RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

RESPIRATION
▪ air moving into and out of the lungs
▪ two separate, simultaneous operations:
1) EXTERNAL RESPIRATION - between the outside environment and the capillary bloodstream of
the lungs
▪ oxygen-rich air is inhaled
▪ oxygen goes into the air spaces (sacs) and then into capillaries
▪ CO2 passes from capillaries into the air spaces to be exhaled
2) INTERNAL RESPIRATION - the exchange of O2 and CO2 at the tissue or cellular level
- oxygen passes out of the capillaries into the tissue cells
- carbon-dioxide passes from tissue cells into capillaries
- travels to the lungs to be exhaled
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION
THE BREATHING PROCESS
- air from the environment enters the body through the (1) NOSE through nostrils or nares
- then passes through the (2) NASAL CAVITY – lined with fine hairs (cilia), filter out foreign
bodies
- - (3) PARANASAL SINUSES are hollow, air-containing spaces within the skull that
communicate with the nasal cavity
- after passing through the nasal cavity, the air next reaches the PHARYNX (throat)
3 divisions of the pharynx:
- a) (4) NASOPHARYNX – contains the collection of lymphatic tissue known as (5)
PHARYNGEAL TONSILS OR ADENOIDS
- b) (6) OROPHARYNX – contains two rounded masses of lymphatic tissue – (7)
PALATINE TONSILS (or just tonsils)
- c) (8) LARYNGOPHARYNX – passageway for food from the mouth and air from the
nose
- divides into two branches: the (9) LARYNX (voice box) and the (10) ESOPHAGUS
- esophagus leads into the stomach
- larynx contains the vocal cords – produce sound as expelled air passes through them
- (11) EPIGLOTTIS – a flap of cartilage attached to the root of the tongue
- acts as a lid over the opening of the larynx – closes over the larynx during swallowing
- on its way to the lungs, air passes from the larynx to the (12) TRACHEA (windpipe)
- in the (13) mediastinum - the trachea divides into two branches called (14) BRONCHIAL
TUBES, or BRONCHI (sg. bronchus)
 - each bronchus leads to a separate (15) LUNG and divides into smaller and finer tubes
- the smallest of the bronchial branches are called (16) BRONCHIOLES
- at the end of the bronchioles are clusters of air sacks called (17) ALVEOLI (sg. alveolus)
- very thin wall of alevoli allows for the exchange of gases between the alveolus and the (18)
CAPILLARY
- blood that flows through the capillaries accepts the oxygen from the alveolus and deposits
carbon dioxide into the alveolus to be exhaled
- (19) erythrocytes carry oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body

