sart

Nutrients
Molsses Molasses
Stenilizer co CARBOHYDRATES
MOlasses Yeast Cuture
Storage stEamt
Tank

Cortinuos Yeast
Storage
Diluter AND

Fermerta FERMENTATION
Nutrients
tion Tank

WaterScrb With12% Alcohol

Storage
To Waste Disposal or Slops INDUSTRIES
Evaporator to Produce Deraturant)
Catile Feed or Fertihzer
Make-upCot6
C= Condenser
S,Ethara
P=Partal Condenser or Dephlegmator D0% Ethang!
H=Preheat Exchanger DenatucedAkcho

Fig. IIID-4. Ethyl alcohol by fermentation.

329

Major Engg. Problems

" Collection and storage of molasses
" Maintenance of sterile and specific yeast culture
conditions
Batch versus continuous operations
Waste disposal problems
" Fueleconomy in the series of distillations
Development of methods to produce anhydrous
alcohol from the 95% alcohol azeotrope
 128
Turbine Steam Process Steam

NH3 Tail Gas

Storage)
10 vollaNH3 Converter Javo Water Cooling
90volo Air 800c (added externaly)
INORGANIC
3.5 atms io-21-No uogduos
Superhede
CHEMICAL
Compressed Heot
Air Recovery pue
Boiler
uonetO
INDUSTRIES
Catalyst Tail GasSteam Air
RecoveY Heater
Fiter Economise
oiute To36Yietd
Acid
57-60%HNO3, Soution
I Exhaust Gas (9-07 for use or for concentration
Air Make-up H,o to 95l% HNO3
HO Condensate

Fig. IIE-2.. Nilric acid by ammonia oxidation process.

Major Engg. Problems

Thermodynamic & kinetic considerations
" Process modification design
 Low Pressure Recycle Gas + To NHa By-Product Usage
High Pressure Recycle Soution NH3.CO2 (eg-NNO,,Nt so4)

Flash

Hof Steam 27ay INDUSTRIES

NITROGEN
5seaunt Floss
Condensal
|Drum J•MOI
6uJA
Cooling
Ho Stearn

NH3 (3-5mob)
(Seamac Evap.

toz-oz Cooling
Ar
g0%Aqeous Urea
o ( IMol) for N liquor products 99% UreaGrandes
Molten (<1% Biuret)
Urea

Fig. IIE-3. Urea from ammonium carbamate.

125
 Major engg. problems
Autoclave variables
- Optimum economic yield, T,P,NH3/C02 ratio and feed
rate.
-Urea production increases on increasing T&P
Carbamate decomposition and recycle
- Op.co'n favourables at low pressure and hight temp.
upon increasing holdup time avoid biuret formation.
Recycle design
Sine conversion is only 40-50%, off-gases must be
recirculated
" Off-gases recompression is impossible due to corrosion and
solid carbamate formation.

Production of granular urea

- Biuret formation
- Solidify must be done jus above the MP of urea and
with min. RT
" Heat dissipation in autoclave
- Heat can be removed by coils, wall cooling, or by
adding excess reactants
Corrosion
- High cost silver and tantalum liners must be used in
autoclave.
- Min. T&P with excess NH3 are desirable to reduce
corrosion rate.
 Spent Gases

Moltern 4Steanm
Suifur INDUSTRIES
INORGANICc
CHEMICAL
Storage

Burner oas Fiter

30% oP otal catalyst and water
convert 80% SO2 chilers
Air TwoStage 50-so Steam
Dryer Catatic Nim
Air
Converter
Yield
increased
to 97% Air
mCooler

Fig. IlA-4. Simplitied engincering low sheet for manufacture of sulfurie acid and oleum by contact process.

