty accordin g t o the ir opportun it i es
Thus it was not merel y for the recovery of t he H oly
Places and the protection of the p il grims that Urban
I I and his successors originated and sustained the
Crusades b ut for t he far m ore comprehensive obj ect
, t ion t hat the m a i n b ody of that p eop le were gained
of bringing the con centrated strength of the W estern
Powers to the aid of t he i r Eastern brethren now
threatened b y a Turki sh invasion whi ch bade fair t o
overwhe lm them I t is true that the in term ingling
. Un iats came under Austri an r ule t h e ot her under
o i human passions and the clash of an im osit ies for
whi ch E a ster n s and W esterns were both to blame ,
n ot o nl y brought to naught the reali z at ion of this
Sp len d 1 d ideal but actuall y enlarged the chasm whi ch
,
separated the two sides by intensifying the an tipathy
of the E a ste r n s for their aggressive allies N or can
i t be den ied th at the W estern populat ions often
showed a very unsatisfactory Spiri t i n their dea lin gs
U N I ON 1 46 UN I O N
w ith the E ast and their feeli n gs towards t hem ; for the
W est erns too were dom inated by t he unbrot herly
, ,
passi ons that spring from e x cessi ve n ationali s m an d ,
i t was j ust this t hat increased so ser iousl y for t he
. popes the d i ffi culty of br i n ging t he two sides together
for the defen ce of E astern Chri stendom .
. B ut t he i mportant thing t o observe is that the
popes themselves , with won derf u l un an im ity stood ,
outside all t hese racial an im osit ies , and whatever ,
were t heir personal a ffi n i ti es never lost hold of the ,
p ur e C h rist ian ideal or t hought to subordinate it to
worldly p oliti cs Thus a success i on of p opes from .
. G regory V I I down t o our own day s ( con sp icuous among
whom were Urban I I , B lessed E ugen i us I I I I nnocent ,
I II B lessed Gregory X N i cholas IV , E ugen i us I V
, , ,
Pius I I Cali x tus I I I St Pius V , Clemen t V I I I Urban
, ,
.
,
V I I I and Clem ent X IV ) h ave ma n if ested their
,
strong desires and h ave striven m ost pathet ically for
,
the healin g of t h is saddest of sch ism s n ever losing ,
h eart even when the o utlook was darkest welcoming ,
each gleam of sunsh i ne as an occasion for repeat in g
.
t heir assuran ces of a truly brotherly fee ling and a ,
,
readiness to con cede in t h e t erms of un ion all th at
’
. was not essen tial to the C h urch s fait h an d con st i t u
. tion On t he Orient al side t here has not been much
.
response to th is patheti c call of the popes ; but two of
t he E astern emp erors m ade overt ur es wh i ch led on t o
t he solemn acts of reun i on in the Counci l of Lyons
.
( 1 27 4 ) and t he Coun ci l of Floren ce Un ter
t un a t ely these negoti ati on s were promp ted on t h e
, .
,
-
Oriental side b y the instin ct of self preservation in
,
-
face of the T urk ish danger more than by any adequate
. appreciat ion of the necessi ty of reli gious un ity and ,
were besides undertaken b y soverei gn s t he m ass of
, ,
, whose subj ects were not prepared t o follow them in a
, cour se that ran coun ter t o their trad itional resent
m en ts Still the second of t hese coun c ils had i ts
.
,
. soli d results ; for i t won over the last two emperors of
t he E ast the last three p atriar chs un der t he old
,
,
N ic a e a an d Isidore of K iev besides originatin g the ,
.
sometimes d istur bed t heir allegian ce an d h ave ,
,
prevented their n umbers from attain in g t o any hi gh
figur es t hese Uni ats have don e good servi ce to the
,
cause of reun ion b y the ir standin g test i mony t o t he
mode of reun ion wh i ch is a ll t hat t he popes ask for ,
,
n amel y accep tan ce of t he ent ire dep osit of fait h
,
acy b ut beyond th at a full hearted adh eren ce t o those
,
-
, venerable rites and usages whi ch are clear t o E astern
hearts as an in herit an ce bequeathed to them by t he
. h i g hest Christian antiqui ty .
A lth ough sin ce t he c oun ci l of Floren ce n o m ore
, ,
, p rop osa ls for heali n g g t he schi sm have come from the
m ain body of t he Or th od ox an d the i r r ulers on e must ,
. in clude among the reun i on m ovements of the p ast
the one wh i c h in it iated b y some R uthen ian b ishops
‘
, , ,
led to the un i on accomp li shed at B rest in Lit huani a
By t h i s u n ion a .
_
. con siderable p ortion of the R utheni ans th e race th at ,
had formed t he orig i n al n ucleus of t h e Russian E m
p i re , was offi ci a lly reun ited wi t h the H oly See b ut i t ,
was n ot for some t 1 m e and after th e fier cest opposi ,
,
over t o the un i on Hav in g h oweve r at leng th
—
.
, ,
,
accepted i t they rem ained fir mly at tac h ed t o it u nti l
,
the p ar tition of Poland Then one hali of these .
,
,
R ussi an rule The former meetin g w it h t olerat ion ,
from their rulers sti ll rema i n constant the latt er have , ,
been t he vi ctims of a success i on of t h e cruellest per
secut i on s undertaken t o drive them back into schism
B I n the W es t —I n the fir st outburst of Protes
.
. .
. t a nt i sm n ei ther i ts leaders n or t h eir followers had any
scruples about their separati on from the comm un ion .
of t he ancien t Church They regarded i t as an .
.
 UN I ON 1 47 UN I O N

apostate Chur ch from whi ch i t was a bless i ng to b e some di stricts had to resort to physical force ; nor h as
separated and they an ticipated the speed y ad ven t of
, 1 t been able to embrace a ll the Lutherans in its fold
t he ti me when , its members converted by the Protes tend in g as i t did to favo ur the i r side less than that o i
tant preachers it would dissolve away an d their own
, , their tradi tional adversaries .

p ur i fie d Ch ur ches take i ts p lace everywhere B ut .

, V R E U N I ON M O V E M E N TS I N TH E P RE SE N T A GE
. .

as new generations g rew up whi c h were not responsible I n the presen t age the d ivisions of Chr istendom no t
for the sc h ism devout minds were inevi tab ly led to only furni sh its assailants wi th t h eir most e flect i ve
'

, .

contrast the sectar ian ism they had in herited w ith the taunt but con st it ute the most serious h in dr ance in
,

beautiful ideal of reli gious uni ty prai sed b y St Pau l . the wa y of C h risti an work H en ce amon g those who .
,

and reali z ed in t h eir own lands i n days previ ous to the h ave inher it ed t he cond it ion of separation the value ,

Reformation That t here were many such m inds is

. of Christ ian un it y h as come to b e much more deeply
eviden ced by the stream of converts to the Cat h oli c appreciated than ever before and many act ive mov e
—
,

Ch ur ch wh i ch from the days of the Reformers onward

, ,
ments have been set on foot and schemes devised , ,
h as never ceas ed to flow o i convert s wh o i nvariably for its restoration .

as cribe their fir st di scon tent wi th the i r previ ous A I n the E a st fi SO far as the Orthodox Chur ches
.

Pro te stant ism to the scandal of its di visions The . are concerned it does not appear t h at the so li c itude
sam e deep sense of scandal motived the at tempts t o for re uni on is very m arked at least amon g the rulers ,

bring about re uni on whet her a mon g the Protestant

sects themselves or between these an d the Catholi c ,
,
—
and the g reat m as s of t h e populat ions D uring the
l ast half cent ury some members of the H igh Churc h
.

C hur ch whi c h were mad e at various t i mes dur ing the

, sect ion of the A ngli can party , an d li kewise some
succeed i n g cen turies A ll of these attempts failed . members of the Old Catholi c p arty in German y an d
beca use set on a false foundat ion but some of t hem , Swit z erland have ap proached the a d herent s of
,

were certainly i nsp ired b y a gen u i n e spiri t of concord . Russian and Greek Orthodo x y in hopes of in duc in g ,

we cann ot indeed regard as so inspired the group of t hem to promote int ercommun ion between the ir
G erman Lut h erans represented b y James Andreas , respective C h urches ; b ut t hese negot iat ions though ,

an d M a rti n Cr usi us w h o, in t h e last qu a rter of the , t hey have led to occasional in terchanges of ecclesias
si x teen th cen tury proposed to the Patriarch Jeremi as . t ical courtesies and con cession s such as the more ,

I I of Constant i no p le a plan for the uni on of t he Lu r igidly consisten t Roman Ch ur ch would deem to be
therans w i th the Greeks on t he basis of th e Lutheran compromising, have not yet att a ined and are not ,

Creed a plan prompt ly rej ected by the patri arch ;

,
likely to at tain the i r obj ec t ; for the simple reas on
,

n or t he Dutch Calvin ists and Anglican di vines who , t h at the O rthodo x Chur ches have n o intention of
a generat ion later negot iated for a simi lar uni on w i th,
un it in g wi th Churches which perm it t h e most funda
the semi Calv inist Patriarch Cyri l L uca r i s, but were
-
ment al heresies t o b e held and taught by prelates and
fina lly repulsed by t h e S y nod of Jerusalem men of standin g i n t h e ir communions a n d yet they ,

whic h condemned th eir doct r i nes t ogether w it h the are perfect ly aware t hat this is t h e c ase i n the A n gli
memory of t he p atriarch who had coquetted with can Church and are l ikewise aware that the Old
,

them ; nor again t h e Galli can priest E ll ies d u Pin and , ,

Catholics sin ce the y broke away from the H ol y See
,

the A n gl ican ar chbi shop W ake who i n the fir st , , in 1 87 0 have come un der Protestan t i n flue nce and
,

quarter of t h e eight eenth cen t ury negotiat ed a reun ion h ave lost t h e i r hold on m uch Cat h oli c doct rine A s .

bet ween the A n gli can and G a llican Ch ur ches In . for negoti ations wi th the H oly See or even an i n ter
each of these cases the predom in an t m otive was not chan ge of ideas wi t h i t the rulers of these E as t ern ,

to h eal div ision b ut to aid t he cause of separat ion by

,

strengt hen i n g t h e opposit ion t o t h e Hol y See .

C h ur ches are as 111 disposed as ever and when in vited
to do so by recen t popes as by Pius IX on his
-

— ,

V ery d ifi e re n t however and in every way com accession a n d when convokin g the V ati can Coun cil
'

, , ,
“
mend able was the Spiri t in whi ch the part y led by
,
and by Leo XI I I on his accession and in h is Pr ze cla r a
”
G eorge Calli x tus in t h e second q uarter of the seven G r a t ula t i o n i s of 1 89 4 t hey have always opposed -

t e e n t h cent ury and that i n wh ich M o la n us and Leib

,
eit her scornful sil ence or words o f st ud ied o ffensive
ni z i n t h e ir negotiations with B ish op Sp in ola of N eu ness to the affectionate lan guage of the popes .

st ad t and t h e g reat B ossuet half a cent ury later , ,

A ple a san t e x cept ion t o t his rule is the pres en t
worked for the elaboration of a reuni on scheme whi ch ( 1 9 1 2) Patriarch of Constant i n ople Joachi m I H , ,

t h e Catholi c Church and the Prot estan t bod ies migh t who contrar y t o the p revaili ng cust om has bee n left
in othee since 1 9 02—a n un usually lon g time I t i s
, ,

both be able t o accept The last ment ion ed episod e .

- .

of whi ch a full accoun t may be read in M B eaumes . kno wn that he is p ersonally incl ined towards reuni on ,
“
H istoire de B ossuet is of peculiar interest sup , b ut he is onl y one and w h en in 1 9 02 s h ortl y aft er , ,

p ort ed as i t was by the Co urt of Han over wit h the ,

h is accession he address ed a lett er t o th e heads of the
,

approbation of m any Protest ant prin ces and wat ched ,

autocephalous C h ur ches of h i s patriarchate proposing ,

w i t h s y mpat h y b y Clemen t IX and Inn ocen t X I . t o t hem that they should a ll agree to enter i n to neg o
B ut though pol it ical reas ons were t he immedi at e
, t i a ti ons both wi th the Protest an t bodies and als o
cause of the discont inuan ce of these negot iat ions they , w it h t he Chur ches i n un ion wit h the Hol y See , they
were doomed to fail ure for theologi cal reason s also . were un an imous i n refusing even to discuss the idea ,
“ "
Oi attempts to uni te the Lutherans and Calvini s t s so far as Rome was con cerned ( R eu ion M aga i e , n z n
who formed the two main varieti es of Protestantism ,
Sep t 1 9 1 0 p 3 7 5 and Feb 1 9 1 1 p
.
, ,
.
,
The .
, ,
.

several were mad e in Ge r many from t h e t im e of only basis th ey declared on w h i ch the O r thodox
, ,

M ela n cth on do wn wards ; b ut all failed un til the Churches could ent ertain the thoug h t of reunion wit h
occurrence of the tercentenary of t h e Reformat ion i n t h e Hol y See was t h at of a n acceptan ce of themselves
1 8 1 7 when the scheme recommended by Frederi ck
,
as by re as on of their fid e li ty t o t h e teach in g of t h e
,

W i lli am I I I of P r ussia ach i eved a part ial success seven meu me n i ca l coun cils alone composing t h e ,

whi ch st i ll end ures By t hi s scheme the t w o sides . one l l o ly Cat h ol ic and A post oli c Churc h and h ence
were t o ret ain ea ch it s ow n doct rine but the y were t o ,
of a renun cia t ion by t h e pope of all h is innovations on
coalesce int o on e E vangel ical Church ” and worsh i p t his doctrinal st andard par t icularly of that worst ,

together accord ing t o a common lit ur gy or a gend a , ,

innova t ion of all t h e papal despo t ism As there w as , .

whic h was d ra wn up on lines suffi cien tly va g ue to n o present l ikeli h ood of the pope s as senting t o t h at
.
’

leave unt ouc h e d th e poin t s a s to whi ch t h ey were a t basis what room wa s t here for nego t iat ions ?
,
.

variance amon g t hemselves E ven t his mod us . Such was t h e ans wer to t his im portant invit at ion .

vi ve nd i external and su p e r fic i a l as it w as would n ot

, ,
returned so recen t ly b y the h ig h est aut h ori t ies of
have been able t o es t ablish i t self had i t not been for these E a st ern C l1 1 1 r cl1 e s a n( l i f it represent s t h eir real
, ,

the press ure appli ed by royal authorit y , whi ch in m i nd we must a gree wit h them that negotiations

w ould b e useless ; for one thin g i s qui te certain the
H oly See can never accep t cond i tions w hi ch would
invo lve t he ren un ci ati on of an o th ee i t kn ows t o be of
D ivine appoi ntment and v ital for t he m ainten ance of
t he Churc h s un i ty N or 1 8 th is all for these Ortho
’
.
d e x p re lates if the y will r e fle ct m ust needs see that
, ,
thei r condi tions are such as cannot possibly form a
d urable basis for reun ion They clai m that their
position and theirs only is sancti oned by what they
call “ the Seven G eneral Coun c ils —that
Coun cils cf N i cze a (325 Con sta n t i n o p le II i s
E p h esus Chalcedon ( 4 1 1 ) Constantinople I I
Third Constan t in ople Second N icze a
But this is j ust what Catholic h istorians den y ;
and as i t would appear w i th a heavy balance of ev i
, ,
den ce on their side W h o then is to decide between .
t he two con ten tions ? In o ther words is this Orien tal
c laim more than a d isguised appeal to th e Protestan t
p rin ciple of private j udgment the very princ iple
which as t he e x perien ce of fo ur cen turies of Protes
,
t a n t is m has demonstrated is essent ially the princi ple
of d ivision and no t of un i ty ? It wi ll b e replied t h a t
,
the authori ty to decide i s wi th the ne x t general
c ouncil B ut if i t were at all conceivable that general
. application of ancient prin ciples recogn i z ed on bot h
c ouncils could take the place of a li ving cen tre of
un it y i n the government of th e Church at least they
would req uire to b e held at short intervals and t h en
the q uestion arises : W h y if our E a s tei n brethren
appreciate the impor tan ce of un ity have t hey n ot
d ur ing a ll t h ese centur i es taken th e in i tiati ve in
work ing for the hold ing of such a general coun ci l and
i nvi ted the Catholic represent at ives to take a friend ly
part in i t? W h y w h en the popes h ave taken that
, Is suc h a consummation i mpossible ? For the
ini tiative and have invi ted the E a s te r n s in t he most
cordial terms to j o in in such a coun cil or at least to
j oin with them i n some friendly conferen ce t o d iscuss
t he possib ilit ies of a reconciliation have they alway s
s o sternly refused ? There are those who think t h at
as in th e t i mes of Photius and Cmr ula r i us the chief
d eterring causes th at stand in th e way of the reun ion
of the Orthodo x w it h the Catholics a re pol iti cal and
to some e x t ent that m ay be t he case B ut t h e tsars
who i f they were to p ut t h e mse lx es at the head of a
, ,
vast reun i on movemen t could p i ob a b ly carry t he
rest of t h e E as ter ns ( M on oph y sites and N estorians
in cluded ) wi th them canno t be unconscious of t he
, ,
S plend id r ole whi ch would become theirs as the leading
Christian sovereigns and prot ectors of a un ited Chris
t e n d om of such vastly in creased d i mensions
E vident ly t hen the primary cause wh y the E ast
, ,
w i ll not approach the W est for the heali ng of the
schism is st i ll t o be sought in that i n d e fin a b le spiri t
of ant ipathy which t he E aste r ns have i nh erited from
past ages when to some e x ten t i t was reciprocated i n
,
the W est and wh ich makes them suspect every over
,
t ure that comes from t h e W est of b e i ng d i cta te d by
some mal ign ulterior p urpose such as t o suppress
their ancien t ri tes or transform t heir religious ,
h abit s or crush out thei r re a sonable libert ies by
,
e x travagan t e x ercises of ecclesiastical power To us
i n the W est it seems un intelligible that such ground
less suSp i cions should b e ent erta ined I t may be that
in some d ist ri cts w h ere t he E ast and W est touch each
,
other closely and the blending of religious wi th
,
poli ti cal an imosi ties causes tension m aterial for that
sort of suspi cion e x ists b ut certain ly there is no
correspond ing aversion to E a s ter n s or th eir religious
h ab its i n t h e general area of W es t ern Cat holicism
and above all as has already been observed t here is
, ,
absolutel y n o ground for suspec ting th e integr it y of
t he motives that have consisten tl y animated t h e long
. t ive study of t h e q uest ion und er all i ts aspects test i
line of popes Th e G reeks who took refuge i n
. fi es that t he reun ion movemen t h a s m a n ifes ted it self
Southern I taly under pressure of the Turk ish invasion
have never t o t h is d a y found d iffi culty b ut on the
con trary much encourag emen t from the popes in
their adheren ce to t h eir l lastern customs th e marriage
of their clergy included ; and sin ce the time of t h e
UNI ON 1 48 UN I O N
, Coun cil of Floren ce i t has been a fix ed prin ci ple of
papal government that Orientals passing in to com
m un ion w ith the Holy See should be requ ired to
remain i n t hei r own rites and customs where n o doc
, tri nal error was in volved Leo X I I I enforcing a d h er ,
en ce t o this princi ple by new sanctions in h is “ Orien
t a li um e cclesi a r u m d ign itas
”
M oreover ,
. why should t he popes or their adherents i n the W est
cherish d isli ke for rites and customs so in timatel y
t he ,
associated wi th the memories of t hose venerable
F a th e r s and doctors who m E ast and W est agree i n
'
venerating and clai ming as t he i r own ? Could the
E a ster ns t hen only b e i nd uced to la y aside t hese sus
, ,
p i ci o n s i t but provisionally and meet t h e pop e or hi s
, ,
representatives i n friendly conference the problem of ,
, , reun ion would already be h alf solved For then .
,
e x planat ions could be e x changed and false im pres ,
sions removed , parti cularly the false impression that
, i t is lus t of dom in ation and not fid e li ty t o a Divine ,
trust that cons train s the popes to insist on the recog
,
,
ultion of t heir primacy A fter t h at i t m ight be meces .
sary to d isc uss doct rinal points on which t he two sides
are at var ian ce ; b ut the d iscussion would turn on the
sides Seein g how shado wy are some of the points of
.
, disagreemen t some of them would s urely be cleared
,
,
up completel y by such discussions and i f others stood ,
,
out and thereby made any immed iate act of reun ion
,
,
i mpossible at least t h e better understanding arrived
,
at m ight be hoped to im part to any further stud ies
and d iscussions a c onvergen t tenden c y and so lead
on to int ercomm un ion at n o remot e d ate .
presen t i t would seem to be so if we are t o j udge by
.
,
,
the attitude of the rulers civil and ecclesiastical of t he , ,
O rthodox C h urches B ut it i s at least symptomatic .
,
that Joach i m I I I t h e presen t Pat riarch of Con ,
,
s ta n ti n o p le the same who in 1 9 02 propos ed con fer
,
e n ces on reuni on to the other autocephalous ch urches
has recently ( Bessa r i on e Jan uary —
, ,
M arch , 1 9 1 1 ) ex ,
,
pressed h is desire for reun ion and for preparatory
.
,
e fforts to come t o an understand ing wit h the W est erns .
The career too of suc h a man as t h e late V lad im ir
Soloviev—who starting from t he ord inary Orthod ox
,
, ,
con cepti ons set h imself t o study t h e whole q uestion
,
of reun ion in the light of the p atrist ic w rit ings and
was led t o enr oll h imself amon g t h e Un i ats—ma y
fairly be taken seeing what i nflue n ce he e x ercised , ,
. and h is memory st i ll e x ercises over many of his ,
fellow coun trymen as a si gn that t h ere are others of
-
,
like m ind i n that sealed empire as i ndeed is kn own t o ,
be the case M oreover the imperial ed ict s of tolera
.
,
t ion published i n R ussia i n 1 9 05 though they were ,
q uick ly to all in tent s and purposes revoked suffi ced to ,
li f t the veil and make manifest the true senti ments of
— _
the many R uthen ian Uniats who had been given out
as wi lling deserters to the camp of schism Se too .
, ,
d id the memorandum of t h e thirty t wo Ort hod o x -
priests on th e necessit y of changing t h e organ i z at ion
. of th e R ussian Church ( published at St Petersbur .
in t ogether w i th the subsequen t d iscussions an
. proceed ings for the det erminati on of t h is q uest ion i n
a nat ional counc i l ( Palmieri “ C h iesa russa ” i ) , man i , ,
fest t he grave d issat isfact ion of many of t he Orthodox
,
clergy w ith the suppression by t h e c ivi l power of the
,
spontaneous life and thought of their national Church .
N or do we lack the d irect test imon y of w itnesses
,
fami liar w it h E astern lands to the e x is t ence t here of
many arden t aspirants after reun ion Thus N icol a .
Franc e a Un iat p r i est of th e G reek R it e in his ins t ru o
, ,
,
i n the provinces of E uropean T urkey a mong Greek s ,
,
. A lban ians a n d Bulgarians a n d i n A s i m a mon g t h e
, ,
, ,
G reeks and M elc h ites n o t to Spe a k of t h e Ar men ians . ,
t
,
Syrians and C h a lt le a n s a nd wh i c h is m ore si g n i fica n t
, ,
.
s t ill , among the Russi a ns 1 1 1 w h ose m idst Ca tholic ,
 UNI ON 15 0 UN I ON

selves : ( 1 ) The Holy Script ures as the rule of faith ; guage i n describ in g these Catholi c practi ces which
( 2) t he Ap ostles and t he Ni cene Creeds as the state
’
gave off ence and brought down upon hi m from the
, ,

ment of the Faith ; (3 ) the two Sacraments ordai n ed Catho li c side a torren t of reproaches that was rather
by C h rist H i mself ; ( 4 ) the hi stori c ep iscopate locally e x cessive Thi s however should n ot bli nd us t o t he .
, ,

adapted i n the methods of its admi ni stration t o vary underly i n g fact that Dr Pusey came forw ar d wi th the .

ing needs Thi s ofi er whi ch has come to be kno wn best i n tenti ons as a p a ci fica tor n ot an assai lant and
.
, , , ,
as t he Lambeth Quadri lateral has been renewed by was prep ared to use h is powerful infl uen ce on behalf
t he subsequent Pan Angli can conf eren ces and h as been of a reconc i liat ion V isco un t H alif ax has id ent i fied
-
.

fre quen tly di scussed but so far h as not attracted any of hi mself wit h a method of reuni on whi ch can never b e

—
,

t hose for whom i t was intended The same Com pract ical because i t overlooks the ess ential character
.
,

mi tt ee of 1 888 looked wistful ly t owards the sep arated of the Catho li c syst em I t was this th at frustrated .

comm uni ons of t he E ast b ut did not ventur e to do his well mean t overtur es to L ee X I I I i n 1 89 4 6 an d
,
-
,

more than rep udi ate the idea of wish ing to proselyti z e stamp s wi th hop elessness the m ovemen t conn ected
amon g them an d recommend t hat a statement of the wi th h is name N on e t he less h e st ands out as the
,
.

A ngli can p osit ion should be drawn up for their bene m an who h as don e m ore than any o ther t o set the -

fit . Subseq uent Conferences have gone a l ittle far attracti ve ideal of Catho li c un ity before the eyes of
“
t her in this d i rect ion and the Conference of 1 9 08 wen t the presen t generation
,
Pub li c op i ni on he said in .
,

so far as t o recommend i n one of i ts resoluti ons that his famous Bristo l sp eech of 1 89 5 “ will never be ih ,

t here should b e an interchange of m i nistrat ions off ered flue n ced i f we hold our ton gues I t i s in flue n ce d by .

and accepted between members of the Orthodo x and those who w it hout any concea lment have the cour , ,

of the Angli can commun ion i n places where none of age of t he i r opi ni on s I t is the i n terest of t h e w hole
their own clergy were w it h in reac h—a r e commen d a
.
,

Ch ur ch of Chri st i t is t he interest of p oli ti ca l or d er , i t ,

t ion which as a lready menti oned was for t he mom ent is the in terest of the human race that these estran ge
, ,

rec iprocated not i ndeed by t he offi ci a l representat ives ments in t he Chr ist ian fam ily should cease The .

of t he Orthodox Churches b ut by two of their prelates cause i s good we have n o need t o be ashamed of i t
, , .

”
in Am erica In t he earli er Pan Angli can Conferences Let us frank ly avow i t to be our own
.
-
These words .

t h e att i tude taken up t owards the Churches i n un ion may be regarded as th e te x t of his unt irin g p ubli c
with the H oly See was hosti le rather than friend ly act ion And so far as they g o n ot hin g could be m ore ,
.
,

warm symp athy being ext ended to those who had r e

V I C O N D I TI ON S OF R E U N I O N —The longin g for the
encouraging .

ce n t ly abandoned i ts comm un ion In the Confer . . .

en ce of 1 89 7 there was a sli ght i mprovement in this restorat ion of un ity t o Christendom wh i ch is acti ve ,

respect and in the most recen t of t h ese Conferences

,
i n t h ese and other ways must be regarded by Cath , ,

held in 1 9 08 , whilst recogn i z ing as they could not b u t e lies as on e of the m ost prec i ous features of t he pres
,

do that i t would be useless to propose any terms of ent age and sh ould en li st a ll their sympathy E ven
, ,
.

i ntercommuni on t o the H oly See , as t hey could o ffer i f these reun ion ist s be work in g on li nes that are in
none W hich i t would accept , t he Comm ittee of R e t hemselves h op eless at least their desir e i s for a high ,

un ion an d Intercom mun ion recorded t hei r “ con vi c obj ect and desires fondly cherished and energetically ,

t ion that n o proj ects of un ion can ever be regarded as p ur sued t en d to t he acq uiremen t of soli d e x perien ce ,

satisfactory W hi ch deliberately leave out the Churches and so even tu ally to th e discovery of t he true cour se
”
of the great Lat i n Commun ion and t hen wen t on to for th e att ain ment of their obj ect N evert heless thei r .

urge the i mportance of cultivat in g frien dly relat ions schemes cann ot have been worked out wi th m u ch
wi t h t he ecclesiastical authori ties of that commun ion i nsight for t he prin ci p les on wh ich they are based are ,

abroad an e x ce llen t recomm endati on whi ch will be such as could n ot p ossibly sustain a fabri c of Chr is
,

cord ia lly reciprocated by t he authorities i n question t ian un i ty—are in fact the se lf same prin ciples whi ch , ,
—
W hether abroad or at home we h ave seen to b e the cause of disuni on in t he past
. .

Oi individual workers in the cause of reun ion fo ur W hat t hey con tem pl ate i s corp orat e reuni on , that i s
n ames should certainly be men tioned F ather Ign a
t ius ( George ) Spencer ( 1 7 9 9 —
t o say t he reun ion of whole Churches as such each of
.
, ,

1 8 64 ) was recon c iled to whi ch i s t o come in t o the un ion with i ts organi zat ion
the Catho li c Ch urch i n 1 829 ; i n due course he was intact its clergy rem ain ing i n their respect ive ranks , ,

ordained priest , and in 1 849 j o i n ed the Passioni sts an d the gen eral body of i ts lai ty i n theirs It is from
. .

Dur ing the l ast twenty si x years of hi s li fe , both i n t his standpoint that we n eed t o consider t he possi
-

E ngland and on the Con t inen t he lab our ed wit h the b ili ty of their proj ects W e ask then what k ind of
'

, .
, ,

utmost zeal to arouse men s m in ds t o a sense of the corporate reun ion do they h ope for and con sider likely
’

i mportance of reun ion and to en gage them in system to prove sat isfac tory ? The idea of reun ion on a
ati c prayer for that obj ect M r Ambrose P hi lli ps de p urely unden om ination al basis h as been gen erally r e
Lisle ( 1 8 09 —
. .

7 7 ) was another convert from A nglican j e c te d by A n gli can reun ioni sts and right ly For if it ,
.
,

i sm and an int im ate friend of Father Ign at ius Sp en means anything i t m ust mean that t he reuni t i n g ,

cer H e took up the same crusade and formed the comm un ion s are t o coalesce int o a huge undogmati c
.

most sanguine expect ation s of a consoling result In Ch ur ch in which t he utm ost license of re li gious opin .

1 8 7 7 i n co ~
, operation with the Angl ican , Dr Freder ick ion will b e allowed as long a s it does not c laim t o be .
,

G eorge Lee he founded th e Associat ion for Promotin g m ore than Op in ion ; and in wh ich on that understan d
, ,

the Un ion of Christendom to whi ch reference has ing the sacraments wi ll be accessible to a ll who seek
, ,

already been m ade M r de Lisle failed to see the t hem Still i t i s not out of place to r eflect on th is
. . .
,

t heological i mpropriety of Catholics j oin i ng an asso system , in asm uch as it is t he sys tem wh ich , t hough
ci a t i on of th is k ind under Protestant management but
the sin cerity of h is fait h and t he single m indedness of cally prevails in the modern A ngli can Church those of
his zeal were beyond all q uestion N e wma n s a p p r e
—
not in any way sanct ioned b y it s formularies p r a ct i

i ts members who h old the most subversive doct rin es

.
’
,

,
,

ci a t i on of t h ese q ual ities in hi m caused h i m to sa

y to being n ot only allowed t o approach its sacrament s un
“
de Lisle in 1 8 5 7 : I i E ngland is converted , i t will b e checked when t hey desire t o do se but often pro ,
”
s a m uch due under G od to y ou as to any one
, ,I t moted t o it s post s of trust an d aut h ority A n i n di
. .

m i ght seem strange to count Dr Pusey among prom vi d ua li s m equally subversive h a s invaded the rank s
.

i n en t reun ionists in view of his “ E ir eni con ” , of wh ich of some of the N onconform ist bod ies Obviously thi s .
,

t he firs t part was published i n 1 864 B ut thi s book scandal w ill need to be suppressed by a drast ic d isci
.
,

as 1 ts name int imates was written to promote reun ion p li ne before t he Churches a ffected by it can be in
,

by rai sing a friendly d iscussion on certain points of a position to propose a scheme of uni ty to ot her
Catholi c practi ce w h i ch to Anglicans of the writer s Churches I t is of litt le use for a group of Churches '
.

party caused di ffi culty Inadverten tly he used lan

. to pledge themselves to d e fini te doct r i nes as long as

their individual members are free to hold or rej ect
t hese doctrines or even condemn them without for
, ,
feiting t h e i r right t o it s membership
Comprehension not comprom ise is a phrase often
employed to express what is considered fit t i n g and
possible The reun iting Churches are not to be asked
. ing authorit ies of the reunit in g Churches to be sub
to renoun ce any of the be li efs and pract ices to wh ich
from long usage they have become attached They
are to come in j ust as they a re a ll that is who are
agreed as t o a substratum of f un d a me n t a l d octr i n es
and instit utions—and on this basis they are to be in
recogn i z ed sacrament al commun ion wit h one another
everywhere This system seems t o its advocates not
. treated as imposed under pain of si n by some Divine
only to rem ove t he chi ef d i fficu lt i es in the way of
reuni on b ut to have p osit ive advantages Instead of
,
a d ull and deadening un iformi ty e x tendin g t h rough
out it will give un ity in var iety a “ syn thesi s of dis
, ,
”
t i n c t i o ns , in whi ch each re uni t in g Chur ch will con
tribute t o the general h a r rr ony some spec ial gift
wh ich under t he Providence of God it h as cult ivated
, ,
wit h pecu li ar care and success Under a sli ghtl y
chan ged form we have here t he self same scheme
b ased on the d ist in ction between essenti als and non
essentials wh ic h in the p ast h a s been put forward so
,
often and always so un successfully Is it li kely to
succeed any better n ow ? F i rst what are to be
, ,
deemed essentials ? Is th is a poin t on which agree
ment is li kel y t o b e reached ? W e have seen what
. they n ow do on the E ucharist ic Sa cr ifice and the
fo ur condit ion s th e Pa n a n gli ca n Conferences have
laid do wn as in thei r est im ation essenti al and we may
be i nc li ned t o wonder at the li beralit y of the con ces
sions in volved i n it Th is “ Quadrilateral ” had in
v iew , so i t was understood the N onconformist
Ch ur ches i n E ngland and per h aps the Presbyterian s
in Scot land and elsewhere Bu t general and i n d efi
n ite as it is i t does n ot seem to have found favour
,
w ith any of these ; i t does not go far enough for them
B ut i t will b e found t o g o much too far for the E ast
erns leaving it O pen as i t does to anyone t o believe
, ,
that the sacraments are e ffica ci ous c h annels of grace
or onl y n ude symbols of the sam e to beli eve that in
the Hol y E ucharist the B ody and B lood of Christ are
trul y presen t or really absent to believe that besides
the two sacraments e x p li cit ly included there are or are
not five others equa lly inst ituted b y Christ an d
equally partak ing of the true nature of sacramen ts to
be lieve that the h istori c ep iscopate does or does not
i nvolve the transmission of a mysti c power over the
sacraments suc h as i s won t to be call ed the grace of
Holy orders Secondly what guarantee is there t h at
.
the as sign men t of essen tials agreed to at the momen t
of un ion w ill con tinue to sat i sfy the con tractin g
parties ? W h at makes th is q uestion so pertinen t is
“ ”
that in the Quadrilate ral for instan ce the stipula
t ion is on ly that t h e reuni ting Ch urches shall in fact
be agreed on these fo ur points ; t here is no stipulation
for any formal prin ciple of uni ty I t wi ll be said
er h a p s that the fir st named cond it ion that H oly
g
, ,
cr i p t ur e is t o be accepted as cont ain ing all thin gs
necessary to salvation and hen ce is the sufficie n t rule
of fai th is t h is formal princ iple B ut does th is mean ,
, .
as it appears to mean that t he ind ividual is t o be the , such wise as to include the m any separated Ch ur ches
j udge of w h at Holy Script ur e cont ains ? If so surely
.
i t i s a bold th ing after these four cen turies of dis,
astrous e x perience t o p ut forward this rule as caleu,
lated to ensur e an all pervad in g and d urable doctrin al
-
agreemen t Or does i t mean t hat t h e govern in g a u
.
t h or i t i es of the reun i ting Ch urches are to decide what
i s contained in Script ure and are to be qua li fie d to e n
force t hei r decision s ? I f so another crop of d iffi cul
t ies springs up W h y is this furt h er cond i tion su
.
p r e me ly i mport “
an t as i t is n ot included i n t h e fir st
”
article of t he Quadril ateral ? A nd what is t o be
the nat ure of these gove rn ing authorit ies and of their
relation t o one an ot h er ? A r e t h ey to be each and all
—
autonom ous and if so what guarantee is there that
, ,
the y will a ll agre e for in stance that the E as tern s will
U NI ON 15 1 UNI ON
not insist that th e B ible shall be interpreted accord
i n g to the decrees of the seven oecumen ical counci ls ,
. and the Angli cans that at least t he decrees of th e
Seventh , which san ct ions the venerat ion of images ,
shall be deemed inadm issible ? Or are these govern
j ecte d to one supreme authori ty , and i f so what is to , ,
— , ,
. be i ts nature ( the papacy being of cour se , out of the
q uest ion ) ? Also i s the submission of the ind i vi dual
,
,
to the decisions of the heads of his own Ch urch or the
,
subm ission of the reuni t in g Churches to the supreme
authority they have recogn i z ed as over t hem to be ,
san ct ion and if so, what i s that sanction and why i s
, , ,
“ ”
. i t not e p lic itly stated in the
x Quadri lateral ?
Thirdly if we gran t the impossible , and assume that
,
the sy stem will be foun d to work on the li nes indi
ca t ed , could the result be c laimed as a becom in g
reali z at ion of Christian un ity ? A lthough the essen
t i a ls are to be fir mly fix e d and accepted by a ll eac h ,
. reun itin g Church is to be free to retain t h e further
-
, beli efs a n d methods i t has bui lt on this foun dation ;
in fact , i t i s j ust through thi s superstructure of its
own that i t is to make its own contribut ion to that
“
syn thesis of di stin ctions ” from which uni ty i n
.
variet i s e x pected t o result B ut i s i t thi s that wi ll
result y If the Ea ste r n s for in stance , are to i nsist as
.
,
.
,
necessity of conf ession on the in vocat ion of saints ,
, and veneration of their i con s ; and the A ngli cans or at ,
a ll events the N on con f or mi sts whom we m ust suppose
to have j oined in li kewise are to teach that con fession ,
—
is soul destroy ing ; the M ass and i n vocation of saints
-
,
i dolatrous ~will that be a synthesis of d ist inctions,
. and not rather a syn thesis of cont radi ct ions ? In
“
short if this system of comprehension n ot compro
,
”
. m ise were t o obtain the general acceptance desired
for i t in W hat respec t would it d ifi er from the presen t
,
, system of divisions whi ch is felt to be so scandalous ,
,
e x cept that i t would add the further element of scan
, dal that those who preached these con fli cti ng doc
trines would come up together to t h e altar rails as i f -
,
, to show what li ght value they attached to the poin ts
about whi c h they none the less con tend so stub
b or n ly ?
, E viden tly , “ comprehension not comprom ise can
n ot be a gui d in g principle for t h ose wh o wish to re
store to Christendom such un it y as o ur Lord prayed
for and the world w ill be constrained to recogn i z e as
,
, an evidence of Divine handiwork N ei ther can com .
promise help us, for truth does no t admi t of com
promise and what it is desired to restore throughou t
,
the world is uni ty in truth W hat we do require is .
, , neither compre h ension n or comprom ise but convie ,
ti on ; for un ity i n truth must mean that all whom th e
system embraces profess one and the same creed in all
.
, i ts parts that they are honestly convinced that in
,
professing i t they are ad h ering t o the sim ple truth ,
-
and that i n reali ty t hey are profess i n g on ly the truth .
H ow can a u ni ty of that kind a uni ty of convi ction ,
wh ich is also a un ity in truth be brought about i n ,
, of Christend om and their members ? That is the
problem on whi ch serious reun ion ists sh ould conce n
trate their atten tion They may begin by observin g .
that in soc ieties of a ll ki nds i n k ingdoms armies , —
trad e un ions clubs and even Churches—the prin
-
, ,
c i p le of un i ty whic h holds t h em together is the a u
t h or i t y of their ch ief rulers
,
— If they subm it t o these
b e they k ings or presidents bishops or moderators ,
.
parliaments or committ ees or conferen ces —they b e
, ,
, , , .
, come one wit h them in their action , and ( i f the rulers
have a recogn i z ed right to impose op in ions ) in thei r
, op in ions also ; and by way of conseq uence become on e
amon g themselves O n the other hand in propor
.
,
, tion as the members refuse subm ission t o th is ru lin g
, authori ty they become d isun ited and , if the i nsub

ordinat i on con tinues break u p in to p ar ties or drift
away or set up opposi t ion societies A lmost a ny
, .
Protestan t Chur ch among t he m any around us w ill
supply an i llustration of t hi s A t one t i me i ts ruli n g
authori ty i s recogni z ed by a ll t he members t o be the
authent i c i nterpreter of i ts form ularies and a ll are
prep ared to sub mi t t o i t I t i s t hen a uni ted C hurc h
in i tself Later c omes a t i me when a n umber of i ts
.
members grow d i ssa t i sfie d wi th t hese form ularies an d
refuse t o accep t t hem at t h e hands of t hei r c h urc h
authority Then disun i on sets i a ; ei ther di ssent from
. at n o di st an t date i t would have enorm ous advant ages ,
t he let ter of t he formularies i s t olerated and i ntesti ne
d ivisi ons arise or some sp li t off and set up for them
,
selves opposition Churc hes elsewhere
If t hi s is t he law of a ll hum an societ ies i s i t n ot t o
be ant i cip ated t hat t he Christi an comm un ity is also
subj ect t o that law in other words that i ts un it y i s t o,
be secured b y t he submi ssion of i ts members and
comp onent C hurches t o t he one ruling aut h ori ty
W hi ch i s d uly set over t hem a ll ? It wi ll be obj ected
that t his principle of authority i f allowed t o prevail
ma y suffi ce to secure un it y i n C h r istendom , but n ot
un ity in trut h As soon as t he t i me comes when i t i s
. whi c h that rule can prod uce i n t he comm un ion of t he
t he convi ction of i ndivi dual members or groups of
members that t heir ruli ng aut hori ty i s dep a rt ing from
t he truth t hey cannot but give t he preferen ce t o
,
truth over uni ty w h i ch i n fact i s W hat has happened
,
i n the h istory of C h r istendom , an d has caused t he
presen t disuni on The answer t o t hi s di ffi culty is th at
. n a t ed by t hose self same pri nciples of religi o us di vi
the human m ind is i ndeed bound t o t ruth and act s
irrati on ally if i t does n ot p ursue i t at a ll costs ; bu t
none t h e less i t i s rational for t he indi vi dual mind to
sub ordin ate its p erson al j ud g men ts to t hose of a m i nd
w hich can gi ve i t a securer guarantee of t rut h than i t
can derive from its own reason ings ; i t is t herefore
supremely ration al for it t o sub mi t to the m i nd of
Christ whensoever this can be securely ascert a ined
,
If Christ commun i cated H is own m ind to H is Ap ostles
as t o the doctri nes and laws H e desired H is C hurch t o
receive and obey ; it H is Apostles transm itted t hese
Divine comm un icat i ons by tradi ti on t o future gener
a ti on s ; if a li v ing auth ori ty duly set over H is people
has wat ched over t he safe transmissi on of t hi s trad i
t ion ; an d if t he H oly Sp irit was sent by H i m t o ab ide
,
i n H is C h urc h and secure t hi s l i ving aut hority i n t he
faithful discharge of i ts trust then so far as we can
see t he duty to trut h and t he duty t o un i ty are f ull y
,
harmoni z ed and a way opened for the reun ion of
,
C hristendom w ithout any outrage being done t o the
n ature of t he hum an m ind T his i t may be said i s
only an inference based on the law of human societies
and the n ature of t he hum an m ind C an i t be safe
t o take it as suffici n g t o determi ne a question of fact
such as is the question whet her our Lord really d id
m ake t h is p arti cular provi sion for the safeguardi ng of
H is revelation ? B ut if it were only that , at least i t
proves t h at t his p rinciple of a Divinely guarded ma g
-
i ster i um is not irrat ional b ut on the contrar y is so far
as we can see t he only principle cap able of h ar moni z
,
ing t he two certai n facts t hat o ur m inds are by n at ure
bound to trut h at all costs and that our Lord prayed
and t h erefore p rovided that we m ight all be one i n
faith A pr inc iple however of t his value m ust be
.
, ,
regarded as resti ng on a much fir mer basi s than mer e
inference especi ally when i t is associated wit h t he
,
—
m assive historical f act t h at t he oldest and greatest of
all the Churches whi ch i s also t he only one t hat has
out inj ur y done t o t h e i r sense of truth —h as al l along
known how t o secure unity am on g i ts c hildren W it h
been ruled b y th is very p rinciple in t he sure beli ef t hat
i t rests on t h e express words of C hr ist Should not
t hi s send us back t o a st udy of the words as they came
from C hrist s l i p s and as they were u nderstood by
’
,
H is Ap ostles t o see if t hose words d o not corresp ond
,
wit h t h i s belief of t he later Church ?
A n d here we j oi n on t o the h istorical survey w ith
wh ic h t his ar t i cle commen ced for in that survey h as
U NI ON 15 2 U N I ON
, , been ep it om i zed th e ev iden ce from the N ew Testa
m ent and t he earl y C hrist ian writ ings w hi c h shows ,
t hat if we are t o credi t these records our Lord di d
, ,
. establ ish and impose thi s very sy stem ; t hat t h e
A postles whom H e sent forth t o la y the foundati ons
,
,
of t he C hurch d id so understan d H im ; that t he
,
. C hurch of t he secon d cen tury as represented by St , .
I re nz e us likewise so understood H i m
V I I P R O S PE CTS o r R E U N I O N —
, .
,
. I f corp orate re .
uni on were a p ract ical ideal cap able of being reali z ed ,
,
,
for i t would greatly facil itate t he task of t hose who
feel t he sad ness of their present i solati on B ut t he .
,
. con d i t ions of thi s mode of reuni on being su ch as we
,
have seen i t is unf ort unately i mpossible to regard t he
,
prospect of i ts reali z at i on as ot her t han d i scoura g in g .
W h y i s i t that t hose who te ll us wit h transp aren t
s in cerity t hat t hey long for t he t ime when Christen
d om will be un ited once more so persistently resi st the
rule of tradi ti on an d submi ssion t o the H oly See ,
, , t hough as capable as our selves of appreci at i n g t he
reasoni ng of t he last secti on an d adm irin g t he resul ts
,
,
A posto li c See ? W h y is i t t hat t hey c ont inue in the ,
face of a ll t heir p ast d isappoin tments , t o stan d out for
t heir pri n cip le of comprehensi on , and t o as k for
reuni on on t he b asis of m utual con cession and con
tract ? Obvi ously i t i s because t hey are st ill d om i
-
,
si on w hi c h we disce r ned i n t he ear lier p a rt of thi s
arti cle w hen we were tracing t o the i r ul timate causes
,
t he sc h i sms that tr oubled t he fir st fo ur C hr isti an
e
centur ies W e counted five such causes : “ I cannot
.
belon g t o a Church i n whose doctrin es I hn d insoluble
” “
, , in tellectual d i ffi cult ies , or whi ch cann ot fin d a
p lace i n its system for re li gious exp erien ces I t ake t o
” “
. i
be t he d rect voi ce of G od t o m e , or whi ch claims
to p ut fetters on my mental liberty , or “ w h i ch run s
”
coun ter to my n at ional attachments and ant ip ath ies
“
or wh i ch in volves m e i n opposit i on t o my temp oral
”
r ul ers These prin cip les we said t hen , a ll or some
.
,
of them would be foun d likewise at t he root of a ll
,
subse quen t schisms and have not t he summ aries ,
above given proved t he truth of thi s ? In t he Oriental
—
schisms t hough private j ud gment on doctr in al subt le
,
, t ies had its p art t he c hi ef agencies a t w ork were
,
n ati onal antipathies and subservien ce t o tem poral
rulers I n the sixteent h cen tury revolt a ll t he h y e
.
-
i nflue n ces were fier ce ly active M any Cat h olic
doctr i nes—as for instan ce t hose of t ra nsub st a nt i a
.
.
, , , ,
.
,
—
t ion the sacramental prin ciple t he meri t of good
w orks were condem ned as off ensive t o t he private
,
, j udgment of the Reformers The doctri ne ( Lut h eran ) .
of j ust i fica t i on by fai th was an egregious e x amp le
of p utt ing absolute trust i n the assump ti ons of em o
t i on a li sm, i ndeed was the first step towards t ran s
—
ferring t he b asi s of faith from the preac hi ng of t he
, , word to t he se called testim ony of e x perien ce H ow .
repug nant t o t hese Reformers was t he idea of sub
,
m ission to any teachin g aut h ority save their own i s
evidenced by thei r denun ciations of p o p es and priests ;
how m uch they were p ossessed b y the prin ci ples of
N ati onalism and E rast ian ism is eviden ced by the
way i n whi ch they a llowed t heir rulers t o sp li t them
up i nt o n ati on al C hurches and gain thei r favour for “
t h ese b y st irrin g up their n at ional an im osit ies A t
——
.
the presen t t im e amon g the Churches of E ngl and an d
,
Ameri ca whi ch are asking for reun ion or rather,
some of whose m embers are ask ing for reuni on these
s ame sen timents still prevail wi t h some mod i fica t i o n ,
. as regards t hei r parti cul ar app li cati on Is not t his .
su ffici e n t ly attested by t he tone of the crit i cism s
w h i ch come so readily to their l ips ? “ I cannot bring
my m ind t o believe i n a Trin i ty i n Un ity i n a G od ,
m an in a sinless m an i n an atonemen t , in t r a nsub
, ,
s t a n t i a t i on i n original sin i n the power of a li ttle
, ,
,
water to w a sh away sin in a power of absolut ion ,
 UN I ON S 154 U NI TA RI AN S

K NO X , Jo rm ; A N G L I CAN I S M ; P RE SB YTE R I A N I SM ; N O N to the Catholi c Faith founded at Sain t Sulp ice Pari s, -

L Y O NS C OUN CI L S o s ; F L O R EN C E ,
, ,

C O N F O R M I STS ;
Coun ci l of Flor en c e, and the b ib li o g rap hies attached
,
—
by Brief of Leo X I I I “ Comp er tum est ” (22 Aug ,
Jean Jac ques Oli er had always been z ealous
- .

Pa p a l e tte rs — L
P w s I X I n s up r eme ( J a n A r ca n a . , for the conversion of E ngland ; an d the mi ni str y of hi s
D i vi n e P r ovi d en ti tz a n d J a m 11 0 3 omn es n ovi sti s ( Se p t
L E O X I I I . Or 1 en ta l1 u m di g n i ta s E cclesi a r u m ( N o v
' '
.

congregation was favourable to the sp readi ng of t hi s

P r e cla r a gr a tula ti on i s (Jun e . A ma n tzss i ma volun t a ti s
'
-

conf raterni ty The Brief e x horts the f ait hf ul eve r y

.

( A p ri l , Sa m s cog n i tum ( Jun e , PI U S X E : quo n on o

' '

, where t o j oin t hi s conf raterni ty an d authori zes its ,

( D ec di recto rs to u n i te wi th all ot her si mi l a r conf raterni ties
FRA N ZE LI N D e tr a d i ti on e ( R ome D e ecc l es i a Ch ri sti ,
.

B A TI FF O L , P r i mi ti ve Ca th oli ci sm r ( on d o n ,
,

. . L an d comm uni cate to them i ts i n dulgen ces The

P E SC H , P r rzzleccti on es d og ma ti cae I ( F re i b urg B O TA L LA “
Statutes ” were p ub lished 30 Aug by Decree
.

L , .

Th e S u p r eme A uth or i ty of th e P op e ( o n d on , R I V I N G TO N ,
, .