28-11-2023 INORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES 21

Major Engg. Problems

Design of multistage catalytic converter for highly exothermic reaction
Optimization of space velocity in a catalyst chamber: pumping cost versus
fixed charges of reactor
Corrosion problems: Optimization studies shows that equilibrium yield can
be increased by the square root of system pr at a given temperature
Adaption of process to various types of gas feeds
Yield can drop due to longitudinal mixing if the convective gas velocity
through the bed is too low.
Removal of heat of absorption of S03 in acid. Pr. drop must be low so 8 cm
stacked packing is often used.
 Is4
Pho_phate Rock
CO2 Make-up
HCI
HF
TOHCI

Washing Thickeners

INDUSTRIES
INORGANIC
CHEMICAL

|Solids Make-up
Sotvent
Residue Steam

(d))
CaCl2 to Waste
H20
H3PO4, Stream
Barometric
Condenser
Phosphoric Acid
Weak HCI Conc HCI HgPO,-80%
Fe < 100ppm
to Make-up to Make-up As < 10ppm
Fig. IIF-3. Production of phosphoric acid by HCI leaching.

Major Engg. Problems

Solvent recovery: expensive solvent
Materials of construction: HCI resistant
materials
Waste disposal: CaCl2 aqueous effluent and
siliceous rock residue
 MALLNC
() co, (¢) +OHHCo;
CO,,N to brine purifier (g) CO, (e) +H0 HCO +H*
0N+ +NH + HCO NH'CT () +NaHCO,
cagingvd
Purified
Ho Fue Gas 200
Brine uoneuouuNJ•MOL Cakiner
Solution
Fuel"Ar
30 Co2 CHLOR-ALKALI
H INDUSTRY
Water
(1) Cooler

NH3 recycle -Soda Ash

0.5 kg/ kg
Product Rotary Filter
Coke Press
Limestone. Recycle NHh
Lme Make-up Ho
Kin NH3

Air.
Milk of Lime

waste CaCh impurities

Fig. IIH-1. Manufcture of soda ash by Solvay process.
28-11-2023 CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY
 Major Engg. Problems
Development of suitable Slide 11of 31
equipment:-Moist NaHCO3 will cake on sides of the kiln;
must be equipped with heavy chain scraper inside and wet
filter cake must be mixed with dry product.
Economic balance on tower design:-tower
height, P&T are optimized , giving 75% yield of
NaHCO3 from NaCl
Cost Total
Total
Rs/ Ton TOwer Punping
Costs
of Costs
Product NaCi NaCI
LOSses LOSSeS
Tower Height CO Pressure
28-11-2023 CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY 11

" Ammonia recovery:-NH3 inventory costs 4-5

times that of Na2C03
" Plant modernization: materials of
constructions, use of automatic control
Waste disposal: CaCI2-NaCl liquor

28-11-2023 CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY 12

Choice of Solvay Process

advantages disadvantages
" Can use low-grade brine High salt consumption
" Les electric power High investment in NH3
Less corrosion problems recovery
" No co-product to dispose of Waste disposal of CaCl2
brine stream
" Does not require NH3 plant
investment " More steam consumption
 Steam
Brine from
2 Multiple Effect
Evaporators
Wells
Brine
Lolaphragm
Cell
gH
50% Caustic for
Prfier Fiter Steam 38 Purification and/or
Concentration

sucg Wet Chlorine

Centrifuge| Sait
Slurry
CHLOR-ALKALI
INDUSTRY

Canslont Sol!
Feed Tont
Solyrob
Filter

Freon
Refrgerac
LiaidClz.to 70%Castis
Filter Mercury Cel
See Fig DH-3A Depleted
Brine
for direct
Storage sale or
Concentration
Suon

Fig. IIH-2. Electrolytic process for chlorine-caustic soda production. 19

28-11-2023 CHLOR-ALKALI INDUSTRY 29

Major Engineering Problems

Choice of cell design
- Membrane cell process has high cost of capital
equipment and technology transfer charges
Corrosion
- Wet Cl2, Ni-linedevaporator, rubber-lined steel
Hg-cells