Th e P r i m1 t1 ve C h ur ch a n d th e S ec of P eter ( on d on ,
'
' '

L of t he Congregation of Bishops and Regulars The

H E R G E N RBTH E R H a -n d b uch d er a llg emei n en K i r ch en g es ch zch te solemn in auguration took place , 1 7 Oct , 1 89 7 by
'

—
,
.
,

( 3 vo l s Ra ti s b on , 1 8 7 6
.
, M ORERE , H i stoi r e et fi li a ti on the Cardi n al A rchb ishop of P aris i n t he presence of
d es h ér é s i es ( P a ri s , P h oti i Op er a i n P G C I I I I ; W 1 L L
,

A cta et S cr i p ta qu a: d e con tr over s i i s E ccles i tz Gr eece: et a ti n a: L ,

the Cardi nal Ar chbi shop of W est mi nster About .

s wou lo X I comp osi te ex ta n t ( e i p z i g H E R GE N RE STH E R . L , 1 000 conf raterni ties , in France E ngland , I taly , ,
P h oti us ( 3 L e schi sme ori enta l d u ,
Belgium Australi a an d elsewhere have become
X 1 7 “ si écle ( P a ri s , D U CH E SN E E g li s es sé p a r é es ( P a ri s , , ,

L u ni ted wi th the archco nfraterni ty By Apostoli c Let

, ,

Fo nr s sco s , Th e Or th odox E a ster n Ch u r ch ( on d on

f .

D E M Em A x op o u nos , I a~
,

r op i a 1 0 17 o x i o na r og Ti) ; Aa f w un i g e x x Anm a g
'
‘
' '

ter of 2 Feb 1 9 1 1 Pi us K e x t ended the scop e of t he

L
.
, ,
d n b 1 139 6p 00 86§ ofi1 éAAnuucfis ( ei p z i g K r mA x o s , Geschi ch te prayers of the archconf raterni ty fro m Great Bri tai n
to the whole of the E ngli sh—
,

d er or i en ta l i sch en K i r ch en ( G erma n t r f ro m t h e G re ek , B erl i n .

S L speaki ng worl d (3)
.

F F OU L K E , Ch r i s ten d om’ s D i vi si on s ( 2 vols on d on , .

.
.

1 867 B O R E E i g h teen Cen tu r i es of th e Or th od ox E a ster n Ch u r ch Pious Uni on of Prayer to O ur Lady of Comp assion for
L
( on d o n , M O U R A V I E F ( tr
.

LA C K M O R ) , H i story of th e B E the Conversion of Hereti cs founded at Rome 7 N ov

L
.

Ch ur ch of Russi a ( on d on
, ,
SI LB E R N A G L Verf a s su n g 11 n d
1 89 6 in St M arcellus S i mi lar u n i ons may be
, , ,

g eg en wd r ti g er B es ta n d sa mtli cher K i r ch en d es Or i en ts ( 2 n d c d
.
,

R a ti sb on D 6 LL I N G E R D i e R ef or ma ti on i n sei n e E n tw i ch formed i n any ch ur c h where t here is an altar and a

,

e lu n g un d W i r lm n g en ( 3 vo l s , R a ti sb o n , 1 8 4 3 ) J AN S N , Gesch i ch te
—
,

E statue of O ur Lady of Comp assion The di rector

—
.

d es d eu tsch en Vol kes I I V ( Fr e i b urg 1 882 P A STOR

.

Ges chi ch te d er P d p ste, I I I V ( 1 889 C R E I G H TO N , H i story

. , ,
general i s t he Father General of the Servi tes who -
,

0 / th e P a p a cy d ur i n g th e R ef or m ti on ( 5 vo l s on d o n 1 8 8 2 L n ames a general secret ary from h is order (4 ) Ar ch

E
.
,

H R N G , H i stor y of th e E fl or ts a t R econ ci li a ti on ma d e si n ce th e
I co nf raterni ty of Prayers an d Good W orks for the
L L
-

R ef or ma ti on ( e i p z i g , G A I R DN E R H i stor y of olla r dy a n d
th e Ref or ma ti on ( 3 vol s o n d on I N GA R D H i stor y of L ,

L Reuni on of the E astern Sc hi smat i cs wi th the Chur ch

L . . ,

E n g la n d V V I ( o n d on D O N , H i stor y of th e Ch u r ch of IX under the p atron age of O ur Lady of t he Assump tion ,

E n g la n d (4 vol s
,

on d o n 1 8 7 8
,

L .

.
founded at t he Ch urc h of t he An astasi s at Constant i
TH E I N E B Veter a mon u me n ta P olon i az et l /i tua n i aa h i stor i a m ’
n Op le Organi z ed by E m manuel d A lz on the foun der of
,

i llustr a n ti a ( 2 vo l s , R ome 1 861 e o ws m Un i on 2 1 B r est,

‘

. , ,
.
,

G erma n t r fro m t h e P ol i sh b y J E D Z I N K ( F‘re i b urg

.
, t he Assump tioni sts i t was developed under hi s succes sor ,
L s sccs n n La p er s é cuti on d e I E g li se en
‘

, 1 8 63 1 8 7 2 , .
Fran coi s Pi card to such a degree that even some
F re n ch t r from t’ h e P o li sh ( P a ri s , M I C H E L , L ’ Or zen t et
'

E astern schi smati cs were in duced to pray for t he same

.

Rome , E tu d e sur l un i on ( P a ri s P A LM I E R I , Chi esa R usso

L
,

Cum div i ni
,

( Fl ore n ce , W I LB O I B , d e l E g li s e r u sse ( P a ri s , i nten tions Leo X I I I i n the Brief

’ ’
a veni r
R C
.

F A N O D zf esa d i Cr i sti a n eszmo p er l’ un i on e d ell e chi ese

' '

H
C A P M AN Th e F i r st E i g h t Gen er a l Cou n ci ls
Pastoris ” (25 M ay 1 89 8 ) m ade i t an a r ch conf r a ter
( Ro me ,
,

L UR n i ty p ri ma p r i ma ma It is establi shed at the chu nch

’
.

( on d on BA N D e 1 1 s qu az th eol og i Ca th ol i ci p r azsta r e
'
-
.
, ,

p ossi n t et d ebea n t er g a E cclesi a m r us si ca m or a t1 o h a bi ta i n Con of the Assump tio n ists under the ti tle of An astas is of
'

RP R
.
,
ven tu Veleh r a d en si ( P ra gu e H A E , Pea ce th r oug h th e
M AN N I N G E n gla nd a n d Ch r i s
,
Constantinop le A ffili a te d conf raterni ties m ay be .

ten d a m ( o n d on L N E W MA N , etter of M a r ch 3 1 8 66 to L .

formed wherever t here i s an Assump tioni st church

A mbr ose P hi lli p s d e L i s l e i n W A R D ,
,

if e of N ewma n , I I ( Lon L . .

and house wi th the same privi leges as t he a r ch conf r a

d on 1 1 5 ; P A LM E , N otes of a Vi s i t to th e R us si a n Ch ur ch R t er ni ty
,

The S tatu tes were approved 24 M ay

.

w i th P r ef a ce b y E W M AN ( on d on , N
B K B E C K , Rus si a L IR .

1 89 8 by Decree of the Con g regation of B ishops an d

,

a n d E n g la n d du r i n g th e las t fif ty y ea r s . a co rr e sp on d e nce b etw e e n

—
—
,

( See also A P OSI L E SB I P O F P R AYE R ; P A R I S

M r W i ll i a m P a l mer a n d M K h omi a ko fi , i n t h e y e a rs 1 8 44 5 4 Regulars
—
’ ‘

L S IE
. . .
,
( on d o n ' O LO V V , L a Ru ssi a et l E gli se u n i ver selle ( P a ri s , Fa mous P i lgri ma ges
’
.

D H E R B I GN Y . W la di mi r Solomlev, 1 m Newma n Ru sse ( P a r i s , (2) N otr e Dame des V icto i res ) -

.

L L B E R I N G E R D i e A blas se ( 1 3 th cd P a d e r b or n Fr t r
P U S E Y , E i r en i con ; etter to D r N ewma n ; Secon d
. . , , . .

etter
L ( P a ris
.

to D r N ewma n : I s H ea lth f ul R eun i on I mp ossi bl e? ( on d on , 1 8 65 ,

1 867 W A R D L 1 f e of Ca r di na l N ewma n ( on d on . ,
'

L C F W s mr ss B RO W N . . .

D 6 L LI N GE R Reun i on of th e Ch ur ch es
L U n i t ar i a ns , a Liberal Protestant sect whi ch holds
.

CA N Bi s H O P s , a mbeth E n cy cli ca l s wi th th e R esol u ti on s a n d

L
Re p or ts ( on d on 1 888 1 89 7 Th e A n g li ca n Commu n i on i n
,

as i ts di stin ct ive tenet t he beli ef in a un i personal

L
-
. , .

r e la ti on to oth er Ch r i sti a n B od i es i n P a na n g li ca n P a p er s ( o n d o n
G O R E Or d er s a n d Un i ty ( on d on PE NCE J O NE L S R S .

I N A M E AN D D O CTR I N E —
instead of a tri p erson al G od -
.

L
-

I n its general sense th e

, . ,

E n g la n d a nd th e H oly S ee wi th I n tr odu cti on b y H A L F A X ( on d on , I

L BEE
. .

—
,

Rome a nd Reu n i on ( on d o n , MC E i r em c n ame designates a ll disbeli evers 1 n the Trin ity whether
'

. A n

L
I t1 n er a r y ( on d on , HA L FA L eo X I I I a n d A n g l i ca n I X Chr istian or non Christ ian ; in its p resen t sp ecifi c use it
,

L
Or d er s ( on d o n 1 9 1 2) M A TU R I N Th e P r i ce of Un i ty ( o n d on ,
,

L
B E L is app li ed to t hat organ i zed for m of Christiani ty whi ch
, .

M C E , A n E 1 r e n i c I ti n er a r y ( on d on a n d N ew Y ork .
L AN G . Re un i on in Th e Ta bl et ( o n d on , M a y , 7 63 64 L — . lays emp hasis on the uni ty of persona li ty in G od The .

R e vi ew s d evote d t o w o r k f or R e u n 1 o n B essa r 1 on e ( Ro me
‘

Revu e d e l Or i en t Ch r é ti en ( P a ri s
'
E ch os d On en t
.

'
.
term seems t o h ave originated about 1 5 7 0 was used in ,

( P a ri s 1 89 7 Sla vor u m L 1 tter az th eolog i cw ( Pra g ue 1 9 05

.
a decree of t he D iet held i n 1 600 at Lecsf a lva in Tran
E x m\ ~
, ,

qm a orn x n A Arj Oe t a t h e org a n of t h e P h a n a r ( C o n st a n t 1 sylvani a and received offi ci a l ecclesiasti cal san ction in
’

n op le , 1 88 0 E 1 r en e t h e or g a n o f t h e E O C U ( o n d on ,
,

A . . . L ,
1 638
,

It supp lanted t he vari ous designat ions of

Reun i on Al a g a z i n e ( L ond on O c t 1 9 09 M a r c h ,
.

1 9 08 -

S D F S M I TH
,

Y NEY an ti Trin itarians Ar i ans Racovians a n d Soci ni an s

-
, , , .

Uni o n s o f P r a y e r —A tendency to form un ions

I n E n gland the name fir st appear s in 1 682 It bec a me
.

. freq uent in t he Uni ted States from 1 8 1 5 al though ,

of prayer among the fai thful h as recen tl y mani fested orig inall y i t was received u nf avour ably by some a n t i
i tself 1 n the establishm ent of organ i zat i ons li ke the Trin i tarians an d omitted in the i r offi ci a l t it les by
, y
follo wing : some con g regat ions whose reli gious p osition it d e fin e d
( 1 ) The Assoc iation of Pray er an d Penitence in The ex p la n a ti on of this o pposi t ion i s to be found in
honour of the Hear t of Jesus fo un ded at Dij on , t he reluctan ce of the part i es concerned t o lay stress
in 1 87 9 transferred to M on tmartre , and mad e
, on any doctrinal a ffir ma ti on H istorical associations
an archconfratern ity by Leo XI I I 1 0 April 1 89 4 , ,
. account for the n ame Presbyteri a ns freq uent ly y ,

I ts p urp oses are : t o ofler rep arat ion by prayer , applied to Un itar ians in the British Isles and U n i ,

and pen itence for sin and for outrages against , tarian Con gregat ionali sts used i n t he Un ited Stat es
the Church ari d t he p op e ; to obtai n the welfare
, , .

N o d e fini t e standard of beli ef is recogni zed i n the

of the Church t he freedom of the p ope and t he
salvation of the world (2 ) The Ar chconf raterni ty
,

.
, den om inat ion and n o doctrin al tests ar e laid down as
a cond ition of fellowsh ip The co operation of a ll .
—
of Our Lady of Compas sion for the Return of E ngland perso ns desi rous of advan cing the in terests of “ p ur e
 UN I TA RIANS 155 U NI TAR I ANS

(i . eundogmati c practical ) Christi ani ty is welcomed

.

i n the Un itar ian b ody .

later he em igrated to America O thers , among
them Thomas Be lsh a m ( 1 7 5 0 1 829 ) and Lan t Car — .

In gran t in g this co operat ion each member en j oys -

p en ter ( 1 7 8 0 continued to propagate Uni tar i
complete freedom in his individual re ligious op ini ons a n i sm i n E ngland Legal restrictions were sti ll i n
.

and n o set of d octrin al propositions coul d be frame vigour , h owever again st persons deny ing the doctrine
,

on whi ch a ll Uni tar i ans would agree The bond of . of t he Trin ity and hampered the i r work B ut i n .

uni on between them consists more i n t h e ir an ti 1 8 1 3 most of these d isabili ties were removed and in ,

dogmatic tenden c y than in uni form ity of beli ef The . 1 84 4 complete li berty was obta i ned , despite opposi
’
authori ty of the B ible is in some degree retained ; but t ion by the Dissenters Chapels Act sometimes
, ,

i ts contents are ei ther ad mitted or repudiated accord called the Uni tarian Charter As early as 1 825 .

ing as they fin d favo ur befor e the supreme and in this , E ngli sh Un i tarians had concluded a uni on with their
c a se e x acting tribunal of ind i vi dual reason Jesus e o religion ists abroad under the name of British and
-

Christ is considered subordinate to the F ather and For ei gn Un it ar ian Associ ation T h is society dis
.
,

, .

although the epith et Divine is in a loose sense n ot sem inated religious literat ure and prom oted the
infrequently ap p lied to H im H e i s i n the estimat ion of , interests of the sect The prospects of this activi ty
.

many an e x traordinari ly endowed and powerful but were brightened by the appearan ce of a capable e x po
still a h uman reli gious leader H e i s a teacher to be . nen t of Un i tari an v iews Dr James M artineau ( 1 805 , .

followed not a G od to be worshipped H is Passion

,
. Af ter a successful resistance to earl y opposi
and Death are an insp i ration and an e x am p le to H is t ion , his persona li ty dom inated E nglish Un i tarian ism
disciples n ot an e flecti ve and v icarious atonement for an e x tended period H is wr itings e x ercised a
'

.
,

for the sin s of men H e is the great e x empl ar wh i ch . poten t i n flue n ce far beyond E ngland and still con ti n ue ,

we ough t t o cop y i n order to perfect our uni on wit h

. to advance the cause of Liberal Chr istiani ty H is .

G od grad ually This teachin g concern ing the m ission

. d isciples have taken up his work and outstripped
of Jesus C h rist is b ut the logical complemen t of the t heir master in his rad ical views .

Uni tarian deni al of t h e F a ll of M an and w i th si mi lar Scotland never proved a fruitful soil for Uni t arian
consis tency leads t o th e suppression of th e sacraments . propaganda A con gregation was organi z ed in 1 7 7 6
.

Two of t h ese ( bapt ism and E uc h ar ist ) are indeed at E dinburgh and the Scottish Un itari an A ssociation
retain ed but their gr a ca con f e r r i ng power is den ied
,
was formed i n 1 8 1 3 ; but progress in that country h as
and their reception declared unnecessar y B apt ism . been i n si g n ifica n t and there are very few congregations
is admin istered to c h il dren ( rarely to adults ) more for there In Ireland Un itariani sm is held ch i cfly i n th e
.

sentimental reasons and p ur poses of ed ifica ti on than N orth where it has found adherents among the Pres
from persuasion of the sp ir itual result s prod uced in by t e r i a n s I t may not inappropriatel y be considered
.

the soul of the recip ien t The E ucharist far from .

, a se lf govern in g branch of the Presbyterian body
-
.

being considered as sa cr ifici a l i s looked upon as a , Some Un itari an congregations are to be found also in
merely memorial servi ce T he fond hope of uni versal . the Bri tish colon ies notably in Australi a and Can ada
, ,

salvati on is entertained by the maj ority of the denom

i na ti o n I n short present d a y Un i tariani sm is hardly
.
,
— and among t he Fren ch Protestants a comparatively
large n umber are Un itari an in view though not in ,

more than n at ural re ligion and exhi bits i n some of i ts name

B A mer i ca —
, .

members a pronoun ced tenden cy towards Pan theisti c . About the m iddle of the eighteenth
.

speculat ion The Ch ur ch poli ty in E ngland and

. century Un itari an op in ions gained favour among N e w
Ameri ca is stri ctly con gregational ; each individual E n gland Con gregat ionalists They were propagated .

con gregat ion manages w ithout superior control a ll , , by Jonathan M ayhew ( 1 7 20 for nineteen years
its aff airs , call s and discharges its mi nister and is the , p astor of the W est C hurch at B oston , and Charles
fi na l j udge of the religious views e x p ressed i n its p ul Chaun cey ( 1 7 05 in the same c ity The fir st .

’
p i t In Transy lvani a the C h urc h governmen t i s
. organ iz ed church was K in g s C h apel Boston when , ,

exerc is ed by a bis h op who resides at Kolo z sv ar ( Klau the con gregat ion , unt i l then E piscopal removed in ,

se nb ur g ) and i s assisted b y a consistory The e p i s co . 1 7 85 all references to the Trin it y from the B ook of
pal ti tle w h i ch h e bears does not i m ply special con Common Prayer an d in 1 7 8 7 assumed an in dependen t
secration but merely design ates the offi ce of an e x isten ce Con gregations were also organ i z ed at Por t
.

land and Saco ( M aine ) in 1 7 9 2 an d in 1 7 9 4 Josep h

I I H I STOR Y A I n E u ro p e —The fir st Chur ch
ecclesiasti cal supervisor .
,

. . . . Priestley began his propaganda in Pennsy lvan ia .

holding Un i tarian tenets was founded in Poland d ur I t was particularly in N e w E ngland however t h at , ,

in g the rei g n of Si gism und I I ( 1 5 48 The year the movemen t gained g round The appo intment in .

1 5 68 saw t h e establishm en t and ofii ci a l reco gn i ti on of 1 805 of the Rev Henr y W are to th e Hollis chair of
.

such con g regat ions i n Transy lvania W h ile in the . div in ity at Harvard College and the nom i nation
former count ry Un itarianism w as com pletely sup w ith in t he ne x t two y ears of four o ther Liberal candi
pressed in 1 660 in the latter i t has desp ite tempora ry
, , dates t o importan t professorsh ips in the same i n st i tu
persecution m ain tained i tself The Transylvan ian
,
. t ion broug h t t hat seat of learn in g under considerable
,

C hur ch is of Socin ian origin b ut has suppressed the Un itarian i n flue n ce Its school of d ivinity was
.

worshi p of Jesus Christ t h us casting off w h at ch i c fly , endowed and organ i z ed b y the denom inat ion abou t
d i ff erentiated it from strict Un itarian ism Its presen t . 1 8 1 7 and r emained under its con trol un t il 1 87 8 when ,

offi ci a l n ame is th e H un garian Uni tarian Church , it became undenom in at ional W hile t h e d i ffusion of .

although comparati vely few of its members reside in Un itarian ideas was comparat ivel y rapid the organ iza
Hungary proper In E n gland the organi z ation of
. t ion of churches was retarded by the reluctance of
Un itariani sm was e fi e cted at a m uch later date The
'

. many to separate from t h e Con gregation alist com

fir st attempt a t est ab lish i n g a con gregation was mad e mun i t i e s of which t h e y were members Before the .

by John B iddle ( 1 6 1 5 but t h e organ i z ation d id separat ion was e ffected a h eated con troversy was
n ot outlast i ts author M ore permanen cy attended . waged between the l iberal and the conservat ive win g
the c h ort e of Theop h ilus Lindsey ( 1 7 23 In
’

of Con gregationalism M atters came to a head i n

.

1 7 7 3 he seceded from the A ngli can Com mun ion , 1 8 1 9 when the Rev W illiam E llery Char ming i n a
.
,

organ i z ed the following y ear a Un it arian con grega sermon preac h ed a t Baltimore at the ins t allat ion of
t ion in London and i n 1 7 7 8 built the E sse x Street
, the Rev Jared Sparks advocated the public a ck now l
.
,

chapel About t he same t ime ant i Trin itarian v iews

.
-
edgemont by the liberal members and congregations

of a con gregation a t Leeds ( 1 7 68—

were spread by the sci entist Joseph Priestley pastor of t h eir Un itarian bel iefs T h is d iscourse proved .

80) and later at decisive and the parties concerned immed iately pro
,

B irmi n gham H is work in the latter place was cut

. ce e d e d to organi z e themselves independently From .

short by a pop ula r uprising in 1 7 9 1 , and t h ree years this date un til his death in 1 8 42, Chann in g was the
 U N ITA S 15 6 U NI TED

acknowledged leader of the denom inat ion Under . t he Uni tar i an C ol lege at Kolo z sv ar ; i n E ngl and an d
his ausp i ces t he American Uni tari an Associ at ion was W ales t he Un itar ian Home M issi onary C olle ge at
,

founded at B oston in 1 825 for t he promot ion of Un i M an chester ; t he M anchester Coll e ge at Ox f or d ; t he

tarian interests . Presb yteri an Coll ege at C arm ar t hen ; in Am eri ca t he ,

After h is deat h the radi cal elemen t became predom H arvar d D ivi n i ty S chool at Cambridge M as sa ch u ,

i na nt under t he d irection of Theodore Parker ( 1 8 1 0 setts ; t he M eadvi lle T heologi cal School at M eadville ,

who succeeded hi m i n i nflue n ce T he aut hority . Pennsylvan i a ; and t he recent ly y establi shed Pacifi c
of t he B ible ac kn owledged by t he o ld school was , U ni t ar i an Sc hool at Be r keley , Cali forni a In the .

un der P arker , largely sa cr ifice d t o t he prin cip les of a Un ited States t he den om i nat ion m ain t ai ns beside ,
destructive crit i cism a n d Uni t ari anism drifted rap i dly
, these t rai ning schools for t he m in istry seven a ca d e -
,

into Rationali sti c speculat ion T he activity of C h an . m ies situated wit h bu t on e e x cep ti on i n the N e w , ,

ni ng and Parker was supplemented by the more E ngland States The n umber of p erson s holdi n g
general an d far reachi ng i nfl uen ce of t he Un i tari an
-
Un itarian views cann ot be determ i ned even a pp rox i ,

p oet ph ilosopher Ralp h W aldo E merson ( 1 803

-
, m atel y ; for m any undou b t ed ly rej ect t he doctrine o f
A lthough he resi gned hi s charge of t he Second Con t he Three D ivi ne Persons and ret ai n the belief i n a
g r e g a ti on a l C hurch at B oston after a short period uni person al G odhead w ithout ever a ffili a t in g wit h
-

( 1 829 he cont inued to preach for m any years and the Chur ch Am on g t hese must be reck oned not on ly
.

hi s populari ty as a writer and lecturer cou ld b ut lend a large n umber of L iberal t heologi ans an d advan ced
addit ional p resti ge t o t he advanced reli gi ous views crit ics b ut also som e reli gious denom inat ion s whi ch
either i n t heir ent i rety as t he H i cksite F ri e n d s or at
, ,
whi ch he defended The i n terests of t he Uni tari an
.
,

propaganda were also served by t h e foundati on of t he least i n m any of t heir members as t h e Uni versalists , ,

W estern Conferen ce of Uni tari ans i n 1 8 5 2 and that of are d isti nctl y ant i Tr i mta r i an Ac cordin g t o t he -
.

“
t he N ati onal Uni t arian Conf erence i n 1 865 Oi a . Un itar ian Y ear Book ” ( B oston 1 9 1 1 ) there are -
,

more uni versal character was t he Intern at i onal n early Un i tarians i n Hun gar y Great B ritain .

Counci l of Uni tari a n s an d other Liberal Reli gious h a s 37 4 p laces of worsh ip 29 5 if whi ch are i n E ngland , ,

Thi nkers and W orkers , w hi ch was organi zed at B os 38 i n Ireland 34 in W ales and 7 in Scotl and , I n the , .

ton in 1 9 00 I t h as held sessi on s i n Lo ndon

. Uni ted States t he Uni tari an b ody n umbers acc ord ,

Amsterdam Geneva Boston ing t o Dr H K Carrol l . C hrist ian Advocat e ”

. .
,

and Berli n A t t he l ast ment ioned conventi on -

N e w Y ork 2 5 Jan , 5 33 m i ni sters 49 2 .
, ,

I —
t he offici a l t it le was changed t o I nternational Congress churches and , commu ni cant s .

of Free Christ i ans and O ther Religious Liberals The 0 n d oc tri n e co n sul t M A RTI N E A U C HA NN I N G a nd oth e r ’

. . ,

U n i t a ri a n w r i te rs me n ti o ne d a b ove ; H E D G E Rea son i n Re l i g i on

.

p urpose rem ain s t he same n amely : “

t o open com ,
( B osto n C LA R K E E ssen ti a l s a n d N on E s sen ti a ls i n R el i g
,

muni ca ti on W i th t hose i n a ll lan ds who ar e striv ing t o

, .

i o n ( B os to n I DE M Ma n ua l of Un i ta r i a n B el i ef ( B osto n
A LLE N Ou r L i b er a l M ovemen t i n Th eo l g y ( B oston
II A —
, , .

uni te p ure religion and perfect li berty and t o i ncrease ,

o .

” E M E RTO N Un i ta r i a n Th oug h t ( N e w Y ork BO N E r '

—
fe llowshi p and co operation amon g them-
.
,

M A U R Y t r H A LL E a r ly Sou r ces of E ng l i sh Un i ta r i a n Ch ri s
. .

1 1 1 P RO P A G A N D A ; E DU C A TI O N A L I N STI TU TI O N S ; t i a n i ty ( L o n d o n
Un i ted Sta tes i n A m Ch ur ch H i st S er i es X 1 —
. . .

S TA TI STI CS —The Un itari an b ody sent a m ission ary

. B A LL E N H i st of th e Un i ta ri a n s i n th e
, .
, .

24 9 ; C O O K E
. .
, , ,

Un i ta ri a n i sm i n A mer i ca ; H i st of i ts Or i g i n a n d D ezi d op me n t
.

to India i n 1 85 5 and since 1 887 has carr ied on an

,
( B osto n For a C a th o l i c p oi n t o f vie w se e K O H LMA NN Un i
.
.

, ,

active prop aganda i n Jap an ; however , its m issi onary ta r i a n i sm th eolog i ca ll y a n d p h i l osop h i ca lly con si d er ed ( W a sh i n g
,

e ff orts in forei gn lands , v iewed in the aggregate h ave to n H rr c a coc x R e li g i on of Un i ta r i a n i sm i n M A R TI N D A LE

H i st of R eli g i on s I V ( St L oui s
1 5 8—
. , ,

n ot been con si derable In accordan ce wit h i ts general

,
. I D E M P r esen t S ta te of Un i
, . , ,

ta r i a n i sm i n I r i sh Th eo l Q ua r t I V ( D ubl i n 80
.
. . , .

i ndi ff eren t atti tude t owards dogm a i t ende avours to , N A W E BE R

advan ce t he cause of Chr i sti ani ty wit hout emp h asi z
. .

Un i ta s Fr at r um See B OH E M I A N B R E TH R E N
ing its own sp eci fic tenets and its members have in the
—B
. .

p ast l iberall y contrib uted t o the m issionary funds of U n i t e d St a t e s N DA R IE S of Am er i ca , TH E OU

—0 n t he east t he bound ary i s formed by
.

other denomin ations Their e fforts moreover are .

, , A N D A RE A .

more concerned wi th the dissem i n ation of li terature the St Croi x Ri ver and an arb i trary line t o the St
. .

amon g civili zed n ation s t han wi t h the sending of John and on t he n ort h by the A roostook H igh
,

m issionar ies t o non C hrist ian lands T hi s method of

-
. lands the 4 5 t h parallel of N lat t he St Lawren ce ,
, . .
, .

gaining adherents h as p roved su ccessful p artl y owin g , an d the Great Lakes W est of Lake Supcri e r t he ,

to t he Liberal Rati onali st i c and excessively i ndi vi d

, , Rainy R iver , Rai ny Lake and t he Lake of t he W oods ,

ua li st i c t en dency of t he present age but la rgely also , form the b oundary ; t hen ce t o Puget Soun d t he
to t he n umber of em inen t men and capab le wr iters 4 9 t h p arallel Thereafter i t drops d own to t he Strai t
.

who have adhered to or defen ded Uni tari an doctri nes . of Juan de Fuca leav ing V an couver Island t o t he ,

Fi nancial resources for prop agan d ist p urp oses were Dom ini on of Canada T he At lan ti c Ocean w as hes .

—
provided for by t he r ich Jam aic a p lanter Robert
H ibbert ( 1 7 7 0 1 84 9 ) t hrough t he creation of t he fun d
, t he entire e astern shore On t he sout h the G u lf of
M exico serves as th e boundar y t o t he m out h of t he
.

whi ch bears hi s n ame Ou t of i t grew t he well known .

-
Ri o G rande del N orte T h at river separates the .

H ibber t Lec tures an d t he m ore recent “ H i bbert

, Un ited State s from the Rep ubli c of M e x i co un ti l at
”
Journal . A n organi zation u ni que i n it s character the c ity of El P as o i t t urns nort hward ; from that
i s the Post Office M issi on whi ch by means of corre ,
p oin t t o t he Colorad o R iver an arb itrary line mark s
sp on d e n ce an d the d istrib ut ion of books and p eriodi the boundary of t he t wo rep ubli cs T he Pacifi c
c als seeks to bri ng courage t o t he despondent and
, Ocean forms t he western boundary The t otal area .

j oy to the su fferin g . is sq m i les The Un ited States i s div ided .

T he C hurc h has m ade n o determ ined e ffor t t o i nto two une qua l p arts by t he M is sissipp i R iver ,

organ i z e benevolen t insti tut ions of i ts own A p ro i . whi ch fl ows almost dir ectly sout h from i ts source i n a
ect 1 8 on foot to erec t at W ashingt on in c on ne x ion , lake below t he 4 9 th parall el T he p orti on e ast of .

w i th t he con temp lated n at i onal church of th e Un i that great ri ver is subdivided i n t o two parts by the
t arian bod y t h e E dward E verett H ale p arish house
,
-
. O hio and the Potomac Rivers The sec tion west of .

This establ ishmen t n amed after the late Un it arian

, the M ississipp i is d ivided i n to two very une qual p arts
c haplain of the Un ited States Sen ate , i s t o be the by the M issouri R iver .

headquarters of t h e ph il ant hrop i c work of the I n a physi ograph i c view however t he area of the , ,

denom ination A cons ui er a ble n umber of th e Un i

. Un ited States m ay b e d iv ided i nt o t he Appalach ian
tari an m in istry ( to wh i ch women are adm itted ) belt t he Cord i lleras and t h e central plains Th e
, ,
.

receive t h eir train ing i n t he educ ational insti tut ions of first of t hese d i vi si c ms i n cludes the m iddle App a
’

ot h er sects Th e Church however m aint ains t h e

.
, ,
la chi a n region or t hat bet ween t h e H udson an d t h e ,
.

following speci al schools for t h is purpose : in H un gary , James R ivers ; t he north eastern A ppalachian reg ion , -
 U NI TED 15 8 U NI TED

and i n January 1 608 , was again at James Fort as, , warl ike armamen t in to Delaware B ay Af ter th e .

t he settlemen t was then called Fever hunger and .

, , fai lures of R i b a ut and L a ud on n i ér e t he Fren ch m ade
no attemp t to settle t he sout h Atlanti c coast
‘

I ndian arrows had swep t ofi more than ha lf of those That .

he had fir st brought over among them some members n at ion , however , d id no t abandon A m eri can coloni z a
t ion F mm the found in g of Quebec in 1 608 great
,

of the co un ci l W i n gfi e ld , t he fir st presiden t , was

. .
, ,

under arrest and Jo h n Sm it h an infl ue n ti a l man

, ,
activi ty was m an ifested in Can ada and later in Lou isi
in t he co lony was awai tin g e x ecut ion
,
. an a O n the A tlant i c coast , t herefore , Sp ain and
.

A t th e end of t hr ee months when N ewp ort again , E ngland were t he chi ef rivals The former mani fested .

sailed for E ngland one h alf of t hose W h o were ali ve ,

-
li ttle int erest to the nort hw a rd of the M e x i can G u lf ,

in J an uary had di ed E dw ard M aria W i ngfie ld the .

, and after 1 664 E ngland w as free t o dev elop her m ari
fir st president of t he local counci l was the on ly person ,
t im e colon ies in her own way I n the meanti me .

among t he p atentees who came wit h the colon ists . Fran ce was e x p lorin g t he i n terior estab li sh i n g g arri ,

W it h suf fering came di ssension Ra tch ff e , M artin , . sons and in ot her ways strengthe n i ng her hold on the
,

and Smi th removed W in gfie ld not on ly from t he presi most desirable p art of t he cont i nent B etween t h e .

outposts of the two n at ions co lli sion s were in evitable

I N TE R CO L O N I A L W m s —I t is not p ossible to
d en cy but from the coun ci l I n t he cir cum stan ces . .

hi s overthr ow was easy I t was charged that he was a .

-

Cat holi c some aut horit ies say an atheist t hat he

, , discuss here ei ther the causes or t he cond uct of t hose
brought no B ib le w it h hi m, and also that he had wars whi ch i n 1 7 63 ended in the comp lete tri ump h of
consp i red wit h the Sp aniards to destroy V ir g i n ia In . British arms B etween 1 689 an d 1 7 63 fo ur sep arate
.

Apri l 1 608 , W i ngfi eld left Jamestown and later in

, ,
struggles took p lace between these anc ien t enemi es .

E ngland made to t he aut hor it ies an interest in g state T he fir st whi c h began in 1 689 is known as K ing
, ,

W i ll a m s W ar endin g in 1 69 7 by the treaty of Rys

g
ment in hi s own defen ce For considerably more t han .
’
,

two hundr ed years Capt ain John Sm it h was u n i ver w 1 cl

sally regarded as the ablest an d t he most useful of the The second was Queen Anne s W a r k nown
con fli ct
’
,

fir st Jamestown settlers Indeed he was be lieved to .

, in E uropean hi story as the W a r of the Spani sh Suc
h ave been the founder and the preserver of t he cession Though n ot so w idespread as the preced in g
.

colony A s a matt er of fact he was a mere a d ve n

.
, one i n America it was marked by t he same character
,

t urer , responsible for much of the d issension among t he i sti cs I n 1 7 1 0 w it h t he assistance of ship s sent
.
,
“ ”
fir st settlers H is General H istory is an absurd
. from E ngland Port Royal was again cap t ured W i t h
,
.

eulogy of hi mself and an unfair crit ic ism of his fellows . it the w hole of A cadi a p assed into t he hands of t he
Perhap s i t was no m isfort une to V i rgini a when the E ngli sh The name of t he t own was c hanged to
.

accident al exp losion of a bag of gunpowder compelled A nnapoli s Royal in honour of Queen A nne A cadia
,
.

hi m to ret ur n t o E ngland for med i ca l treatment . became N ova Scoti a or N ew Scot lan d I n 1 7 1 3 thi s , .

Smi th was never afterward emp loyed by the V i rg ini a war was ended by t he treaty of Utrecht The e x ten t .

Comp any The five hundr ed new set tlers sen t to

. of the country desi gn ated as A cadia was somewhat
Jamestown i n 1 609 were “ a wort h less set p i cked up va g ue an d as to t he reg ions included un der that
,

i n t he streets of London or taken from t he j ai ls an d , n ame new disp utes were dest i ned to arise .

utterly unfit to become t he founders of a stat e in t he The W a r of t he Austri an S uccession

N ew W orld This however whi le true of a p a r t i cu, , occurring in t he rei gn of George I I , i s k nown i n
lar band of imm i g rants , wi ll not serve for a descrip tion A meri can history as K in g George 5 W a r
’
The Frenc h .

of those who came later D ur i n g the seventeen t h . promptly swep t down on and cap tur ed the little town
cent ury there arr ived n um erous kni ghts and n umbers , of Canso i n N ova Scoti a They carried 0 6 its g arri
, .

of the nobi li ty of every rank representat ives of t he , son and t hen attack ed A nn apoli s but were rep ulsed , .

best fami li es and t he best intellect in E ngland . The most i mp ortan t even t of this war was t he ex
In t he beginn ing the population of V ir gin i a was p e d i ti on against Loui sburg on Cap e B reton Island , .

almost exclusively E ngli sh ; indeed V ir ginia was very , T hough Lo ui sb ur g had been f or t ifie d at an exp ense
m uc h lik e an E ngli sh shi re A s early as 1 61 9 the . est imated at it was compell ed t o sur
comp an y had sen t out a few Fren chmen to t est the render Lat er t here c ame t he al a rming report that
.

soi l for i ts capac ity t o produce a sup erior variety of a French armada was on t he way to retak e Acadia
grap es O t her Fren ch imm igrants cont in ued t o
. and Louisb urg and to destroy B oston Though t he , .

arrive in the colon y t h roughout the seventeenth cen armada reached A meri can waters it was di spersed by ,

t ury Af ter the E n glish took N ew Amsterdam i n

.
, a t empest 0 6 the coast of N ova Scotia and i ts crest ,

1 664 many Dut chm en wen t from N ew N etherland to

, fallen crews soon ret urned t o Fran ce A t t hi s stage .

V i rgin ia G erman s and Itali an s were never num er

. of the war bot h sides were freel y assisted by savages .

ous in t hat provin ce D ur ing t he era of Cromwelli an . O ne of t he Fren ch exp editions attacked the outpost of
ascendency m any Irish were sent t o V irg ini a Again . Sar a toga , k illed t hi r ty p ersons and took a hund red ,

i n 1 69 0 and afterwards there arr ived m any Irishmen prisoners By t he treaty of Ai x la Chape lle i n July
.
- -
,

w ho were capt ured at t he B oyne and on other batt le 1 7 48 , a ll conq uests were m utua lly restored The n ews .

fie ld s . These non E ngli sh elements in t he pop ulat ion

-
of the surrender of Louisburg whi ch had been chi cfly ,

do not app ear however t o have e x erted m u ch social

, , won and defended at the e x p ense of N ew E ngland ,

or ot her i n flue n ce They soon melted into the p op u

. caused the greatest dissat isfact ion t hroughout the
lation around them The name of E dward M aria . 1 colon ies an d strained somewhat the relations wi t h
,

W i n g fie ld h a s been ment ioned as t hat of the on ly the mother coun t r y .

p atentee who came over w it h the colon ists I f t here . H aving emerged from th e last war w ithout loss o f
i s any doubt as to t he Cat ho li cism of t he first p resi territory Fran ce wen t t o work m ore vi gorousl y t han
,

dent of t he counc il there is none concern ing t he ever w ith her preparat ions for e x cludin g t he B rit ish
rel igious beli ef of the E arl of Southampt on That . altogether from t h e M ississipp i valley I n 1 7 4 9 the ,

nobleman had a k een in terest i n E n glish colon i zat ion . G overnor of Canada desp atc h ed C eloron de B ienville
W h ile E ngland was engaged in develop ing the w ith a band of m en in bir ch bark can oes to t ak e formal -

Prov in ce of V irgin ia four ot h er E uropean p owers , , p ossession of t he O h io valley t he on ly hi ghway st ill ,

Spain Fran ce H olland and Sweden were est ab li sh

, , , ,
unguarded On ce on t he A llegheny River , t he cere
.

ing t hemselves on parts of the Atlant i c coast of N ort h mony of t ak ing possession began The m en were .

Amer ica In 1 65 5 the Dutch conq uered N e w Sweden ,

. drawn up b y t heir commanders an d Loui s X V wa s ,

and n ine y ears later N e w N e t h e r la n d was acq uired by proclaimed ki ng of all the country drained by t he Oh io .

the E ngli sh The latter con quest was facili tated by

. Then the arms of Fran ce were nailed to a tree at t he ,

the former , because N e w N etherland had reduced i t foot of W hi ch was bur ied a leaden p late w it h an i n scr i p
self to a cond itio n of bank rupt cy in order to send i ts t ion clai min g t he O hi o and a ll its trib ut ar ies for t he
 U N I TED 15 9 U NI TED

Ki n g of Fran ce A t various p oin ts along the O h io

. O swego and threatened to send a stron g fleet against
,

sim ilar p lates were h idden Forts were built along . N e w E ngland Unt i l t h e elder W i lli am Pi tt became
.

t h e A ll eg h eny Thi s activ ity on t he part of t h e i n flue n ti a l in t h e coun c i ls of G reat Britain no progress
‘

.
,

Fren c h alar med G overnor D inw iddie of V irgini a . was made against the French In the year 1 7 5 8 t h e .

H e determined to demand t he withdr awal of t h e strong fortress of Loui sbur g surrendered to a j oin t
French and for his messenger chose George
,
m ilitary and n aval force under A mherst and Bos
W as h in gton t hen an officer of the V irgini a m ilitia ca w e n I n the same year W ashington took Fort
W as h ington proceeded to F ort L e B oeuf , where he
. .
,
Duq uesne w hi ch was renamed Fort Pit t Fort , .

delivered Dinw iddie s letter t o the com mandant ’

,
Fron tenac , on Lake O ntario was destroyed by a ,

Sa int Pierre who prom ised to forw ard the letter to

-
,
provin cial offi cer named Bradstreet W i th the loss .

the aut hori t ies in Canada I n the meant im e he . of Fort Duq uesne t h i s second d isaster cut off the O h io
would cont inue to hold the fort coun t r y from Quebec .

O h 8 J uly 1 7 5 8 , G eneral Abercrombi e , w i th an army

.

W hen Dinwiddi e received the reply of Sain t Pierre -

, ,

he k new that t he t ime for act ion had come H e sent . of at least men m ade a fur ious and p ersisten t ,

forward to the forks of the O hio a party of forty men ,

assault on t he stron g p ost of Ti conderoga The fort .

who began the erection of a stock ade i n tended to ,

was defended by M ont calm w ith about 3 1 00 men .

surro un d a fort , o n t h e site of the p resen t city of Pi tts The battle raged all d ay i n fron t of T iconderoga i ts ,

burgh O n 1 7 A pril 1 7 5 4 whi le the E nglish were sti ll

.
, ,
out lyin g breastwork s and its form idable abattis of ,

engaged at t h e ir work a bod y of Fren ch and I ndians ,

fallen trees W hen t h e Bri tis h under cover of dark.
,

from F ort Le B oeuf ord ered them t o leave t he valley . ness wit h drew , t hey left behi nd them 1 9 44 k i lled
, ,

The E ng li sh com mander was allowed to march 0 8 woun d e d and m issing The Fren ch reported a loss .

w it h his men Th e Fren ch then completed the work

. 0 f 37 7 .

t hus begun and in hono ur of t he G overnor of Canada

,
In a fier ce ly contested battle on t he plains of
called i t Fort Duq uesn e The surrender at the forks . A braham 1 3 Sep t 1 7 5 9 the Fren ch were defeated
, .
, , ,

of the Oh io was soon k nown to the governors of M ary an d W olfe and M on tcalm were amon g the dead In .

land V irginia and Pennsylvan i a V irgin ia acted

, , . the followin g year M on treal was t aken and t he ,

prompt l y and raised a force of wh i ch Frye was ,

A meri can p h ase of the war came to an end In .

comm ander w it h W ash in g ton as lieutenant colon el

,
-
. E urope t he con fli ct cont in ued unt il peace was made at
N ear a p lace called G reat M eadows W ashin gton ,
Paris in February , 1 7 63 By t hat treaty Fran ce gave .

wit h a few men k i lled or capt ured a smal l part y of to Spain for her assistance i n the w ar all that p art
, ,

Fren ch O n 4 July . he was himself besieged by ,

of t he country ly in g west of the middle of the M issis
a party of Fren ch and Ind ians and after a brave r e si s ,
sipp i R iver from i ts source t o a p oin t alm ost as far
tance compelled to surrender Thus was begun what . sout h as N ew Orleans To G reat Britain she s ur .

t h e E n glish colon ists called the Fren c h and Indian

War Th e Bri tis h i n 1 7 5 5 sen t over M aj or G eneral
.
-
ren dered all her territory east of this line
From t h e beginn ing of the in ter colon ial wars in — .

B raddock as commander ln ch ief in A meri ca The - -

. 1 689 the M i dd le Colon ies gave assistan ce to N ew
,

co lon i al governors met hi m at Ale x andria V irg ini a , . E ngland in its e x p ed it ion s against t he Fren ch stron g
Four e x p ed it ions were agreed upon : ( 1 ) an exped i tion holds in Canada W hen t he l as t con fli ct broke ou t .

from N e w Y ork to Lak e Champlain to t ake Forts ,

the lower states of the sout h sent troops into Pe n n sy l
Ti conderoga and Crown Point an d to move again st ,
van ia Some of these served under W ashington at
.

Quebec ; ( 2) an e x p ed ition to sai l from N e w E ngland Fort N e ce ssi ty W henever tr0 0 ps from t he di fferent
and m ake suc h a demonstrat i on against the F ren c h
.

coloni es acted together as they freq uently did they , ,

”
t owns to the n ort h east as would preven t t he Fren ch -

”
used the n ame provin cials to d istin gu ish them
in that q uarter from go in g ofl to defend Quebec an d selves from t he British troops There is a pop ular .

Crown Poin t ; ( 3 ) an e x pedi t ion start ing from A lbany , ,

noti on that all the p roposals after 1 64 3 w h en the ,

up the M o h awk toward its source t o cross the d i vide , Un ited Confederat ion of N ew E ngland was formed ,

t o Oneida Lake t hen by the Oswego Ri ver to Lake , were suggested by mil itary n ecessity In a meas .

Ont a rio and the N iagara River ; ( 4 ) an e x ped it ion from ure b ut not w holly such necessity was the sole
, ,

Fort C umberland i n M ary land across Pennsy lvania , ,

i n flue n ce tendi n g toward t he ir un i on A s early as .

to Fort Duquesne Braddock himself took comm and . 1 660 an agreemen t was en tered i nto by M ary land ,

of t he fourt h e x ped it ion There was n o opposi t ion . V ir gin ia and Caro lin a to restri ct the p roduct ion
,

un ti l his troops had crossed t h e M onon gahela River of tobacco E ven though n oth ing cam e of thi s com
.

and had arrived withi n eight m i les of Fort Duquesne . mer ci a l agreemen t i t ind icates t he e x isten ce amon g ,

Sudden ly the y came face t o face wi th an army of the the colon ies of interests other than m ilitary As early .

Ind ian s and Fren ch I t was no t in any sense an . as the eighteent h century ( 1 7 20 ) Dep uty governor -

ambuscade b ut the Fren ch an d their Ind ian alli es

, Keith of Pennsylvan ia subm itted to the Lords of
, ,

i nstantly disappeared behind bushes and trees and , Trad e and Plant ations a p lan or a recommendation , ,

p oured a merci less and in cessan t fir e into the ranks of for a union of E ngland s N orth Ameri can colon ies '
.

t he British Braddo ck would n ot allow hi s men to

. In the treat ises on t he developmen t of the idea of
fig h t in Indian fashion ; therefore the y stood huddled un ion th is documen t is overlooked I t w ill be found .
,

i n groups targets for the Indians and the French till

, , however among th e printed papers of Sir W illiam
,

t he e x ten t of h is loss comp elled h im to order a retreat . Keit h .

Had i t not been for W ashin gt on and his V ir gi nians the The Fren ch and Ind ian war was the prelude to the
Bri tish force would probabl y have p erished to a man . A merican Revolut ion I t tra ined offi ce r s and m en .

Braddock wounded i n the bat tle d ied soon after

, , for that struggle During i t s cam paigns the com .

wards The exp ed ition against N iagara was a fa ilure

. . mander i n ch iof in the W a r for Independen ce acq uired
- -

T h at again st Cro wn Poin t was part ially successful . h is fir st kn owledge of strategy T h is war released the .

The Fren ch G overnmen t now appeared to see colon ies from the pressure of the Fren ch in Canada ,

vaguely the gr e a t i mp or t a n ce of the contest in A mer and developed in t hem a consciousness of st ren gt h and
i ca The dem ands of the E ur opean war had kept t he
. un i ty Besides i t gave to the colon ies an un lim ited
.

Fren ch arm ies emp loyed at home ; t herefore n o con , weste rn e x p ansion In this great acq uisi tion of .

sid er a b le force could be sen t to A merica The k ing .

, terri tory is to be found one of the earl iest causes of
however sen t over t h e M arq uess de M ontcalm t he
, , t h e q ua r rel wi th the m ot h er coun try Though th e .

ablest Fren ch o ffi cer that ever commanded on this provinces had foug h t for terri torial e x tension a royal ,

co n t inent and there followed for the B ritish two years roclamat ion wa s issued ( 1 7 63 ) forbidd in g presen t
pand sales west of the A lleghen ies thus reservi ng th e
,

of d isastrous war M ontcalm won over the Ind ians .

,
to t h e side of Fran ce capt ured a nd bu r ned the p ost a t , con quered te rri tory as a crown doma in Though .
 U N I TED 1 60 U N I TED

they d id n o t clearly perceive i t the war had welded ,

fish , and for her cattle t hese island s f ur ni shed a ,

t he thirteen colon ies in to one people It was in thi s . conveni en t and profi table ma ket By t he vessel s r .

era that there grew up the feeli ng t hat this con quered engaged i n t his e x tensive trade cargoes of sugar and ,

terr itory d id not belong to t he Crown b ut to the m olasses were unloaded at B oston and ot h er N e w
colon i es collectively So afterwards when in d ep e n d .
,
E ngland p orts A Par li amentary statute of 1 7 3 3 had
.

ence was a chieved it was con tended t hat these ,

i mp osed on bot h commodit ies a proh ib i t ive d uty ,

western lands d id not belong to t he resp ect ive states whi ch but for the conn ivance of reven ue offi ce r s would
but to the un ion collectivel y because the d omain had ,
even t hen have accomp lished t he r u i n of a flour i sh i ng
been won by t h eir j oin t e x ert ions By the proclama
t ion of 1 7 63 a line was drawn around the h ead waters
.

— com merce W hen th is law after several renewals

.

was about to e xp ire i n 1 7 63 , t he colon ists actively

, ,

of all those rivers i n t he U nited States wh ich flow in to op posed i ts r e enact ment but G ren vi ll e was resolved
-
,

the Atlan ti c Ocean and west of that li ne the coloni sts

,
to i mprove the finan ces I n his own way and again st ,

were forbidden to settle A ll the vall ey from the the successive remonstran ces of colon ial agents of
Great Lakes to the F lor ida country and from the
.
,

merchants and of even a roya l govern or renewed

, ,
“
proclamat ion line westward to the M ississipp i was t he ac t says B ancroft i n a form great ly to the d is
, ,
”
set apart for the Indians O ut of the con quered terri . advantage of A meri ca Com m issioners of c ustoms .
,

tory E ngland created t hree new provin ces : in Canada , regard in g the i r p laces as sin ecures had h itherto ,

the Province of Quebec ; out of th e co un try conq uered resided i n E n gland N ow t hey were ordered at on ce .

from Spa in two provinces namely E ast Florida and

, , , t o t heir p osts ; t he n umber of reven ue offi cer s was
W est Florida The A p p a la chi cola separated the
. i n creased and t o assist in e x e cuting the new regula
, ,

Floridas The lan d between the A ltamaha and the

. tion s warships p atroll ed t he harbours and the coast
,
.

St M ary s was anne x ed t o t he Provin ce of Georgia

.
’
. These were inst ructed t o sei z e a ll vessels suspected
In order to prov ide for the m i li tary defen ce of
t he colon ies i t was decided t o enforce the N avigat ion
,
—
of sm uggling Army o ffi cer s were comm anded to
co operate
.

The j urisdi ct ion of ad miralty courts i n

.
,

A cts . These requ ired : ( 1 ) that colon ial trade should whi ch cases were tried w ithout j uries , was greatly
be carried on in vessels bui lt and own ed in E ngland extended Bot h the p rom ise of emolument from con
.

—
or in the colon ies these ships to be manned , to the
,

e x ten t of two thirds of t he crew by E ngli sh sub j ects ; ,

fisca te d prop erty and t he fear of d ism issal for neglect
of dut y sharpened the v igilance of t h ose engage d in
( 2) that i mp ortant colon ial products s h ould n ot be enforcing t h e acts of n avi gat ion and it was soon per ,

sent to ports ot her t han t hose of E ngland Products . ce i ved that t heir un usual act ivi ty and v i olen ce threat
or goods not n amed i n a certain list mi ght be sent to ened to destroy n ot onl y contraband but m en aced the ,

a n y other p art of the world ; ( 3 ) if a produ ct ex p orted very e x i sten ce of even legit imate trade A t t h i s t im e
‘

.
,

from one colony to another was of a k ind that m ight £ 1 64 000 sterling was t he est im ated ann ual value of
,

have been supp lied b y E ngland i t m ust ei ther g o to ,

t he M assachuset ts fish er i es ; and t o supp ly t he prov i
t he mother coun try and then to the p urchasing colony ,
sion s casks and sundry art icles yearly requ i red in
, ,

or p ay an e x port duty at the port where i t was shi pp ed ,

the business there was needed an addi tion al cap ital of
,

equal to the import duty i t would h a ve to pay i n The i mp ortan ce of th is i nd ustry m ay be

E ngland ; ( 4 ) goods were not allowed to be c arr ied easily esti mat ed from t he e x ten t to wh i ch i t had
from any p lace in E urope to Ameri ca un l ess t hey were been carr ied by a sin gle comm un i ty A r igorous .

fir st landed at a p ort in E ngland N ot unconn ected . e x ecut ion of the Act of April , 1 7 64 , mean t to American s
wi th this measur e perhaps was an i n t enti on of estab
, , t he ann i h il at ion of th is n atural and legal bran ch of
li sh i n g permanently in Ameri ca a b ody of Br it com merce for if the p lan ters in the Fren ch W est
,

i sh troops , for whose maintenance it was decided t o Ind ies could n ot sell their sugar and molasses t hey ,

provide at least in p art by a Parliamentary t a x i n the would n ot b uy fish and any d e fici en cy or any great ,

colon ies These were among the measures whi ch led

. irregulari ty i n t he supply of molasses would have
ult i mately t o a division of th e emp ire . been fatal t o the d istilleries of B oston and ot her N ew
W hile these measures of Gr enville s adm in istrat ion
’
E ngland to wn s Sh ips would have been almost
. .

were in contemp lat ion i nformation of the desi gn of ,

worthless on t he hands of their o w ners and the 5 000 ,

the m i n istry was received in B oston from t he colon ial seamen emp loyed yearly 1 n carry i ng fish to Portugal
agen t in E ngland who asked coun sel in the emergen cy
, . and Sp a i n would have been wi thout an occup at i on .

I n the spr i ng of 1 7 64 a Boston t own meet i n g gave t he -

The sever ity of the new regulations by wh ic h prop ,

sub j ect special con siderati on For the guidan ce of . e r ty amoun ting t o £3000 was soon swep t in to
pr i z e
newly elected members a commi ttee was appoin ted to
-
courts coup led wit h t he d eclared i ntent ion of ra i sing
,

prepare instruct ion s Thi s i mportant work was .

.
by i mperial aut hority a revenue for the defen ce of
assigned to Samuel Adams W h i le mot ives of p oli cy . t he colonies created a consti tuti onal q uestion of the
,

suggested the lan guage of loyalty and dependence , i t gravest character .

i s not d iff i cult to see beh i nd these in struction s of S in ce 1 7 63 when th e war ended t he Br it ish G overn
, ,

A dams t he sp irit of a determin ed patriot who had men t had ti rii e to consider a s y stem of revenue The .

long and thoughtfu lly considered the whole quest ion i mportun ities of Brit ish merchan ts who were cred ,

of t h e relat ion of the colon ies to t he m ot her coun try , i t or s of A merican i mporters as m uch at least as a ,

for he furn ished Ameri can s wi th argumen ts that feel ing of ten derness for t he colon ists i nfluen ce d Gren ,

never ceased to be ur ged t i ll the sep arat ion from v i lle to suspend for alm ost a year h is p urpose of lay ing
G reat B ritain was comp lete . a stamp duty on Amer ica A n e x pectat ion of master .

By drawing in to q uestion the ri ght of the Cro wn to in g the subj ect was undoubtedly an addit ional cause
put an absolute negative upon the act of a colon i al of dela y H is purpose however remaine d un ch a nged
.
, , ,

legislature the V irgin ian orator merely revi ved in

, an d neither pet i t ions n or l e mon str a n ces n or even th e ,

anot h er form that struggle agai nst prerogat ive wh ich solemn pled ges of the colon ies to hon our as hit herto all
wi th vary ing success h a d long been main tained on royal requ i s i tion s avai led to overcome his obstinac y , ,

bot h sides of th e A tlanti c The resoluti ons of the

B oston town meet ing however had a d ifl er en t pur
-
,
.

,
and on 6 F eb 1 7 65 i n a carefully p repared speech
.
,

he in troduced h i s fif ty five resolut ions for a stamp act

,
— ,

p ose ma r k mg as they do , the fir st organ i z ed act ion

, , In th e colon ies th is aroused a b i tter Sp iri t ; the
a g a ms t ta x ation . stamp d istributors were ind uced to abandon their
Trade wi th the Fren ch and the Span ish W est offi ce s b y p ersuasion or in tim idation and delegates ,

Indi es n ot on ly stim ulated the prosp erity of t he com from n ine colon ies met i n N e w Y ork to e x press d is
merc 1 al cen tres i n ever y c olony but was a c hief ,
ap proval .

source of wealth t o all N e w E ngland For the abun . Patri ck H enry of V irgin ia led the opp osit ion wit h
, ,

d an t supply of t imber standin g i n her forests , for her the resolutions : that the fir st V irg in ia colon is ts
 U N I TED 1 62 U N I TED

i gnored Parliamen t ; i t prepared A rti cles of Associa pose By v i rtue of the Q uebec A ct t he C anadi an s
.

t ion to b e signed by peop le everyw here , and to be

, were enj oy ing relig ious li berty and they m ust have ,

enforced by comm i ttees of safety The members of . wondered what t hey could gain from an a lli an ce wit h
t hese com m i ttees were to be chosen by the in hab itan ts a p eop le who considered that measur e of tolerat ion as
of t he c i ties and t owns The ar ti cles boun d the . a ground of rep roach t o E nglan d As to t he enl arge .

peop le to i mp ort not hin g from Great Bri tai n and Ire m ent of t he Prov in ce of Q uebec a lready n ot i ced t he , ,

land also to e x p ort nothing to those coun tries H en ce p eop le of Canada must have been somewh at i n difi er
'

.
,

fort h the Comm ittees of Safety were t o perform an ent These and ot her considerat ion s led t hem gener
.

i mportan t serv ice i n promot ing t he Revolution On . all y t o adop t a p oli cy of n eutrali ty The presen ce i n .

8 Oct t he Con gress adopted t he foll owing resolut ion :

. t he Ameri can army of on e or two sm all battali ons of
T hat t his Congress approve t he O ppositi on of t he C anad ians di d not t o any considerable ext ent a ffect
i nhab i tants of t he M assachusetts Bay t o the ex e cu t he senti ments of t he Fren ch p op ulation D ur in g .

t ion of the late Acts of Par li ament ; and , if th e same t he pro gress of t he war their loyalty was often sus
shall be attemp ted t o be carried i n to e x ecut ion by p e ct e d by Brit ish offi ci als, perhaps not wi thout cause .

force , i n suc h case all Ameri ca ought t o support Under General M ontgomery an army also was sen t
t hem i n t heir opp ositi on B efore t he Con gress a d . in to C anada A cc op erating force under B ened ic t
.
-

j our ned i t was ordered t hat another Con gress should A rnold reached C a nada by way of the K enn ebec
meet on 1 0 M ay , 1 7 7 5 in order t o con sider th e result ,
River and t he M aine wilderness M ontgomery had .

of the peti tion t o t he k ing I t t hen adj ourned . . won several sm all advantages but t he j oi nt att ack on ,

W hen the ki n g and h is friends heard of t he pro Q uebec , 3 1 D ec 1 7 7 5 , resulted i n his death i n t he
.
, ,

cee d i n g s of the Con gress , they were m ore determ i ned woundi n g of Arnold an d the defeat of t heir forces , .

than ever to make them subm i t On the o ther hand , . Then was begun a di s as trous retreat t oward t he State
the friends of t he coloni sts e x erted t hemselves t o of N e w Y ork E ither t his step of Con gress or t he
.

promote con cili ati on but n either t he in fluence of Pit t

,
p lans of the Brit ish W a r O th ee led t o a counter i nva
n or the eloquence of B ur ke could alter t he resolut ion sion A force under St Leger moving by way of
. .
,

of t he ki ng s p arty The ultim at um of the First

’
. O swego and Fort St anwi x ( Rome ) was in tended ,

Cont inen tal Con gress led to considerable m i li tary t o create a d iversion in favour of t he m ai n ar my under
a ctivity W hen it was seen t hat force would be met
. B ur go y ne whi ch was advan cin g leisurely from Can
,

by force , the peop le began to arm A s was generally . ada W i th these two commands C li n ton was exp ected
.

foreseen , t he con fli ct between the peop le and t he royal t o co o p erate along t he li n e of the H udson St
-
. .

’
forces occ urred before the meet i n g of the Second Con Leger s a rm y was defeated or di spersed a nd in stead , ,

t i ne nt a l Congress A n en counter was li kel y t o occur

. of co op erat in g wit h B urgo y ne G eneral Cli n ton h a d
-
,

anywhere , b ut most li kely t o take p lace in M assa gone 0 3 t o attack Phi ladelp hi a A detachm ent from
U p to t he meet ing of th e F i r st Con tinen tal
.

ch use t ts . B ur goyne ’ s arm y was defeated at B enni ngton V er ,

Congress there were i n America t hi rteen local govern mont Thi s event left n early a ll N ew E ngland free t o
.

’
ments From that t i me t here came into e x i stence a
. ac t on B urgoyne s li n e of comm un i cation s After .

n ew body poli t ic with aim s and w ith author ity sup e

,
two severe battles he surrendered near Saratoga , ,

r ior to t he local govern men ts These several govern . on 1 7 O ct , 1 7 7 7 hi s en t ir e army of n early six t hou
.
,

m ents had actually formed a new state The Declara . sand men Thus ended t he struggle for t he p os
.

t ion of Independen ce was merely an ann oun cemen t session of t he H udson The event i n flue n ce d Fran ce .

of an estab li shed fac t

N A TI O N A L H I STOR Y W a r of the Revoluti on
.

.
— .
t o form an alli ance, Feb , 1 7 7 8 , w it h the youn g
Rep ubli c .
.

W hen the Stamp A ct was p a ssed , the Con gress w hi ch After t he commi ssion had ret urned from Canada ,

assembled acted as an adv isory rather than as a leg is several agents were sent t o rep resen t t he Un ited States
’
lat ive body Perhaps t he chief result of i ts meetin g i n E urop e and Fr ank li n s abili ty had m uc h t o do w it h
the est abli shmen t of friendly relat ions w ith F ran ce
.
,

was that i t accustomed the coloni sts to the idea of .

un ion This fee lin g was con fir me d when the F i rst

. W hen in M arch , 1 7 7 6, W ashi n gton dr ove the B ri tish
Con tinen tal Con gress convened On 1 0 M ay , from B oston he brought hi s army sout hward a n d
,

1 7 7 5 the Second Con tinental Con gress assemb led

, . o ccup ied N ew Y ork and Lon g Islan d That p ort ion .

By that t i m e the n ot ion of un i on was m uc h more of hi s force in Long I sland m et w it h disaster in t he

fam i li ar ; besides the m ili tar y p hase of the war had
, follo win g Au gust To avoid capt ure he t urned .
,

begun three w eeks ear li er T idings soon came of the . northward crossed the H udson , entered N ew Jersey ,
tak ing of T iconderoga by a force un der E than A llen . and p asse d over i n to Penn sylvani a From hi s cam p .

This was t he key of t he route to Canada Thus far . in that state he surprised a regim en t of hi s p ursuers
the chief obj ect of the Am eri cans had been t o secure a at fi e n ton 25 Dec , 1 7 7 6, recrossed t o Pennsylvan ia
,
.
,

re d ress of gr ievan ces Independen ce was advocated . and early i n the foll owing year again en coun tered the
by nobody , and a litt le e ar li er John A dams sa i d t hat -
enemy at Pri nceton T his ended t he fir st stage of .

i t w ould not have been safe even to discuss i t H ow . t he struggle for t he Delaware Cornwalli s gradually .

ever , events mo ved rapidly Sep arat ion was d is . ret i red t owards N ew Y ork .

c ussed , an d on 4 July 1 7 7 6 a Declar at ion of Inde , ,

I n t he W est Colon el G eorge Rogers Clark t ook
,

p e nd e n ce was adop ted by t he Con gress whi ch had ,

K ask ask ia , 4 July , 1 7 7 8 The i nfluen ce of Father .

alr eady become a revolut ion ary body I t had ceased . Pierre G ibault i ts p a rish priest en abled Clark sp eed
, ,

t o b e an advisory assembly and for som e tim e had ,

i ly t o recrui t two com p an ies at t h at p lace an d i n t h e
been e x er cising the powers of a n ation al governmen t . neighbour in g set t lemen t at Caho ki a A generous .

A constitution ent itled

“
Ar t i cles of Conf ederat ion
, loan by Francois V igo enabled hi m t o comp lete hi s
and Perpetual Un ion ” was p rop osed , bu t i t was n ot ,
equ ipment for t he m ar ch on V i n ce nn es w hi ch a ft er , ,

unt il M arch , 1 7 8 1 , that i t w as adop ted by al l t he terrible h a rdships was sur p rised and t ak en These , .

states For the conduct of the war i n w hi ch they

. were t he fir st step s in t he w i nni ng of t he W est That .

found themselves engaged they were wr etchedly pre t erm in cluded t he region n ow covered by O h io Ind i ,

p ared : they had n o money n o system of t axat ion , n o ,

an a I lli nois , M ic higan W isconsin and a par t of
, , ,

n avy . M innesot a In this great ac hi evemen t of Clark s

.
’
,

E arly i n the war C on gress sent to Can ada a com Catho li cs acted a very p raiseworthy p ar t W hen .

m ission to win over its p eop le to the side of the i n su r that commander arrived at K aska s k ia he wa s not ,

gen t colon ists Thi s bod y in cluded Benj ami n h ank

. unexp ected ; the t erms o f en li stmen t of man y of h is
lin , Samuel Chase, and Charles Carroll A cousin of . m en h a d already exp ired and i n the battalions w it h ,

t he last named , Rev John Carroll accomp an ied t he

-
.
,
whi ch he m arched t o V in cennes t here was a great
co mm ission t o assist i n promoting i ts p atriot ic p ur p rep onderan ce of Catholics I n t he con quest of that .
 U N I TED 1 63 U N I TED

place he was also assisted by the in hab itant s of the posi tion of Cor n w allis at Y ork town M ( a n while .

town . Indeed he felt encouraged d ur ing t h e en tire

, t h e co mni a nd cr i n chief was h u1 r y i n g so u t h w a i d
-

camp ai gn by t h e f i 1 endshi p of the Sp an ish governor from N ew Y ork wit h his own army and a fine F 1 e n ch
b e y ond the M ississip p i . army under G ene 1 al Rochambeau to j oin t he force
W hen G ene 1 al C li nton should have co O p erated -
under Lafay ette Further t o e mb a n ass Cornwallis ,

w ith B ur goyn e he set o ut for the con q uest of P h i la a Frenc h force under t he M arquess Sain t S i mon was -

delp hia t h e cap it al of t he n ew un ion Transpor ting

,
. landed The alli ed a1 m ies under W ashin gton promp tly
.

his army by t he At lan ti c and C h esapeake B a y he , began the siege of Y ork town w hic h ended 1 9 O ct , , , .

landed in M aryland m arched t owards Ph iladelp hia ,

1 7 8 1 i n the sur render of the army of Cornwallis
, .

and after defeat i n g W ashi ngton s army on t he

,
’
Th us ended the mi li tary p hase of t h e W ar for I nd e p e n
Th o ug h t he
'

Br a n d y w in e , occup ied the ca p i t a 1 . den ce and t hus cu lmi nated a p arty struggle t hat had
,

fig h t i n g a r oun d P h iladelp h ia was not decisive , the long been i n p rogress on bot h sides of the A t lan tic .

p atriot army , as show 11 int he engagemen t at G erman The W higs , whet h er E nglish or Amer ican , had been
town (O ct , was i mp r ovmg i n e ffi cien cy
. To . endeavourin g to d im inish the p ower of the k in g ; t h e
defend t h e Cont inental m il itary stores , as we ll as to Tories , bot h E ngli sh and Ameri can would preserve ,

menace Ph iladelp h i a W ash ington went i nto w i n ter , t hat power u nimpair ed The W hi g opposition i n .

q uarters at V alley Forge I t is u nnecessary to rep eat . E nglan d an d I relan d fi n a lly for ced G eorge I I I t o
t h e fami li ar story of the sufi e r i n gs of t he p atriot army
'

. app ly to Russia for troops and when t hey were , ,

On e t hing , however , was accomp li shed d uri ng that refused , to h ire W a ld eck e r s Br un sw i ckers, and Hes ,

terrible winter The li tt le army of W ashington was

. sians Besides these foreign soldiers t here was i n
.

rigorously dr illed by t he G erm an vol un teer, B aron A merica a large n umber of Loyali sts or Tor ies These .

V o n Steub en Thereafter t he Con t i n entals were a

. fought 1n t he armies of t he k ing and when t he war ,

match for the best drilled troops of E ngland I n t he -

was over , because of t he host i li ty of t he p atriots , settled
spring of 1 7 7 8 there was a rumo ur that a F ren ch fle e t
.

i n E n gland or i n Canada .

had sail ed for t he Delaware This consideration .

, W h en the Revolut ionary W ar began there were ,

together w ith the improvement in the cond it ion of few Catho li cs i n t he Uni ted States Perhaps t he i r .

W ash in gton s army persuaded t h e Bri tis h t o return

’
,
number d id n ot exceed H owever , members
across N ew Jersey to N ew Y ork C it y Durin g this . of that fait h were t o be found on all her borders and ,

m arch a severe engagemen t occurred at M onmout h everywhere they were e ither neu tral as were m any i n ,

Court H ouse , N J , 28 June 1 7 7 8 I t was on ly Canada , or friendly , as in t he Span ish colon ies around
the M exi can G ulf and i n the F ren ch set tlements of
.
.
,
.

t he treachery of G en eral C harles Lee t hat pre

ven ted W ashin gton from wi nn ing a m ore comp lete t he I lli noi s country The servi ces of t he latter h ave.

v ictory . been n ot iced while those of the Sp an i ards of N ew

,

The alli an ce w it h Fran ce has been n ot iced The . Orleans wou ld requ ir e m uch sp ace to describe The .

Operat ions of i ts flee t at N ewp or t are p op ularly r e reader who desires to e x am ine t h is neglected phase of
garded i n America as having been somew h at useless . the Revolut ion w ill fi nd ample m aterials i n the
A s a matter of fact the act ivity of t he a llies p ut t he, unp ublished p apers of O l iver Pollock on file i n the .

B rit ish on the defensi ve at t he very m oment that Library of Congress I t i s we ll known that Sp ain .

they had dec ided t o wage aggressive war A t an declared w ar again st E n glan d ( 1 7 7 9 ) and loaned
early stage B eaumarchais had forwarded m ilitary m oney to the Un ited States I t i s k nown also that .

supp li es to the Un ited States After Feb , 1 7 7 8 , hi s . . the D utc h Rep ubli c w as fr iendly to Amer ica and that
government loaned large sums of money among a ll t he N eth er la n d elements who favoured i ts
used i ts arm ies wherever t he opportuni ty offered i ndependen ce Catho li cs were con sp icuous D urin g
the progress of t he war F re d e r i ck the G reat had urged
.
,

and i nto every q uarter of the globe even into the

the U n ited Provin ces , as he had urged F ran ce t o
,

Indi an O cean sen t i ts warshi p s to fig h t E ngland

,
.

W hen N ew E ngland an d t he M idd le States w ere j o i n i n the war against E n g land The wit h hol d in g .

beli eved to be lost t he Brit ish endeavoured to win
back t he Sout h This po li cy brought Cornwallis into
.
, by George I I I of t h e subsidy that had formerly been
g a n ted to Prussia in censed its r uler against h is former
a ily
‘

t he Caro li n as After a crus hi n g defeat of one of hi s

. .

subord inates at K ing s M ount ain he ret ir ed into ’

I t h as been stated that the colon ies were wretch
V i rgin ia wat ched by the vigilan t General G reene
, . e d ly prep ared for enga ing i n war w it h the m other
g
That o ffice r had been sen t Sout h t o reorgan i z e and t o coun try In Jul y 1 7 7 5 i t was voted to issue due bi lls
.
, ,

com mand the arm y t h at had been ruined by t he i nca for 2 ,

Span ish m i lled dollars t o be sun k by ,

p a ci ty of G eneral G ates W hile he won n o great . ta x es in four successive years , begin ning 30 N ov .

v ictories G reene found hi m self a l ittle stronger after

, 1 7 7 9 the ta x es t o be levied and collected by
, y the
eac h engagemen t ; the d iscip li ne an d t he eq uipm en t of states i n p rop ort ion to p op ulat ion Th ese bills .

h is army also were constantly imp roving H e suc . Con gress peti tioned the states to m ak e legal tender .

ce ed e d in dr awin g Cornwa llis fart her and farther from I n d i fferen t ways an d at d ifferen t t imes this was
h i s base of supp lies on t he coast The posts form in g . done and before 4 July 1 7 7 6, $ 9 000 000 i n d ue bi lls , , ,

were out To d ist inguish i t fro in t he issues of t he

,
’
Cornwalli s s li n e of comm uni cation were successively .

“ ”
surp rised by p art isan bands commanded by such states t his w as called Cont inental c urren cy .

o ffi ce r s as M ari on Sumter and Picken s W i th , , . From t hi s t im e forward fia t m oney go t p ossession of

G reene s a rmy growing stronger the independen t
’
, t he American peop le , and by 1 7 7 9 t h e i ssues amoun ted
forces m ore bold and h is own force meltingg away ,, to $ 242 000 000 m a single yyear By 1 7 8 1 t he w hole
, ,
.

n ot h ing appears to have been left for Cornwalli s bu t mass became worthless .

to fortif y h imse lf i n V irginia H is army with a U p t o th is t i me the fat al error was the beli ef that
small er force un der A rn old ( who h ad deserted to the t he credi t and curren cy of cont inen tal money could
British ) destro y ed m uch pri vate property in that be m aintained by acts of comp ulsion From this .

stat e A small force under G en eral Lafay ette had

. delusion wh ich a ffected governments state an d
, ,

been sent by W ashin gton to watch t h e movements of n at ional few p ersons were e x emp t B y O ctober
,
.
,

t he enemy I t was about thi s time t hat t here arr ived

. 1 7 7 9 , Boston was on t he verge of starvat i on ; mone y
from E ur op e a great Fren ch fleet under the Coun t transact ions had nearly ceased and business wa s ,

de Grasse perhaps the m ost powerf ul arm ament that

, done by barter I n M ay 1 7 7 9 , there was a m u t in y
.
,

had put to sea sin ce the days of the Span ish Armada . of certain Connecti cut regiments on account of bad
I t defeated a great B ritish fle e t o ff the capes of the p ay . I n J a n ua r y 1 7 8 1 , t h e r e was a m utiny of t h e
,

C h esapeake and g gave W as h in gt on the opport uni ty Pennsy lvan ia Line for the same reason I n that .

for which he had y carncd I t then approached the . d isturban ce t he sold iers k illed a capt ai n w ho t ried t o
 U NI TED 1 64 U NI TED

brin g them t o subm ission This is not so mu ch to be . upp er house ( Sen ate ) each state has two s enators,
wondered at when one learns t h at the m ont hly while 1 n t he lower house eac h has rep resentat i ves i n
p ay of an enlisted man d ropped by deprec iat ion to 3 3 , . . proportion to p op ulat ion The House of R e p r ese n .

Before W ashington could move hi s army to Y ork t a t i ves is m erely a legislat ive bod y The Senate o n .
,

town i t was necessary to gi ve t he soldi ers the i r back t he other hand p erforms a t h 1 e e fo ld fun ction
, .

p ay To do this Robert M orris had to borrow hard

.
, Primarily i t assists t he house in maki ng laws ; i n
money from Rochambeau I n M arch , 1 7 8 0, there . rat i f y 1 n g treaties or con fir mi ng no minat ions to othee i t
w as outstanding of continent al money . p erforms e x ecut ive f un ct ions ; i n try in g an i mpeach
Con gress declared t h is to be wo rt h forty doll ars for ment i t acts as a j ud icial body Th e durat ion of a .

one dollar of a new tenor In other words , of that session of Con gress i s two years t he te r m for whi ch ,

ent ire amount Congress rep u d i ated a ll but representat ives are elected Senators ar e chosen for .

“ ”
The old tenor fell to 5 00 t o 1 in P hi ladelp h i a when , a term of si x years I n constru i n g a n act of t he .
_

i t ceased to circulate To comp lete t he misfortunes . N a t i ona l Legislatur e one is t o assum e t h at it has n o
of this exp eriment , coun terfeiters successfully im itated p ower t o p ass such act u nl ess t he aut hor ity i s con
t he issues of Con gress and has tened the death of ferred by t h e Const itut ion or m ay be fai rly derived ,

p aper money T hen hard m oney sp rang to lif e , an d

. from some grant of p owers en um erated t here i n In .

was abundant for a ll p urposes M uc h had been . e x am i ni ng t he const itut ionali t y of a state law one is
hoarded and great quan t ities had been brought i n by to assume t h at the state legislat ur e has p ower to p ass
t he arm ies and nav ies of both F ran ce and E ngland . a ll acts whatever un less t he y are p rohibited by t h e
,

As early as 1 7 7 9 Con gress attemp ted the e x p edien t C onsti tution of t he U ni ted States or by the consti t u
of sp e ci fic supp lies Req uisi tions were made upon . t ion of the state .

the states for meat flour forage et c B ecause of t he

, ,
. Under the A r ti cles of Confederat ion there was n o
defective system of transp ortation and for other ,
n a t i on a l e x ecut i ve The Const itut ion however , vests
.
,

reasons it became necessary t o abandon th is reso ur ce

,
. t he supreme e x ecut ive authority m a President of t he
The impressment of horses wagons etc w as p erceived ,
. Un ited States who , w it h a vi ce p residen t , i s chosen for
,
-

to b e dangerous and w as soon given u p The in come . a t e r m of four years Bot h offi cer s are chosen by an .

of t h e Continental Treasur y fro m 1 7 7 5 t o 1 7 83 was electoral college I n t his co llege eac h state has a
.

Thi s w as received from domest i c loans , n umber of electors equal t o its w hole n umber of sena
foreign loans , taxes , p aper money , and from m is tors and represen tat ives in Congress O riginally t he .

ce lla n eous sources O utst anding cer t ifica t es of i n

. electors of p residen t and vi ce presiden t looked over -

d eb t e d n ess amounted t o B esides these t he coun try and selected some d ist i n guished publi c
sums t he t otal cost of the war included the e x p e n character for each o tfi ce I n a li ttle w h ile however , .
,

—
,
they ceased t o exercise such d iscret ion and nom in a
Th e Conf ed e r a ti on a n d the Con sti tu ti on —Though
di tu re s of t h e several states .
,

. t ions for both the presiden cy and vice p residen cy were

prepared soon aft er i ndependen ce was declared the ,
m ade in con gr essional cau cuses The contest of 1 824 .

”
Ar ticles of Conf ederat ion an d Perpetual Un i on brought t h is met h od into disfavo ur Thereafter , for .

were not adopted unt i l 1 7 8 1 when the war was nearly ,

a brief period m any of t he states nomi n ated som e
,

won T h i s was due chi e fly to the Opp osit ion of M ary

.
favourite son A n eviden t d isadvantage of t hi s
.

land whic h refused to confederate un ti l states havin g

,
system was the great n umber of candidates , of whom
western lands should cede t h em t o t he Uni on ; as i t none was l ik ely to receive as t he Const itut ion req ui res , ,

was claimed t hat a ll suc h lands had been held on ly a maj ori ty of a ll the votes c as t About 1 83 1 t here .

by t he j oint e x ert ion of t he states Under t h e . began to t a ke shap e the present s y stem of a n at ional
A rt icles a ll measures of govern men t were d ir ected t o n om inat ing convention I n this e x tra const it utional
.
-

the st ates as corp orat ions ; there was no n at ional i n stit ution the st ates are represented accord in g t o
executive ; t h e Con gress was a body of on ly one cham p op ulat ion each sending twi ce as many delegates as
,

ber ; t he states p aid an d had the p ower t o recall their

, ,
i t has senators and representat ives i n Con gress The .

delegates ; in theory it was di ffi cult t o amend t h i s District of Columb ia t he T er r i tor y of A lask a an d , ,

constitut ion and i n practi ce it had proved imp ossible ;

,
some of t h e insular possession s are also en titled t o
fi n a lly there was n o e ffi ci e n t system for obtain ing a send delegates To obtain t he nom in at ion i n a
.

federal revenue I n ot her words the governmen t

.
,
Republi can N ational Convent ion a m aj orit y of the
under t he confederat ion had n o independent income , delegates is suffi ci e n t whereas in that held by the ,

but depended ent irel y up on th e contributions of the Democrat ic p arty a two thir ds vote is necessary -
.

various states These defect s soon produced con se

. President ial electors are chosen on the Tuesday
que n ce s so alarming t hat the leading p atriots brough t after the first M onday i n N ovemb er of every fourt h
about a constit ut ional convention whi ch at temp ted t o year N 0 p erson e x cep t a nat ural born c iti z en i s
.
-

amend t he fundamental law W hen thi s was fo un d . eli gible to t he o th ee of presiden t or of vi ce presiden t -
.

to be imp ossible they framed a n ew con sti tut ion of

, The p residen t shall be com mander i n chief of t he - -

govern men t This provided for a n a t i on a l e x e c army and n avy of the Un ited St at es and of t he m ili t i a ,

utive a n ational legislat ure , an d a n at ional j udi ci ary ;

, of the several st ates when called in to t h e actual servi ce
also for a si mpler met hod for its own amendmen t I t .
of t he Un ited Stat es H e has power to grant reprieves
.

gave to Congress the p ower to lay and collect tax es , and pardons for all o ffences aga i nst the Un ited States ,
duties i mposts and e x cises for federal p urposes
, ,
. excep t i n cases of impeachment ; by and w it h t h e
The Con gress was further empowered to borrow advi ce and con sen t of t h e Sen ate he has t h e p ower t o
mone y on t he cred it of t he United States ; t o establish mak e t reat ies provided two th irds of the Sena t ors
,
-

a un iform rule of n aturali z at ion and un iform laws on p resent con cur In add it ion to these p owers he can
.

t h e subj ect of bankrup t cies throughout the Un i ted n om inate and b y and wi th the advi ce and consen t of
, ,

States ; to coi n money and regulate the value t hereof ; t he Senate app o i n t ambassadors other p ubli c m in is
, ,

t o regulat e commerce w ith foreign nat ions wi th the , t ers and consuls j udges of the Un i ted States Supreme
,

I ndian tribes and among t h e several states To the

,
. Court , and all o t her o ffi ce rs of t h e Un ited Stat es
N a t i on a l Legislature was also g iven p ower t o declare w hose app oin tment s are not otherwise provided for
war ; to m ain tain and eq uip an army and a n avy ; t o in the Consti tu tion H e is emp owered t o convok e .

exercise e x clusive legislat ive p ower over such tract as Congress i n special session and to dissolve that body
m ay b y cession of p art icular states become the capi when the two houses are un able to agree up on a t i me
—
, ,

tal of t h e United Sta tes ; t o m ak e all n e ed f 11 1 rules and for adj ournmen t Like other civil offi cers the p resi
.
,

regulat ions respectin g th e territory and ot h er property den t and v ice president ma y be removed from o ffice
of t he Un ited States The body vested wit h the . on i mpeachmen t for an d convi ct ion oi , t reas on , ,

p owers j us t enumerated was a b icameral one I n its . bribery and other high cr i mes and m isdemean ours
, .
 U N I TE D 1 66 U N ITED

Con gress led to an insur rection i n western Pe nnsy l p rogress between E n gland and France d i vided th e
van i a T hat outbreak was suppressed i n 1 7 9 4 by A merican peop le on the questi on of foreign relat ions .

send ing the mi li t i a of N ew Jersey M ary lan d an d , ,

The Federalists , who were strongest in N ew E ngland ,
V ir gini a , an d som e troops of Penn sylvan ia i nto the , favour ed E ngland whi le the Repub li can s generall y ,

t 1 oub le d reg i on T h is indi cat ed t he energet i c p o li cy

. sy mpathi z ed wi th Fr an ce t he late all y of the Un ited ,

t hat was adop ted by t h e new governmen t Ar m ies . S tates A fter t he W a r of 1 8 1 2 party li nes had been
.

under G en erals Harmer and St Clair were defeated by y almost e fi a ce d Presiden t M onroe was pract i cally
.

t he M iam is I n 1 7 9 5 after t he i r defeat by Ge n er a l

.
,
t he unan i mous choi ce of the A meri can pe 0 p 1e T he .

W ay ne , the tribe m ade a cession of nearly the whole rivalr y of Andrew Jackson and He nry Clay led after
I n 1 7 9 4—
"

of O hio . 9 5 John Jay , C hief Justi ce of the 1 829 , t o the r ise of a new p olit i cal p art y The fol .

United S tates Supreme Court negot iated a very ,

lowers of Clay y were kn o wn as W hi gs t hose of Jackson ,

unpop ular treaty w it h Great Britain Af ter t he . as D emocr a t s Clay and h is friends favour ed in ternal
.

pe 0 p 1e of France had p ut t heir k in g and q ueen t o i m provements at federal e xp ense and the c ont i nuance ,

death Presiden t W ashington i ssued his N eutrali ty

,
of t he Uni ted States Bank an i nst it ut ion fir st char ,

Proclam at ion t hus tak ing t he fir st step in the foreign

,
t er e d b y the Federa lists They also favoured a tar iff .

p oli c y of t he Uni ted States Though W ashi ngton . for p r otect i on These pri ncip les formed what i s kn own
.

was honoured by a second elect ion h is admi nistra , as t h e A meri c an sy stem Oi course the W higs
“ ”
.
,

t ion cont in ued to be attacked w ith considerab le energy were “ loose construct ion ists of t he Const it ut ion .

and ggreatr bitterness After enact in g t he laws referred . To these prin ciples t he Democrats were opp osed .

to tr a ci n g t he foreign p olicy of his country , an d

,
That organi z at ion i s generally regarded as bein g
or g a n i z mg i ts departments W ashin gt on determ ined , ident ical wi t h t h e J e fi e r son i a n p arty W i lli am H e n ry .

to ret i re from p ubli c li fe Before doin g so he i ssued . Harrison the fir st W hig president served for one
, ,

hi s “ Farewell A ddress ” W ashi n gt on s refusal of a .

’
m onth H is successor , V i ce Presiden t Tyler t hough
.
-
,
“
third ter m was p erhaps , n ot unco n nected w i th the an adm i rer of Henry Clay , w as a s t ri ct con str uc
m
,

attacks upon hi m by t he coarse j o urnali sts of that t i e . t i oni s t

”
Agai n in 1 84 8 t h e W h igs elected G eneral
.

John A dams wh o had served two terms as v i ce ,

Zachary Taylor and M i llard Fillmore This was t heir .

presiden t , was chosen t o succeed W ashi ngton H is . last vi ctory The i r atti tude t oward the Fugi t ive
.

maj or i ty over J effe rson who was elected t o the vi ce Slave Law i mpai red t he i r p op ul arity and i n 1 8 5 2 ,

presidency was very sli ght A n effort of thi s

,
. the y met wit h a c rush in g defeat In 1 8 5 6 a new .

admini strat io n to negot iat e a commercial treaty wit h organ i z ati on c omposed ch i efly of ant i slavery ele
,
-

Fran ce resulted in t h e celebrated X Y Z corre ments nomi n ated Fremon t and Dayt on t he fir st
, , ,

sp on d en ce I n p ort ions of t he coun try there was

. cand idates of t he Rep ub li can party They were .

opposit ion to t he new t axes A graver problem wi th . defeated After 1 860 however they won a ll t he
.
, ,

the ad min istrat ion was the question of dealin g w it h president ial election s e x cept those of 1 884 an d 1 89 2,
t hose cit i z ens and resi dent ali en s w ho att acked t he when Grover Cleveland the Democrati c can d idate , ,

presiden t and the members of hi s ad m i n istrat ion . was chosen The th ir d parties genera lly p art ies of
.
,

The Ali en and Sedition Laws were design ed t o m eet

t he emergen cy By a maj orit y of t he p e 0 p 1 e the.
m oral ideas w i ll be n ot i ced present l y
Terri tor i a l A ccessi on s
,

A fter 1 800 the su ccessive .

— .

Sedit ion Law was regarded as a v iolat ion of the First acquisi t ions of territ ory are to be noti ced In p oin t .

Amend men t of t he Con st it ution whi c h guarantees , of time t he Louisian a Purchase in 1 803 cam e fir st , , .

freedom of speec h and of the Press B y the legisla . Th is was acq uired from Fran ce after she had lost the
t ures of V irgini a and K ent uck y t h ese m easures were i mp ortan t coloni al p ossession of Hayt i and when ,

cri tic ised and the latter came n ear t o proclaim ing
, N ap oleon had dec ided t o renew t he war w it h E ngland .

n ullifica t i on as t he rightfu l remedy M adi son was . Flor ida was acqu ired from Spain i n 1 82 1 when t he ,

the author of t he V ir gin ia resolut ions , whi le J efl er son

'

Uni ted States s urrendered any clai m they may have

prepared t hose p assed by Kent ucky These resolu . had t o t he Texan country A t t hat t i me and by t he .

t ions conn ect w it h t he H artford Convent ion N ulli , same p urchase the Uni ted States succeeded to Spain s ’

fi ca t i on and Secessi on
,
In the t hir d president ial . rights i n the Oregon country H avin g ach ieved her .

election t he adm in istrat ion w as embarrassed by t he in dependen ce from M e x i c o Te x as was annexed i n ,

ta x es necessary for bu ild in g up a n avy by t he A li en , 1 84 5 by a j oin t resolut i on of both H ouses of Con g ress .

and Sedit ion Laws , and b y dissension amon g the The constitut ionali t y of that act has been challenged .

Federali st leaders H am ilton attacked President . The sett lement of the Oregon di spute was a con tem
A dams wi th great severity , and contrib uted to the p or a r y even t To that coun try America h ad several
.

defeat of the Federali st p arty , of whi ch he had been d istin ct t i tles Oregon was claimed by ri gh t of Ca p
.

—
’
the intell ectual head . tain Gra y s d iscovery of the Columbia Ri ver wh ich ,

E a r ly P oli ti ca l P a r ti es I n t he Const i tut ion al he named after h is ship when Presiden t Jc h erson had
’

Conve nt ion at P h i ladelphia there were many d i screp bought Louisiana he sent Le wi s and Clark t o e xp lore
ant elements W e are n ow con cern ed wi th on ly two ,
. that region ; i n 1 8 1 1 the f ur trading station A storia -

vi z , those who favoured t he f aed us or un ion under

.
, , was established there The right acqu i red with th e .

t h e proposed system and t hose wh o opposed i t The . purchase of Florida has already been ment ioned .

former were kno wn as Federa lists t he latter as Ant i , These claims reinforced by American occ upat ion ,
,

Federa lists W hen the Const itut i on was fin a lly

”
,
.

adop ted the An ti Federalists became “ st ri ct con

“
— u lt i matel y gave the vast Oregon coun try t o t he
Un ited S tates The Treaty of G uadalupe H idalgo .

s t uct
r i o n i s ts and t e Federa li sts loose con str uc
h wh ic h con cluded the war wi th M e x ico gave ,

t i o n is ts Presiden t W ash ington had generall y acted to the Un i ted States an im mense region i n t he south
w ith the Federali sts Adams als o belonged t o t ha t . west This in cluded the whole of Ca li forn i a N evada , ,

party .I t was during h is presidency that Congress Utah a smal l ppart of vo mi ng m ore than a t h ird of
, ,

enac ted the celebrated Al ien and Sed i t i on Laws . Colora do a nd considerable p or t1 on s of Ari z on a an d
,

T h ese measures were un popular and combined wi th , , N e w M e x ico In 1 8 5 3 th e G adsden Purchase from
. .

the at titude of t h e Federalists during the W a r of M e x ico completed th e boundary of t h e Un ited St at es .

1 8 1 2 led t o thei r c omple t e overthrow

,
The y had . in t h at region Alaska was purchased i n 1 8 67 for
.

organ i z ed t h e governmen t and given i t i ts tenden cy , from R ussia In our own t ime ( 1 8 9 9 ) .

b u t after the a d m in is t ra t ion of A dams t h e y b ecame Porto R ico a n d t h e Ph ilipp ine a rc h i pelago were
l i ttle more? t h a n a par ty of protes t I n 1 8 00 t h e . acq u ired a s a resul t of t h e war wi t h Sp a in
, Less . .

followers of Je fferson t h en known a s Repu b li cans , , i mportan t insular possessions in the Pa c ifi c ( H a wa i ian
won t h e presiden cy They h a d previ ousl y obt a ined . Islands G uam Samoan Islands ) were a lso a cquired
, ,

con trol of Congress A h that time the con fli ct i n . about thi s ti me .

 U N I TE D 1 67 U N ITED

Fo unda ti on s f o Forei g n Po li cy .
—
The N eutrali ty Sec ti on a l Confii ct I n the Con st itution al Convem .
—
Proclamat ion of Presiden t W ashington has been t ion ( 1 7 87 ) i t was clear that the N or th and the Sout h
ment ioned A second important step i n the develop
. h ad i nterests whi c h were somewhat d ifi e r en t . N ot
men t of Ameri ca s forei gn poli cy was taken i n 1 823
’
, withstan din g thi s fact , t hey agreed upon a funda
when Presiden t M onr oe sent t o Con gress h is annual mental law by adoptin g a n umber of compromises .

message Between 1 8 1 6 and 1 822 a revol ut ionary

. I n the endeavour t o adm in i ster the gove r n men t other
govern men t had been establi shed i n eac h of t he compromises were adopted between 1 7 89 and 1 8 60
Spani sh colon ies from the R io Grande to Cape H o rn . when the Southern States were conv i n ced that fur
Upon due consideration the Un ited States had ,
t her compromi ses would be useless I t has alread y .

ac kn owledged their independen ce After the over . been stated that one form of opposi t ion to the estab
t hrow of N ap oleon t he H oly A lli an ce had restored li sh me n t of t he F i rst Un ited States Ban k was sec
absolut is m on the cont inen t of E urope The proj ec t . t i on a l It was regarded as a N orthern measur e ; was
.

was t hen considered of restor in g to Spai n her lost supported ch i efly by N orthern members of Con gress ,

dependen cies in Sout h A merica E ngland however .

, ,
an d received few votes from t he Sout h In 1 820 the .

was opp osed t o such i ntervent ion Her att itude was . d ifie r e n ce between the section s assumed a very d ifl e r
ch i e fly determ ined by the p r o fit a ble commercial ent form A t that ti me i t was b oun d up w it h the
.

interests w h ich had Sprun g up sin ce th e overt hr ow of in stit ut ion of slave r y I n 1 8 1 8 t he Territory of .

Span is h domi n ion i n that region It was i n these . M issour i appli ed for ad mi ssion i n to t he Uni on as a
c irc umstances that Cann ing t h e Brit ish M in i ster of ,
stat e That app licat ion had n ot been acted upon i n
.

F or e i gn A fla i r s proposed to Dr Rush the Un i ted 1 8 1 9 when Represent at ive Tal lmadge , of N ew Y ork
'

,
.
, ,

States M inister i n E ngland that the two powers , prop osed an amendmen t t o th e eff ect “ that the fur
issue a j o i nt declaration agai nst the pr e posed in ter t her in trod uct ion of slave ry or involuntary serv itude
ve n ti on of t he H oly A lh a n ce An other elemen t i n . be prohibi ted an d that all c hildren of slaves born
,

t he situation was the at titude of Russia w h i ch had

been estab li shing t rad in g posts i n t he N ort h W est
,
— .
wi th i n the said state after the ad mi ssion th ereof in to
the Un ion shall be free at the age of twen ty five ” — .

I t was feared that she wo uld en deavour to e xtend her T hi s raised an impor t an t con stituti on al quest ion ,

d omi n i on farther do wn the coast John Qu in cy . n amely , whether under t he C on st it ut ion , Con gress
Adams Secretary of State protested aga i nst t his
, ,
had t he p ower t o i mpose cond i t ion s up on the admi s
act ion and informed the R ussian M in ister that the
,
si on of n ew states wh ic h were n ot i mposed b y the
Un i ted States would assume the posi tion that the Con stitut ion on the orig i n al states The amendmen t .

American con t in ents were n o longer op en t o futur e

colo ni z at ion by E uropean nat ions .
of Tallm adge passed the H ouse but fai led in the
Sen ate The discussion s on the an t i slavery amend
.
,
—
President M onr oe sought the ad vi ce of ex Presi -
men t created the greatest e x c itemen t throughout t he
dents J e fl erson and M adison and was en cour aged by coun try The matter was fin a lly sett led by the fir st
'

.
,

bot h in the stand wh i ch he was about t o take In . of the g reat comprom ises between the sect ions .

hi s message to Con gress Dec 1 823 the presiden t , .

, , ,
M issour i was ad mi tted wi thout any restrict ions upon
i n Speak ing of A meri ca s forei gn poli cy said that slavery bu t i n a ll other t er r itory n ort h of i ts southern
’
, ,
° '
h i therto the Un i ted States had n ot i n terfered i n the boundary (36 30 N lat ) slavery was proh ibited for .

“
i ntern al aff air s of th e A lli ed Powers ; that W e owe ever Boun d up wit h th i s con troversy was the a p
.

i t t herefore t o candor and t o the am i cable relat ion s

, ,
pli cation of the Distric t of M a in e wh ich sin ce 1 69 1 ,

e x ist i n g bet ween t he Un i ted States an d t hose powers , had been a part of M assach usetts M ain e was a d .

to declare that we sh ould consider any attemp t on mi tted as a free st ate , thus p reservin g in the Un ited
the i r part t o exten d t he i r system t o any p ortion of States Sen ate the balan ce between the two sect ion s .

thi s hemisphere as dangerous t o our peace and safety . The M issouri const itut ion con tain ed a provis ion e x
W ith t he e x i sting colon ies or dependen cies of any clud in g free negroes Thi s was a p alpable violat ion .

E uropean p ower we have n ot i n terfered and shall , of the Federal Constitut ion wh i ch guaran tees to t he ,

not in terfere B ut w i th t he govern ments who have

. c iti z en s of each state the p rivi leges and i mm un i ties
declared t h eir independen ce and ma i n tained i t and , of ci ti z ens of t he several states Th is p art of the .

whose i ndependence we have on great con siderati on , con troversy was set at rest by the i n fluen ce of Henry
and j ust prin ciples ackn owledged we could n ot V i ew
, , Clay . It was provided t hat t his d iscr i m in at ion of
a n y in terposit ion for the purpose of oppressin g them the M issour i consti tut ion would n o t be en forced .

or cont rolling in any other manner the i r destiny by ,

Thi s ended the first controversy over the question of
any E uropean power in any other li ght than as the slavery In the d ivision of the Louisian a Terri tory
.

man ifest a t ion of an unfriendly disposition towards t hus e ffected t he N ort h gained m uch m ore terri tory
,

t he United States ” A nd “ I t was impossible t hat .

, than t he South .

t he Alli ed Powers should e x tend t heir po li ti cal sys G rave as was the const itut ion al q uestion t hat arose
t em t o any p ort ion of e ither c on t in en t wi thout endan on the ap pli cat ion of M issouri for adm ission to the
ger in g our peace and happ iness ; n or could any on e Un i on t h at whi ch grew up about 1 830 was much more
,

be li eve that our Sout he r n bret hren if left t o them

‘ ’
, alarming Af ter the war of 1 8 1 2 t he successive Con
.

selves wou ld adop t i t of their own accord

, I t was .
gr esses en acted tari ff laws So g reat was the Op posi .

eq ua ll y i mpossible therefore t hat we should behold

, , ti on t o that wh ich was p as sed in 1 828 that 1 t was
such in t erposit ion in any form wit h in di fference called the Tari ff of Abom i n at ion s The feeli n g
The part of the message referrin g t o R ussia declared between the section s showed i tself when Sen ator
that “ occasion h as been j udged proper for assert i n g ,
Foote of Connect ic ut introduced a resolut ion pro
, ,

as a prin ciple i n wh ic h the right s and i nterest s of the posin g an in q uir y as to whether or n ot i t was desirable
Un i ted States are involved t h at t he Ameri can Con , temporarily t o suspend the sale of publi c lands ex ,

t i n e n ts b y t he free and i nde enden t condi tion wh i ch ce p t i ng such as were a lread y surve y ed It also pro
,
p .

they have a ssu med an d ma in tained are hen ceforth ,

posed to aboli sh t h e offi ce of surveyor general Sen -
.

n ot t o b e considered as subj ects for future coloni z a ator Hayn e of South Caroli n a , chose t o regard th i s as
,
”
t ion by a n y E uropean power These ann oun ce . a man ifestat i on of t h e E astern j ealousy of the W est .

men t s of t h e pres ident have sin ce been colle ct ivel y

. H e made Foot e s resolu tion the occasion of a general
’

kno wn as th e M on roe Doct rine ” W hen t h ese bo ld . and en erget i c attack upon N e w E ngland and a p re
declarat ions were made t h e Un i ted St ates felt eon , t en ce for e x pound in g the d oct rine of n ulli ficat ion .

“ ”
fid e n t o i t h e support of G reat Britain
. Their j oin t . By n ullifiea t i o n in A merican h ist or y is mean t t h e
, ,

n avies would h ave made i t i mposs ible for the A llied claim b y a sta t e of t h e right to suspend wi t h in h e r own
Powers to conduct any m ili tary operations i n the territory the O perat ion of any act of Con gress wh ic h
wes tern hemisphere . t he state deems in j urious t o her own interests .

H ayn e s brilli ant orat ion was rep lied to by W ebster
’
( 1 830 ) i n p erhaps the greatest speech ever deli vered
, ,
i n the Senate It has been said that W ebster t ook
. adopted and signed , and t hen c i rcul at ed throughout
ground on a p osi tion t oward wh i ch the g reater p art of
t h e nation wa s steadily advan c i ng , that is in the di
rect ion of n at i onali sm H ayne s sent i ments fo un d
favour in th e Sout h alone The t heory w hi ch h e
had champi oned Sout h Caroli n a soon sought to p ut
in to pract ice In 1 832 Con gress p assed a new tari ff
. t he people of V i rgi ni a to “ determ in ed resistan ce at all
law wh i ch omi tted many of the obj ect ionable fea
,
t ures of t he Act of 1 828, though i t still contain ed the
prin ciple of protection
In South Caroli na , where t he ob j ect ion t o the law
was strongest t he governor c onvoked t he legisla
,
t ure in Speci al session That b ody issued a call for a
state convent ion to meet at Columb ia 1 9 N cv 1 832
and on 24 N c v there was passed by that con ven ti on
. t o the free states
the famous Ord in an ce of N ull i fica t i on Thi s de
cla r e d the tari f law n ull and vo id so far as con cern ed
South Carolina , forbade the payment of dut ies after
1 Feb 1 833 and prohib ited appeals aris i ng un der the
.
, , '
law fro m b ein g taken t o the Uni te d States cour ts
If Con gress attemp ted t o red uce t he state to obedi
ence Sout h Caroli n a would regard her con ne x i on w it h
,
t he Un ion as dissolved T he legislature passed sev
eral laws to carry t he ordinance in to eff ect A mong
t hem was an act that prov ided for p lacin g the state
on a war footin g for t h e p u r pose of resist in g t he
author ity of t he Uni ted St ates An other act p ro
vid ed a test oath for a ll officer s of t he state by means
of wh i ch Uni on men were t o be e x cluded fro m holding
posi t ions of h onour or trus t under Sout h C aroli na
President Jackson who had been r e elected i n 1 832
does n ot app ear t o have been alarmed at t he c ondi
t ion of a ff air s in South Carol ina H e instructed t he
c ol lector of customs at Charleston to perform t he
dut ies of h is off i ce an d if n ecessary to use force H e,
also issued an address t o t he N u lli fi ers In it he
“
urged them t o yield ; he likewise told them that the
laws of t he Un ited States must b e executed
Those who t old you that you mi ght peacefu lly pre
ven t their execut ion deceived you Their obj ect
”
is disun ion and di suni on by armed force is treason
,
W h en Con gress met in December 1 832 t he presi
dent wanted t he passage of an a ct givin g hi m p ower
t o collect tari ff duties by force of arms A great de
bate foll owed on th is measure , wh ich was kn own as
t he Force Act Speaki n g for t he Sout h , Calh oun as
. t o considerab le neig h bour i n g t erri tory and for h aving
se r ted the r ight of a state t o n u ll if y acts of Con gress
deemed i nj ur ious t o her in terests , and also t he right t o
secede from t he Un ion W ebster deni ed the right of
n ulli fica t i on and secession and upheld the Uni on and
the Constit ut ion H enr y Clay , fearin g a civi l war
.
n ow came forward wit h a comprom ise H e proposed
t h at the t a r ifl of 1 8 32 should be reduced gradually t i ll
'
1 842 when on a ll i mp orted arti cles there sh ould be an
,
a d va lor em duty of t wenty per c en t Thi s Compr o
m ise Ta r ifi became a law i n M arch 1 8 33 A second
’
conven tion met in South Caroli na , and rep ealed the
O rd inan ce of N ulli fica ti on
The acq ui sit ion of t err itory from M exi co led to a n
other great con trove rsy between N orth and South , or
rather between the free a nd the slave st ates I n
A ugust 1 8 46 Presiden t Polk asked Con gress for
, ,
“
for the sett lemen t of the boundary ques
t ion wi th M e xi co ” M e x i co had aboli sh ed slavery
long before and Davi d W ilm ot of Pe nn sy l
van ia moved that the m oney should be granted
provided that neither slavery n or in volun tary ser vi
t ude s h ould e x i st i n any terri tory t hat m igh t be a c
q uired from M e x i co Th e b ill passed t h e H ouse of
Representat ives the So ut h ern members vot in g ,
almost solidl y against i t ; i n the Senate it n ever came
t o a vote W hen fin a lly the measure d id pass the
. ,
W i lmot proviso was stri cken ou t Later i t was
sought to attach this an ti slavery provision to o t h er
bil ls W h ile i t did not pass , i t aroused the most bi tter
. t ur ba nces occurred in m a ny N or th ern cit ies , an d som e
U N I TED 1 68 U N I TED
feeli ng in the South A t a meet in g of Southern m em .
bers of Con gress an address wri tten by Ca lhoun was
t he country Amon g ot her th i n gs i t complai ned of
.
t he constant agit at ion of t he slavery q uestion by the
.
’
Abo lition ists In 1 84 9 the legislature of V ir gin ia
.
. adop ted resolut ions of wh i ch one declared that “ the
attempt t o enforce t he W i lm ot Proviso ” would rouse
_
”
ha z ards and to the last e x tremity The M issour i .
-
“
legislat ur e also protested aga i nst the pr i n ciple of the
. W i lmot proviso One of t h e toasts at a d inn er t o
.
Senator B ut ler , i n Sout h Carolina was A Southern ,
Conf ederacy ” Besides th is general Southern oppo
.
. s i ti on to t he W i lmot proviso that sect i on comp lained ,
.
, , of the di ffi culty of recovering slaves who had escaped
In almost every p a r t of the South
.
. t here was a demand that the terr it ories be opened t o
slavery Some of t he legislatur es con ten ded t hat the
.
abo lit ion of the slave trade in the D istri ct of Columb ia
would be a dir ect attack on the i nst it ut ions of t he
. South ern States .
In t he N orth , p ubli c sent iment was n ot less e x cited .
The legislatures of t he free states e x cept I owa r e , ,
. solved that Congress had t he p ower and was i n d uty
. b ound t o p rohibi t slavery in the territories M any .
states in struc ted their con gressmen to do everyt hi ng
p ossible toward aboli sh ing t h e slave trade in the D is
. t r i ct of Columb ia W hen Con gress met i n Decem .
,
ber 1 8 4 9 i t had serious b usin ess on hand
, ,
It then .
seemed as if the Uni on were ab ou t t o be broken up ,
. and that in i ts p lace there were to be two rep ub li cs
, _
-
,
one comp osed of free st ates an d one made up of slave
st ates A s i n the e x c itemen t of 1 832 so now aga i n
.
,
. Henry Clay came forward as a p eacemaker In hi s .
p atr iot i c task he was assisted by bot h W ebster an d
, , . Calh o un Several b i lls were at last passed by Con
.
.
g ress .Coll ect ively t h ey are k nown as the Compro
mi se M easures of 1 8 5 0 By this treaty between the .
. sect ions i t was provided that Ca liforn i a b e admi tted as
a free state an d t hat the slave trade b ut n ot the in
, ,
.
. st i t ut i on of slavery be prohib ited i n t he Distri ct of ,
. Columbi a These b ills were agreeab le to t he N orth
. .
, , The measur es in wh ich the South was in terested were :
territor ial govern men ts for Utah and N ew M e x i co
. without any restri ct ion on slavery ; and the p aymen t
t o Te x as of for aban don in g her clai m
,
s urrendered her reven ue system to t he Un ited States
at t he t ime of her ann e x at ion The measure i n which .
. t he Sout h was m ost in terested however w as a m ore , ,
,
stringen t law for the ret urn of fugit ive slaves Dur .
,
in g t h e debates on th e m easur e President Tay lor ,
. d ied (9 Jul y H e was succeeded by t he v i ce
,
presiden t M i llard Fi ll more A law relat ive to the
.
,
return of fugit ive slaves had been p assed in t he a d
. m in istration of President W ashington The .
,
. n ew law empowered Un ited States comm issioners t o
t ur n over a coloured person to anybod y who claim ed
. h i m as an escaped slave I t a lso provided that the .
negr o could n ot give test i mony It f ur ther pro vi ded .
t hat all c iti z ens when sum moned to do so were r e
, ,
. q u ired to assist i n t he capt ure of t he slave , or i f i t ,
seemed nec essary in deli verin g hi m t o his o wners , .
Any c it i z en who harboured a fugi tive slave or p r e
. vented h i s recapture was li able to fin e and i m prison
men t T he Comprom ise of 1 85 0 was e x pected to last
.
,
forever As we shal l see i t became the very seed
.
,
plot of graver troub les Slave catchers in great num .
bers in vaded the N orth and hun ted up negroes who
. had escaped twen ty years or even a generat ion b e ,
fore and w ith the assistance of t he Un i te d States
,
mars h als took t hem back t o slavery B ot h t h e free .
negroes and the wh ites in t h e N orth in terfered wit h
. the o ffice r s in the performan ce of the i r d uties In .
- this way many n egroes regained t heir l iberty Dis .
 U N I TED
the mails of thi s obno x io us literature , but the p ost
m aster general claimed that he had no aut hori ty t o
-
e x clude obj ect ion able m at ter from t he m ai ls I n the
summer of 1 835 t he p e 0 p 1e of C harleston took t he
m atter into t heir own hands , in tercep ted the m ails ,
sei z ed t he Aboli t ion ist literat ure and made a p ub li c
b onfire of i t The H ouse of Representatives refused
. the p residenti al elect ion of 1 8 5 2 t he W hig p arty
to recei ve p et it ions in any way relat ing to slavery , or
rat her voted t o lay t hem on t he table In Congress
ex Presiden t John Quin cy Ad ams acted as t he Sp okes
-
m an of t he Aboli t ion ists I n t he brief space of four
years he p resen ted two t housan d ant i slavery p eti
t ions The more the H ouse endeavoured t o dis
. was now enforced quietly W hen Fran kli n Pierce
courage such p et itions , t he m ore active became t he
Abo li tion ists That body therefore on 28 Jan 1 84 0,
. .
declared t hat n o p eti t ion , memorial resolut ion or
other p aper pray ing for t he aboli t ion of slavery in the
D istrict of Colu mbi a or any St ate or Territory , or the
slave trade between t he States and the Terri tories of
t he Un ited States i n whi ch i t n ow e x ists shall be
received by t h is H ouse or entertained in any way
whatever About twenty members from the free
states supported th is resolut ion For a long t ime
p et it ions poured in to t he House praying for the rep eal
“ ”
of t he gag r ule , b ut i t was not un ti l 1 84 4 t hat t his
was done . i n fluen ce d b y h is personal ambi tion
In 1 84 0 t he Ab olit ioni sts nom inated James G ill es
p ie B ir ney , a Southerner as t he i r fir s t cand idate for
t he presidency H e received 7 000 votes Four . .
years later ( 1 84 4 ) voters supp orted another
Abol i tion ist cand idate W hen i t i s remembered that
. acceptable to t hat sect ion by a better ta r i fi law b ut
m any of the anti slavery p arty were so radical t hat-
t hey refused to p art i c ip ate in such contests t heir
i n crease in n umbers m ust have convin ced t he Sout h
t hat t hey were dest ined soon to be a menace t o
slavery I n Con gress t he d iscussion of slavery
. prom ise of 1 8 5 0 referrin g t o Utah and N e w M e x i co
aroused m uch b itterness and henceforth t hat issue
coloured almost every q uest ion in the t ide of events
Slavery had been recogni z ed by t he Constit ut ion b ut
that instrument gave to Con gress authority over t he
subj ect on ly i n t h e D istr ic t of Columbia and i n t he
t erri tories and i t w as no t unt i l vast areas had been
,
acqu ired by t he Un i ted States that Sout hern states
men perce ived any dan ger to t heir own sect ion in such
a greemen ts as t he Compromise on the ad mi ssion of
M issouri After t he acq uisit ion of the South W est
.
fro m M e x i co , they insisted t hat the restr icti on of
slavery in t he terri tories was a d iscrim ination again st
t hose Southern c iti z ens who were i nterested i n the
insti tut ion The territories were open to t he c it i
. onl y to the Consti tut ion of the Un i ted States
z ens of t he N orth wi th t he ir p roperty ; why n ot a llow
t he ci ti z ens of the Sout h the same pr ivi lege ? To th is
the N orth rep li ed that n e g ro slavery was a moral
wron g and ough t to be restri cted rather than e x
,
tended The civili zed world said that sect ion , h as
.
condemned slavery as an evi l I f , t hen , the i n sti tu
t ion could n ot be ab ol ished it sh ould no t be further
e x tended M oreover if the c it izens of a com mon
.
,
wealt h could tak e i n to on e of the terri tories a ll the
k inds of proper ty recogn i z ed by the laws of that
c ommon wealth the c i ti z ens of other states could
,
insist u pon the same privi lege In t hi s case every
thing would be property i n on e of t he terri tories wh i ch
was so regarded in any one of the sta tes Th is is
en tirely in consisten t with any Con gressional regula
t ion of t he sub j ect Per h aps n ot more than on e
. slavery delegate A ccord ing to the principle of the.
t h ird of the Southern people were in terested in t he
insti tution of slavery , b ut the large slave holders
formed a p owerful aristoc racy Though i n n umber
they may not have exceeded t hey were
infl uen tial en ou gh to name govern ors congressmen ,
and state legislators and for a t ime to determ in e , election d ay approached armed M issourian s ent ered
i mportan t q uestions of foreign an d domesti c po li cy
In the S outh their opin ions were n ot often q uestioned
In many of the Southern States i t was forbidden to
teach slaves to read and write bu t oftent i mes the
more humane masters taugh t them t he m ean ing of
1 70 U N I TED
the Scripture and even t h e elements of knowledge .
N a tur a lly the in fluen ce of t he m ore in telli gen t among
. the n egroes was feared Southern statesmen of t he .
generation before the Civi l W a r e x pressed op ini on s
that are n ot now held i n that sect ion
Th e Ka ns a s N ebr a s ka B i ll —Fro m th e results of
.
-
.
n ever recovered The great Democrati c vi ctory of .
. that year is generally ascribed to the at titude of that
p arty toward the Comprom ise measures , espec ially
. i ts p osit ion on the Fugi ti ve Slave Law Thoug h in .
-
t he beginn in g i t met wit h m uch opposi tion t hat ac t ,
.
was inaugurated 4 M arch 1 8 5 3 , the n at ion was , ,
, enj oy ing somet h ing li ke a state of tranq ui ll i ty The .
, n ew presiden t apparen tly beli eved that the slav ery
agi tation had permanen tly sun k t o rest I n t he .
m idst of t his rep ose a measure was in trod uced into
Congress whi ch plunged t he nati on in to a sectional
, stri fe m ore bi tter than any wh i ch preceded i t Ste .
p hen A Douglas of I lli n oi s Chairman of the Senate
.
, ,
Comm i ttee on Terri tories in trod uced a b i ll t o organ ,
. i z e a govern men t for t hat part of the Louisiana Terri
tory between M isso ur i and the Rocky M oun tains .
Senator Douglas has been ac cused of having been
H e could have .
added to h is pop ulari ty by assisting in the acquisi ti on
, of Cuba a proj ect agreeab le to t he South , but he
,
was n o t i n the presiden t s cab inet I n the wa y of ’
.
i n creasin g h is populari t y he could have made h imself
”
,
he had l ittle t alen t for mathematics or econom ics .
,
T he posit ion wh ic h he occup ied as Chai rman of the ,
Comm ittee on Territories , h e proceeded to t ur n to
a ccoun t H e main tained t hat the p ar t of the Com
.
, established “ certai n great principles ” wh ich were ,
“
. i n tended t o be of general appli cat ion In h is
,
second b i ll it was provided t hat the co un t ry men
t i on ed would be d ivided into two terri tories one t o be ,
called K ansas and the other N ebraska I t e x pressly .
repealed that secti on of the M issouri Comprom ise
restri ctin g slavery , and opened up to slavery terr itory
w hi ch was already free soi l .
The true in ten t and mean in g of thi s act , said the
-
law is , “ n ot to legislate slavery i nto any terri tory or
,
state n or to exclude i t therefrom b ut to leave t he
, ,
p eople thereof perfectly free to form an d regulate
the ir domestic i n stitut ion s i n thei r own wa y subj ect ,
”
.
There began at on ce a seven years struggle for ’
K ansas Fr om the N orth t he free state men and
.
from the South the slave state men rushed int o K an
sas and began a struggle for i ts possession The .
, slave State of M issour i prom ptly attempted t o
. colon i z e the n ew terr itory , and settled at a p lace whi ch
, was called Atchi son i n honour of a pro slavery Senator ,
-
of M issouri On the other hand t h e N orth was not
.
,
idle The N e w E ngland E m i grant A id Societ y sent
.
a band of free state men who sett led west of Atch ison ,
at a p lace n amed Lawren ce Strife began i n N ovem .
. ber 1 8 5 4 at the election of a terri torial d elegate t o
, ,
Con gress A rmed bands of M issourians crossed the
.
. border into K ansas took p ossession of t he p ol ls , ,
and though t hey had n o rig ht to vote , elected a pro
,
Kansas N ebraska B i ll t he people dwelling in the
-
,
-
terr itory were to decide whet her i t should b e a free
. or a slave terri tory Therefore each side endeavoured .
to elect a m aj ori ty of members to the territorial legis
, la tur e The ele ct ion t ook place in March 1 85 5
. As , .
,
. K ansas i n compan ies , sq uad s and part ies l i ke a n , ,
. i nvad ing army voted and t h en wen t h ome to M is
, ,
souri ” In t h is manner was elected a legislature of
.
,
w h ich every member save one was a pro slavery man -
.
I t p romptly adopted t he slave laws of M 1 sso1 1 r 1 and
 U N ITED 17 1 U N IT ED

appl ied them to K ansas The free state men repu . quil N ever theless t here were at work unseen bu t
.
,

d i a te d t h is legislature held a conven tion a t To p e ka a nd

, , powerful forces A s w e have seen as early as 1 8 3 2 . .
,

made a free state consti tut ion whic h they subm i tted , there was talk of d isun ion ; after 1 85 0 t h e n otion of
t o popular vote Pro slavery men refrai ned from
.
-
secession became fam iliar I n 1 860 the excuse for t h is .

vot ing b ut the free state people ra ti fied the proposed step was t h e election of A bra h am Li n coln the candi ,

consti tution Later they elected a governor and a

. d ate of t h e Rep ubli can party w h o w as regarded by ,

legislature W hen that body assembled senators

.
, t he South as a sectional candidate now a sectional ,

were elected and Congress was asked to adm it ,

pres i den t elect The part y to whic h Lin coln belonged
-
.

K ansas int o the Un ion . was a mmor i ty one I ndeed t h ere were cast against .
,

The old leaders of t h e W hig party Clay and W eb , h im almost a mi llion more votes than were cast for
ster were dead b ut t h at organi z ation lost not on ly
, ,
hi m I n t he President ial con test of 1 860 Br e cki n
.

leaders but thousands of voters in the free states A s . r idge and Lane e x pected the supp ort of the Southern
earl y as 1 84 1 a state conven tion i n Louisiana founded States ; Douglas was t he choi ce of the N orthern Dem
the N at ive A merican or K nown o th i ng p a rty The . o cr a ts Th e Consti tut ional Un ionists nom in ated
.

K ansas N ebra ska Act and i ts e x ecut ion led to a

-
B ell and E verett I t was t h is sp li t in the Demo crati c
.

break ing up of the old p oli tical parties As earl y as . p arty t hat made p ossible i n N ove mb e r 1 8 60 , , ,

—
1 85 4 t here was formed a new organ i z ation establi shed t he elect ion of Abraham L in co ln and H ann ib al
on anti slavery princip les The new party n amed
Republican was j oined by H e e soilers W higs and
,
.

— ,
,

,
H am li n .

The Legislat ure of South Caroli n a wh ich had ,

anti N ebraska Democrats The fir st N a ti o na l N om

-
. assembled for the p urpose of ap po in ting electors of
i n a t i n g Convent ion of t his party i ts candi president and vice presiden t called a convent ion -
, ,

dates and some of its princip les have been n oti ced
,
wh ich met at Charleston on 20 Dec 1 860 and passed .
, ,

in the sketch of poli t ical parties In t h at elect ion the . an ord inan ce of secession A ccord ing to the Southern .

Democrati c n om inees B uchanan and Brec k in ridge , ,

theory th is act severed the relat ions of that state
,

were chosen W higs and K n own o th i ng s then d is

. w it h the Un ion Ot her states followed her e x amp le , .

appeared from n at ional po li ti cs In h is inaugur al . and in Fe b 1 8 61 , at M on tgomery Alabama organ

.
, , ,

address Presiden t B uchanan referred to a forthcoming i z e d t he Confederate States of A merica A provi .

decision of t he Un ited States Supreme Court whi ch , si on a l const it ut ion was adop ted an d agen ts were ,

would set at rest the slavery agitat ion This was in . sent in to other Sout h ern States t o persuade t h em to
the case of Dred Scott Sanford The q uest ion in . j oin the slave hold in g confederacy A t d ifi e r e n t -
.

this celebrated c ase was w h ether a slave became free dates un ti l M ay 1 861 , other commonwealths cast their ,

if taken b y his master to and perm it ted to reside i n , , fortunes w i th the new governmen t I n all t he .
,

a free state Th e op in i on of the maj ori ty decided

. seced ing states n umbered eleven The Presiden t of .

( 1 ) that Dred Scott was n ot a ci ti zen and therefore , t h e Sout hern Confederac y was Je fferson Davis of ,

could no t sue in the Un ited St ates courts H is . M ississipp i ; A le x ander H Step hen s of G eorgia was .
, ,

residen ce in M innesota had n ot made h im free ; (2) chosen vi ce presiden t The const itut ion d ifi er e d b ut
-
.

t hat Congress could not e x clude from t h e terr itories slightl y from the Consti tu tion of t he Un ited States .

slave proper ty any more than other sort of property ; I ts preamble stated t h at the Confederate States acted
( 3 ) the M issouri Comprom ise of 1 820 was n ull an d in t h e i r sovereign and indep endent capacit y
Ci vi l W a r —
.

void The di s sen t in g op in ion of Justi ce Cur tis in thi s

. W hile t he peop le of the Sou th were
.

cas e was dest in ed to become the legal basis of the organ i z in g a governmen t , Presiden t Buc h an an d id
T hi r teenth Amendment . not h ing to preserve t he Union I n his view the .

The e ffec t of t h is decision was to Sp li t the Demo states had no r ight t o secede bu t , if they d id so t h ere , ,

crat i c p arty i n t he N orth and to attract g reat n umbers was no aut hority conferred by t he Const itution of the
of ant i slavery men t o t he new Rep ub li can organi z a
-
Un ited States to preven t such act ion O n 4 M arch .
,

t ion I n Kans as t h e struggle between free state and

.
-
1 861 , L incoln took the oath of o th ee as presiden t and
slave stat e men cont i n ued t h e a d m i ni strati on givin g
-
,
deli vered a very temperate addr ess in the course of ,

i ts supp ort to the latter To this era belong the cele . whi ch he stated t hat h e had no p urpose t o interfere
b r a te d j o in t debates between Senator Douglas and w i t h t he inst i tut ion of slavery in t h e states where i t
A bra h am Lin co ln for the Uni ted States senatorship for e x isted and he believed t hat he had n o lawful right
,

the State of I lli no is The legislat ure w hi ch w as to . to do so N evertheless he had formed a resolu tion
.
,

elect a successor to Sen ator Douglas was i tse lf to be to enforce the laws and t o protect t h e p roperty of the
chosen in 1 85 8 O ne cand id ate was an advocate of
. Un ited Sta tes I t was i n hi s endeavour to carry .

s quatt er soverei gn ty the other was opp osed to the ,

out t his p oli cy that t h e great C ivil W a r began In .

e x tension of slavery in to t he t erritori es Before t he . t heir eagern ess to e x tend t h eir authorit y over t he
p eople of seven towns in their st ate t he r ival leaders ent ire South the Confederate o ffic ia ls decided to
d iscussed t h eir respective p latforms Though L in . sei z e For t S umter , whi ch was the prop erty of t he
coln was d efeated for the Un ited St ates Senate his ,
Un ited States O n 1 2 A pril 1 861 a considerable army
.
, ,

remarkable speeches made h im a n at ional character under G eneral Beauregard began i ts siege Th e li t tle .

and won for h i m the Rep ublican nominat ion in t h e garrison under M aj or Anderson was compelled t o
great contest for the presidenc y in 1 8 60 In that era . surrender The firs t imp ort ant battle between the
.

Jo h n B rown w ho hated slavery and who had opposed

,
sections took pl ace a t B ull R un V irgin i a 2 1 J ul y , , ,

i t in Kansas settled on the M aryland side of the Poto

, 1 8 61 when the same Confederate general defeated the
,

m ac River not far from H arp er s Fe r ry wit h about ’

Un ion army under G eneral M cD owe ll For t he .

twenty followers I n O ctob er , 1 85 9 , they sei z ed the

. con fli ct t hus in augurated the South wh ich had lon g ,

Un ited St at es arm oury at t h at t own and freed a been p rep aring was m u c h better e quipped t han was ,

n umber of slaves in it s vi cin it y The negroes d id not . the N ort h A ft er look in g in to t h e law and consul tin g
.

rise as Brown had e x pected ; his force was soon over t h e preceden ts , Presid en t L i ncoln in a proclamat ion .

powered by Un ited States troops ; Brown h imself was called fort h the m ilitia of the several states .

captured tried for treas on against t he State of Vi r

, Th e p oli cy adopted i n W ashin gt on was to d ivide
gin ia and convi cted of promot ing a servile i n surr e c
,
the Confederate S tat es alon g the lin e of t h e M issis
t ion . In December 1 85 9 he was hanged In som e, , . sipp i to block ade their p orts and to take thei r cap it al
, ,

locali ties of the N orth there was s y mpathy f or h is w h i ch had been removed t o R ichmond after th e
fate b ut ot h er com mun it ies looked on with i n d ifi er secession of V i rgin ia The Confed erates won anot h er
'

.
,

en ce . battle at Ball s Bl u ff i n O ct 1 861

,
M eanw h i le a
’
,
.
,
.

To many people in America the admin istration of large army was being brought toget h er at W ash i ng
President Buchan an appeared to be perfectly t ran ton T h is w as placed under the comm an d of G enera l
.
 UNI TED 1 72 U N I TED

G eorge B M cClella n who later advan ced toward

Ric h mond from Y orktown
.
, where he was greatly strength ened On 1 9 and 20
I n M a y 1 862, hi s army .
, Sep te mber 1 863 t h e se arm i es foug h t at C hi cka
, ,

was close to t he Confederate cap i tal Thereafter . ma ug a t he most desp erate battle t h at had y e t t aken
occurred heavy figh ti n g unt i l the beg i nn i ng of July . p lace i n Tennessee The mi li t a i y gen ius of General .

Later in t he season the Uni on forces were again d e George H Thomas saved the Union army from d e
.

feated near t he old B ull Run batt le ground Thi s -

. struct i on after Rosecrans had le tt t he fie ld T hough _
.

succession of vi ctories p ersuaded G eneral Robert E . hi s fame was to come later even here Sheridan d is ,

Lee t hen i n c om mand of t he Ar my of N ort hern

, p lay ed great ab ili t y Though st ill in comman d , .

V irgin ia to make his fir st in vasion of t he N orth Rosecrans remained i nact ive and p ressed t he adm in
1 6—
, On .
,
1 7 Sep t 1 8 62 , he was defeated at A nt ietam by a
.
, i str a t i on for reinforcements W hen i t was feared .

sup erior Un ion force under G eneral M cClella n , and

_

t hat he wou ld s urrender t he army President Lin co ln ,

comp elled t o retreat in to V i rgi n i a T he approach of . sent G eneral Grant to the headquarters of Rosecrans ; “

win ter foun d hi m o ccupy in g a strong p osit ion i n the Sherman came later w it h a small force As we have
v icini ty of F r e d er i cksb ur g T here h e was at tacked
.

. seen Sher idan and Thomas alr eady belonged to t hat

,

by G eneral B urnside who had sup erseded M cClella n , army General H ooker was sent west from t h e Ar m y
i n t he com mand of the Federal army Lee i n fli cte d . of t h e Potomac whic h was following L ee This was , .

im mense loss on hi s O pponents and i n M a y 1 863, , , the onl y o ccasion during t he war when nearly all t h e
at C han cell orsvi lle won p erhap s a still greater v i c great Un ion commanders t ook p art in any battle
. .

tory These advantages e Ha ced every recollect ion The Federal cause had t he b e n e fit s of t heir services
at M ission ary Ridge and Lookou t M ountai n 23—
.

of his defeat at An t iet am an d i ndu ced hi m to m ak e , 25 ,

anot her i nvasion of t he N orth D uring M a y and . N ov 1 863 .

, I n t h ese great batt les Bragg aft er muc h
.
,

June , 1 863 , his vi ctorious troops m ar ched leisur ely loss was forced into G eorgi a where his command was
, ,

t h rough V irgin ia and M arylan d and d uri ng t he fir st , t urned over t o Genera l Josep h E Johnston H e r e . .

three day s of July followin g fought at G ettysb urg treated slowly t oward At lanta followed by S her
'

, ,

Pennsylvan i a , t he great est battle of t he N ew man and Thomas Grant and Sherid an came east ; .

W orld The defeat of G eneral Lee by G eneral

. the former comm ander i n c h ief of all t he Federal
,
- -

George G M eade the Commander of t he

.
, arm ies took up hi s headquarters wit h M eade s arm y ,
,
’

A rm y of t he Potomac was a disaster to t he , whi le t he latter was given an independen t command 1 n

Sout h and marked t he t urning p oi nt of t he
,
-
W est V i i g in i a This brong h t h im later into t he .

war General Lee n ever again commanded so

. Shenandoah V alle y where h e destroyed a fin e Con ,
sp lend id an army ; in fact t he Confederacy could not federate army under G eneral E arly d ur i n g t h e sum _

fur nish one Perhap s a greater m i li tary leader than

. mer and autumn of 1 864 .

M eade would h ave ann i h ilated t he remnant of t he A i te1 w inn ing a numbe i of sm all batt les from John
“

A rmy of N or t h e r n V irgin ia before i t a rrived at t he ston w ho had con t in ued t o ret ire before him , Sher
,

R a p p a h a n n ock a second tim e A s i t was Lee escap ed .

, man fin a lly reached A tlan ta There his command .

and was able to protract the struggle for m ore t han was energeti cally at tacked by G eneral J B Hood , . .

another year W hen t he war was renewed i n V i r . who had sup erseded J oh n st on The aggressive sys
gin i a Lee and hi s famous cap t ains were opp osed t o
, tem of t he new leader dest 1 oy e d an e x cel lent army and
Generals Sher idan and Grant . left t he S tat e of Georgia at t he mercy of S herman s ’

Th e ment ion of these offi cer s reminds on e of the veterans To draw the Federal comm ander away
.

p rog ress of t he Federal armi es i n t he W est The . from the 1 n te 1 1 0 r of the com monwealt h Hood entered ,

p rob lem of op en ing up t he M ississipp i was begun i n Tennessee in tend ing n o doubt to alarm t he p e 0 p 1 e
, , ,

t h e south b y General B enj am in F B ut ler i n command . of the M iddle W est by a demon stration of force in the
of an army and Com mod ore D G Farragut who , . .
, d irection of t he O hi o River Thi s p o licy however , .
,

co operated wit h a powerful fle e t

-
In A pri l 1 8 62 fai led to divert Sherman from h is p urp ose of marchin g
N e w Orleans was permanen tly occupied by t he F ed
.
, ,

t o t he sea and destro y ing eu route whatever would be

e r a ls . Fart her n orth the r iver had been freed from of value to t h e Confederate armi es Thi s was very .

Confederate c ontrol by t he V ictories of G eneral Pope t h oroughl y Southern p eople t hi n k rut hlessly , don e
B y December 1 863 S h erman capt ur ed F ort M cA l~
, , .

General Grant and Com modore Foote The capt ure , .

, ,

of Forts Henry and Donels on brought Gran t s ’

lister , and later made President Lin coln a C hr istmas
army in to the hear t of Tennessee and led to the fli g h t p resen t of Savann ah As he marched northward .

of its legislature to M emph is where t he Confederates , t h rough the Caro lin as General Hardee hur r ied away ,

sti ll had a foothold Later that general di rected h is

. from t he city of Charleston lest h is litt le arm y mi ght
atten tion to the remain ing obstac les to the free n avi be cap tured W hen Hood invaded Tennessee Sher .
,

g a t i on of the M ississipp i n amely V i cksb urg and Port , m an left Thomas to deal wi th him I n an evi l hour .

H udson H owever h is fir st movements were n ot

.
, for the Confederacy Hood threatened Thomas at ,

altoget h er successful S herman and some of h is . N ashville The Un ion com mander came from behind
.

other offi ce r s met with reverses In fac t there was .

, h is defen ces cap t ured t he Confederate guns and sol
,

little in t he fir st attempts t hat woul d lead on e t o fore diers behind their intren c h ments and an ni hi lated
tell a glorious con clusion of t he campaign Grant . H ood s army ’
After t his all t he available troops i n
.
,

dec ided t o run past t he bat ter ies at V i cksb urg ; _ t he lower Sout h were entr usted on ce more to G eneral
landed a large army below t h at p lace and i n the , John ston Great t hough that offi cer s gen i us u n
.
’

interior of M ississippi defeated bot h Pemberton and doubtedly was , i t was not suff i c ien t to sustain t he de
John ston the Confederate com manders The army
, . cli n i n g fortunes of t he Sout h G ran t had begun at .

of t he former general over strong wh i ch was , , the W ilderness 4 M a y his advan ce t oward , ,

forced i n to the city of V i cksburg surrendered on 4 , R i chmond and Petersb urg Sheridan , as alr eady .

July 1 8 63 Thi s loss occurring on the day after the

, . stated had destroyed the army of E arly in the Shen
,

great defeat at Gettysb urg was too m uch for the a nd o a h V alley and of his own accoun t j oin ed the ,

resources of the South W ithi n about five days Port . great army under Grant I n t he beginn i n g of 1 865
H udson also fell i nto the hands of t h e Federals and , t h ere was an at tempt to end the war b y a conferen ce
t he M ississipp i was open from i ts source t o the G u lf . of Southern statesmen and Presiden t L in coln wit h ,

A large Union force under General Rosecrans was h is Secretary of State , at Hamp ton Roads V irgin ia ,
.

stationed near M urfreesboro Tennessee where also , , N othi ng came of this att emp t The South made an .

was the Confederate G eneral B ragg wit h a fin e army e x p i r mg e fl or t but i ts resources were e x haust ed
'

. .
,

I n that vi cin ity was foug h t one of the great battles of Grant forced L ce ou t of Ri chmond ; he was hurry ing
t he war B ragg was defeated 3 1 Dec 1 8 62 and
. .
, , toward t he western p art of V irg ini a and was com ,

2 Jan 1 863, and was fin a lly forced to enter G eorgia

.
, , p e lle d at A ppomatto x Court House t o surrender the
 U N I TED 1 74 UNI TED

su m of By reason of i ts const it ut ional si x t h state In 1 9 1 2 Ar izona and N ew M e x ico were

.

author ity Con gress b orrowed money “ on t he cred i t of ad mitted as states The accession of new states sug .

”
t he Uni ted States by selli n g bonds The extent to . gests t he territoria l e x pans i on of t he original Un ion .

whic h advantage was taken of t his gran t of p ower I t does n ot however , g i ve one a d e fin i t e idea of th e
,

wi ll be apparen t from the fact that between 1 Jul y , nat ional i n crease 1 n p op ulat ion , in wealth an d i n ,

p ower sin ce 1 7 89
E n d of Recon s tr ucti on —
1 861 , and 3 1 A ug 1 865 t here was sold t o t he p eople .
, ,
.

of t he Uni ted States worth of bonds , The two ad m i n istrat i on s .

t o raise money t o carry on t he war Un ited S tates . of President G rant formed a p eriod of recuperat ion
n otes bearin g interest were issued to the amount of
, ,
and ind ustrial progress H is second ter m was
There were also n otes bear i n g no i n marked by m uch corr upt ion in t he b u r eaus of t he
t erest These in cluded the “ o ld demand notes ” the
.
, general govern men t Thi s cond it ion m ay have .

“ “
fract ional curren cy an d t he n at ion al bank been due to h i s tra i n in g wh ich was ch i cfly m ilitary , .

”
notes Though the amount of m oney paid out in
. Perhaps i t was t hi s li m itat ion t hat enab led d ishonest
t he course of t he war was i m mense t h ere was a p ubli c ,
men to win h is co n fid en ce D ur i n g t h e war t he .

d ebt of on 3 1 A ug 1 8 65 B esides t he .
, . Democrati c p arty formed a very sma ll mi n ority i n
Federal debt t h ere were state debts of a lmost 35 00 , Con gress , b u t i t was strong enough t o wat ch t he op
A generat ion after the war had passed pos i t ion and t o take n ote of t he p oh t1 ca l scandals
away t he N at ion al G overn ment was st i ll pa y ing o ut J ust at t hat momen t th is m in or ity p ar ty came un der
ann ually in p ensions from to
000 at that ti me ab ou t one th ird of i ts ent ir e e x
,
— t h e leadership of Samuel J T ilden of N e w Y ork
W it h great abi lity as a la W wyy er and an un quest ioned
.
, .

penses A t the d istan ce of half a cent ury from the

. r e cmd as a reformer he was i n flu e n t i a l en ough t o per ,

beginni ng of t he great con fli ct vast sums are sti ll p aid suade his par ty to accept t he Civi l W a r amendments
i n pensions t o the d isab led survi vors and t he de of the Const it ut ion In t he sum mer of 1 8 7 6 he was .

p endents of deceased Un ion sold iers I t has been . n om inated for the presidenc y A t the same t i me .

esti mated that men lost t he i r lives i n the war Thomas A Hendricks of Indi ana was n omi nated for
.
, ,

for the Uni on In the cause of secession t he loss of

. t he V i ce presiden cy Two weeks earlier t he Rep ub
-
.

li fe must have been q u ite as g reat and t he amount of ,

l ican n at ional n om inat in g convent ion had named
su ffer in g very much greater because the Sout h i n the , , G overnor R B H ay es of O h i o and W illi am A
. .
, , .

era p reced ing the war obt a i ned a lmost everyt hin g i n ,
W heeler of N e w Y ork , as i ts cand idates for the
,

the way of manufact ures from the N or th or from p residen cy and vi ce presiden cy respectivel y On -
, .

E urope The ou tbreak of t he rebe llion foun d the

. 6 N ov the election took p lace and on t he fo llow i n g
.
,
-

peop le wit h i n t he Confederacy almost desti t ut e of t he morn in g most of the Rep ubli can leaders con ceded
sk i ll or t he machinery to make t he goods whi ch they the elect i on of t he Democrati c cand idates Zacha .

consumed and t he stringent en forcemen t of t he

,
riah Chand ler t he campai g n man a ger of the Repub
,

blockade by t he U n i ted States ships soon caused em li can party d id not however ad mi t i t , but prompt ly
, , ,

b a r r a ssmen t everywhere i n the South Instead of . claimed for t he nom inees of h is p arty 1 85 electora l
heali ng t he wounds of war the Congression al plan of vot es and their electi on by a ma j or i ty of one vote
, .

reconstruct ion whic h contained vind ictive elemen ts ,

, On the face of t h e returns i t appeared t hat t he '

served on ly to aggravate t hem It was however b e .

, , Democrati c cand idates had carr ied a ll t he Southern
li e ved to b e necessar y and was therefore supported , , , States ; also N e w Y ork N e w Jersey and Ind ian a , , .

by p atr iot i c and en li ghtened men i n t h e N orth There was n o q uest ion that T i ldeu received 1 8 4
N ew Sta tes —The south western part of the Un ited
.

.
-
votes or one less than the maj ority requ ir ed by the
,

States was ac quired from M e x ico at the close of the Const itution T he 1 8 5 clai med by the R ep ub li can
.

M exi can W a r Cali forni a whi ch was in cluded in manager could be made up on ly by in c lud in g the
electoral votes of F lorida Sout h Caro lin a an d
,
.

t hat cession and admi tted to the Uni on as a free state , ,

by a provision of the Comprom ise of 1 8 5 0 rap idly “

, Louisiana Th e Rep ubli can “ return in g board s ” of

.

develop ed The rumour that gold had been d iscovered

. t hose states had i t i n their pow er to determ i n e the
t here was soon known t hroughout t he world and from , resul t of t h e election by thro w in g out t he votes of any
the countries and t he islands of the Paci fi c t here ar p laces where in t heir j udgment fraud or i n t imi da
, ,

r ived many settlers Fro m M exi co and from every . t ion had o cci1 r r ed One of the Rep ubli ca n elect ors
p art of t he Un it ed States came m ultitudes The . of Oregon was said to have been d i squa li fied un der t he
rush was greatest in 1 8 49 but it cont inued long after , . Consti tution because he was an o ffi cer of t he Uni ted
,

Indeed i t h as been onl y in comparat ively recen t

, States The governor gave t he cer t ifica te i n t hi s
.

times t hat i t has nearly ceased E ven yet some of its . case to t he Democrat havin g t he h i ghest vote If .

rap idly growin g c ities receive large accessions from '

Ti lden could get t hi s d isp uted vote his e lect ion was
t he older states I n 1 8 5 8 ten years a f ter t h e dis .
, assured T his d i squa li fi ca ti on was merely a t e ch n i
.

cover y i n Ca liforn ia t idi ngs reached M issouri that gold , ca l one for t he Rep ubli cans had un doubtedly ca rried
,

h ad been found on the eastern slope of the Rocky t hat state .

M ounta i n s A m i n i n g camp was soon established on

. I t seems to have been ot herwise in the case of t he
Cherry Creek in what was t h en t he Territory of , t hree Southern States The const it ut ion says tha t .

Kansas Later i t was named Denver i n honour of

.
, the p residing offi cer of t he Senate “ shall op en al l the
the governor W i th in a year the p lace had a p op ula
. ce r t i fica t es and t he votes shall t hen be counted
”
but ,

t ion of 1 000 In t he in t eri or of t h e m ountains some

. i t does not say who i s t o do the count ing I n 1 87 6 .

silver m ining camps were in 1 864 erected in t o the

-
the Senate was Rep ub li can and t he House was Dem o
State of N evada In the Space between that st ate . crat i c Two sets of ce r tifica tes had been sen t to
.

and t he Territory of Colorado t he M ormons after , W ashi ngton In N ovember and t he mon ths follow
.

having been d riven out of I lli n ois settled in 1 8 48 , , ing there was much e x citement t hroughou t the coun
when t h ey estab lished the comm u ni ty of Deseret later , t r y and some persons thought of a t tempt ing to seat
,

kn own as Utah M on tana and Idaho as well as .

, M r Ti lden b y force To suppress a n y d isorder
. .
,

Colorad o were made territ ories wh i le A r iz ona was

, , Presiden t G rant st rengthened the m i li t ary forces
separated from N e w M e x i co In 1 8 7 6 Colorado b e . around the cap ital In this act ion the Democrat s .

came a state The camp on Cherry Creek Denver .

, ,
p erceived an at temp t at i nt i mi dat ion So grave wa s .

is n ow a populous cit y . t h e si tuat ion that Congress dec ided t o subm it t h e d is

O u 2 N o v 1 889 t h e Dakotas came int o t h e Un ion
.
, , putod points to an E lectoral Comm ission This was .

as states ; M on tan a was ad mi tted on 6 N ov and three .

,
to consist of fi ve Un ited States sena t ors five r e p re ,

days later t he Territory o f W as h ington became a se n t a t i ves and five j usti ces of t he Un ited States Su
,

state . I n 1 9 07 Oklahoma was admi tted as the forty p reme Court There were thr ee Republican and two
.

Democrati c senators ; t he House had app o in ted t hree
Democrat i c and two Repub li can representatives
Con gress had elected two Rep ubli can and two Demo
crat ic j ustices and t h e y were to choose a fif th, I t is
pe r fect ly clear that t h i s member could determine the
en tire q uestion M r Justice B radley a Rep ub li can ,
. .
was t he person c hosen Th is made up a commi ssmn
of e igh t Rep ubli can s and seven Democrats E very
im portan t q uestion before the Comm ission was de
c ided by a stric t party vote By man y independen t
persons i t is regarded as an estab lished fact t h at the
Democrats had been counted out i n t he elect ion of
“ "
1 8 7 6 by carpet baggers and t he negroes who were
un der their guidance O n 2 M arch the elect ion of
Hayes and W heeler was anno un ced by the presiden t
of t he Senate Amongst Democrats t here was ex
t reme d isappo i nt ment but M r Ti lden h im self a d
v ised obedience to t h e law
An early act of the new p residen t often referred t o
by orators and n ewspapers as a fraudul ent E xec utive
w as the w ithdr awal of the F e d e r a l tr0 0 p s from the
Sout h The “ carpet bag ” governments soon came
. A B ureau of Labo ur was created i n t he same year
to an end an d a lso t he w i ld p o li tical orgies that di s
, Quest ions of p ubli c fi na n ce also received t he atten
graced them T h is als o was t h e era of str i k es C hi nese
.
agit at ion and ep idemi cs Before t he ad mi n istrat ion
, .
of President H ayes began an i mp ortant quest ion of
foreign relat ions was sett led I n 1 861 G reat Brit ai n ,
Spa i n and France eac h sen t an army to M e x i co to
, they had man y years to run The G overnm en t could
co lle ct debts d ue the ir respecti ve subj ects Vi hen i t
became apparent that N a p ole on 1 1 1 had ulterior
designs Great B rit a i n and Spai n wit hdrew The
,
French tr0 0 ps rema i n ed Seeing t hat t he Un ited
St ates was engaged in war N apoleon overturned the
M e x ican Rep ub li c and m ade M a x i mi li an a brother of
t h e E mperor of A ust ria E mperor of M e x i co The
Un ited States protested against t hi s violat ion of t he
p r i n c ip les of the M onr oe Doctrin e b ut not hin g was
done t ill the w ar was over Then G eneral Sheridan
was sent t o t he R io G rande w it h veterans
The Fren ch army was p rompt ly withdr awn in 1 867
and M aximi li an fell in to the hands of t he M e x i cans
b y who m he was shot T he rep ub li c was t hen
restored .
Re ce n t H i s tor y —
I n t he elect ion of 1 880 the Rep ub
.
lican candi dates G eneral James A G a r fie ld and , .
C h es ter A A r t h 11 r were successful The new execut ive
. .
had scarcely entered upon the dut ies of hi s o ffi ce when
—
he w as shot b y C harles J G uiteau , a disap pointed
offi ce seeker T hi s event took p lace on 2 July 1 88 1 ,
.
b ut t he president li n gered o n t i ll 1 9 Sept 1 88 1 when
he died at E lberon N e w Jersey where he had been , ,
t aken i n the hope t hat he m ight recover The fort y
si mh Con gress had ceased to e x i st on 4 M arch and the
forty sevent h would no t meet t i ll December H ad
-
President Ar thur died or been k i lled d ur in g t he in ter
val t here would have been no nat ional e x ecut ive
, .
I t was t his condit ion wh ich suggested t he p assage m
1 88 6 of the President ial Succession A ct Thereafter ,
in c as e of t he o ccurrence of vacan cies i n both o ffi ces,
t he heads of depart ments w ould succeed to t he presi
deney i n the order in w h i ch t h ose departments had
been estab li shed vi z State Treasury W a r Just i ce ,
Post Oth ee N avy Inter ior N o ot her departments
, ,
e x isted at t hat t i me O i course , t he secretary suc
ce e d in g to th e presiden cy m ust have t he qua li fi ca t io n s
en umerated i n t he Con st itut ion I n t he a d mi n i s
t r a t i on of Presiden t Ar thur there was passed a law for
the suppress ion of polygam y in Utah ; als o an ac t to
regulate appointments t o t he C ivi l Serv i ce of t he
U ni ted S tat es H it h erto most of those appo i n tmen ts
. and t h e Peop le s Party belong to this era’
had been bestowed a s a reward for partisan services
Th e n ew law was designed to make app oint men ts t o
. t ime t he Demo crat i c party had control of t he two
p u b li c oth ee on t h e ground of fi tness S in ce i t s
. .
pas sage in 1 8 83 m uch pro gress has been made i n t h e
matt er of mak ing appointment s but t he system is
sti ll crude . coun try appeared to b e in a very prosperous st ate
I n t he president ial cont es t of 1 884 t he Rep ublicans
U N IT E D 1 75 U N I TE D
nomi nated James G B laine and John A Lo an as . .
. t he ir candi date s whi le the Democrats selected rover
,
Clevelan d and Thom as A H endricks The nom in a . .
. t ion of B laine was the signal for a se cessi on from t he
Rep ub li can rank s Independen ts within t he p arty .
,
,
“ ”
t hen k nown as M ugwumps , refused t o supp ort
. t he t icket an d contributed m uch toward i ts de
,
. feat . I n t he fir st adm i ni strat ion of G rover Cleve
land t here were p assed several important laws : an
. an ti contract labour law
-
w h ic h prohib ited
t he i mp ortat ion of ali ens in to the Un ited States under
contract t o perform labour or servi ce ; the I nterstate
, Com merce Act w h i ch p laced rai lways under
. t he supervision of a commission That bod y has t o .
see t hat charges for t he transp ortation of merchandise
and p a ssengers are reason able and j ust ; also t hat no
,
. rebates Special rates or unj ust di scrim inati ons are
, ,
. m ade for one sh ipper i n preferen ce to anot her A .
, second C hinese E x clusion A ct was passed i n 1 888 .
, This prevented t he ret urn t o t he Un ited States of any
C hinese labourer who had once left thi s country .
.
, t ion of t he admi n is trat ion I n twenty years the .
p ubli c deb t had been reduced by
, E very bond that could be can cell ed was called i n an d
. p aid at i ts face value There were ot her bonds bu t .
,
.
. in deed b uy t hem at a high rate or allow them t o run .
I t d id not appear sound p oli cy t o buy them at a high
. rate wh li e if they were p erm i tted t o run t he G overn
, ,
. ment d id not need i ts presen t in come for a surp lus ,
, was rap idly accum ulat ing in t he Treas ury Th is was .
, the condit ion w hi c h led t o t he proposal to enact a
,
. new t a r ifi law Thi s con clusion w as reached toward
.
’
t he close of Presiden t C leveland s ad mi n istrat ion .
, W hen therefore the president ial elect ion of 1 888
, ,
. came ro und , i t foun d t he Democrats supp ort in g the
. p oli cy of a tar iff for revenue On the ot her hand t he .
,
, Rep ub li can s des i red to ret ain t he protect ive t a r ifi .
, They p rop osed to red uce t h e revenue by lowerin g t he
. t ax es on t obacco and on Sp i rit s used i n m an ufactures .
They would also adm i t free of duty art i cles of foreign
m anufact ure if t he Un ited St ates d id not m anufact ure
,
a sim ilar class of arti cles Ben j am in H arrison an d .
Levi P M orton were chosen as Republi can cand i
.
dates W hen t hi s par ty was agai n in con trol of t he
.
.
,
governm en t i t began at once to take m easures for
,
t he redempt ion of its prom ises The M cK i nley Tari ff .
.
, , Act was p assed i n 1 89 0 and on 2 7 June in t he same ,
year a dependen t pension b i ll H i t h erto t he laws .
. granted pensions o nl y to those who had sustained an
, i nj ury or contracted a disabili ty in t he servi ce and
. in l in e of duty The new law allowed a pension to all
.
t hose who had served n inety days in t he army or t h e
n avy and were d i sabled whet her t hey contracted that
, ,
di sab ility in the service or n ot The ma xi mum allow .
. ance under this law was $ 1 2 an d t he m in i mum 86 a ,
mon th T hi s law in cre ased t he names on t he pension
.
rolls t o I t was in t he admin istration of
Presiden t Harr ison that the Sherman Act becam e a
.
, , , , ,
law It p rovided that t he Secretar y of the Treas ury
.
. should buy each mont h oun ces of si lver ;
. that he should pay for t he bu llion t hus purchased
with treas ury notes ; t hat on demand of the holder
. the secretary must redeem these notes i n gold or
silver ; after a fix e d date 1 July 1 89 1 t he s i lver need , , ,
no t be coined but m ight be stored in the treasury
, ,
’
and silver cer t ifi ca t es issued The Farmers Alli ance .
.
. In 1 89 2 C leveland was on ce m ore elec ted This .
politi cal department s of the govern men t its fir st ,
comp lete triump h sin ce 1 8 5 6 A t t he t ime of h is .
, inaugurati on 4 M arch 1 89 3 the business of th e
, , ,
,
b ut during t he succeed in g summer and autumn there