- each lung is enveloped in a double-folded membrane called the pleura

- the outer layer of the pleura, nearest the ribs, is the (20) PARIETAL PLEURA

- the inner layer, closest to the lungs, is the (21) VISCERAL PLEURA

- the lungs are divided into LOBES

- the right lung, slightly larger - 3 lobes

- the left lung - 2 lobes

- the space between the right and left lung is the mediastinum

- it contains the heart, aorta, esophagus and the bronchi

- the uppermost part of the lung is called the APEX

- the lower area is the BASE

- the HILUM OR HILUS of the lung – the midline region where blood vessels, nerves,
lymphatic tissue, and bronchial tubes enter and exit
- the (22) DIAPHRAGM is a muscular partition that separates the thoracic from the
abdominal cavity
- aids in the process of breathing
- contracts and descends with inhalation (inspiration)
- relaxes and elevates with each exhalation (expiration)
GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE OR ALIMENTARY system
- begins with the mouth or the oral cavity (food enters the body), and terminates at the anus
(solid waste materials leave the body)
FUNCTIONS:
DIGESTION – process of breaking down food
ABSORPTION – digested food passes through the epithelium of the small intestine
ELIMINATION – solid waste materials that cannot be absorbed leave our bodies (solid wastes =
feces)
▪ DIGESTION OF FOOD - Food is digested or broken down, mechanically and chemically as it
travels down the gastrointestinal tract.
▪ ABSORPTION - Secondly, food must be absorbed into the bloodstream - the passage of the
valuable nutrients (sugars, amino acids ), through the walls of the small intestine into the
bloodstream.
▪ ELIMINATION - Solid wastes are also called feces and they pass out of the body through the
anus
ORAL CAVITY
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT - begins with the ORAL CAVITY OR MOUTH (or/o =
mouth)
ORAL CAVITY:
1. THE CHEEKS - walls of the oral cavity
2. THE LIPS - surround the opening to the cavity
3. THE HARD PALATE - the anterior portion of the roof of the mouth
4. THE SOFT PALATE - lies posterior to the hard palate
- rugae - irregular ridges covering the anterior portion of the hard palate
5. THE UVULA - hangs from the soft palate (uvula = little grape) – aids in producing sounds and
speech
6. THE TONGUE - moves food around during mastication (=chewing) and deglutition
(=swallowing)
7. THE TONSILS - masses of lymphatic tissue - both sides of the oropharynx - filters to protect the
body from the microorganisms, produce lymphocytes
8. THE GUMS - flashy tissue that surrounds the sockets of the teeth (gingiva)
9. THE TEETH
- three pairs of SALIVARY GLANDS surround
the oral cavity - produce saliva - contains important digestive enzymes
PAROTID GLAND, SUBLINGUAL GLAND, SUBMANDIBULAR GLAND

PHARYNX (THROAT)

- a common passageway for air and food

- after the food is chewed - formed into a round, sticky mass called a bolus

- the bolus is pushed by the tongue from the mouth into the pharynx

- during swallowing - the epiglottis covers the trachea so that food cannot enter

ESOPHAGUS

(1) THE ESOPHAGUS (eso=inward, -phag/o= swallowing)

- a 25 cm muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach

-rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the esophagus propel food (bolus) to the stomach -
peristalsis

-like squeezing a marble through a rubber tube

STOMACH

- food passes from the esophagus into (2)THE STOMACH

The stomach is composed of:

1) an upper portion called the fundus

2) a middle section known as the body

3) a lower portion, the antrum

- sphincters (rings of muscles) control the openings into and out of the stomach

SMALL INTESTINE (SMALL BOWEL)

- THE SMALL INTESTINE ( small bowel) has 3 parts:

▪ (3) THE DUODENUM - receives food from the stomach as well as bile from

(4) THE LIVER and (5) GALLBLADDER and pancreatic juices from the

(6) PANCREAS

▪ (7) THE JEJUNUM - connects with the third section, the ileum

▪ (8) THE ILEUM - attaches to the first part of the large intestine

- villi - millions of tiny, microscopic projections - the walls of the small intestine

- tiny capillaries in the villi absorb the digested nutrients

LARGE INTESTINE (LARGE BOWEL)

- THE LARGE INTESTINE - from the end of the ileum to the anus

- divided into 6 parts:

(9) CECUM, (11) ASCENDING COLON, (12) TRANSVERSE COLON, (13) DESCENDING COLON, (14)
SIGMOID COLON, AND (15) RECTUM

- attached to the cecum is a wormlike (or vermiform) projection - (10) the appendix (no function in
the digestive tract and only causes problems when infected)

- the large intestine receives the fluid waste products of digestion and stores these wastes until they
can be released from the body - feces( stools)

- defecation - the expulsion or passage of feces from the body through the (16) ANUS

LIVER, GALLBLADDER AND PANCREAS

-3 important additional organs of the digestive system are the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder

- food does not pass through them, each plays a crucial role in the proper digestion and absorption of
nutrients

LIVER

- the largest glandular organ in the body - beneath the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the
abdominal cavity

- produces bile

GALLBLADDER

- a pear shaped sac under the liver - serves as the storage area for bile

PANCREAS

- secretes and produces pancreatic juices - help break down all types of food
URINARY SYSTEM
ANATOMY OF THE MAJOR ORGANS
- Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
THE KIDNEYS
▪ bean-shaped organs, about the size of a fist; 12 rib
▪ behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the spine in the lumbar region
▪ embedded in a cushion of adipose (fatty) tissue and surrounded by fibrous connective tissue
for protection
 ▪ thin outer membrane that surrounds the kidney – renal capsule
▪ outer region - CORTEX (bark, as the bark of the tree) and an inner region - MEDULLA
(marrow)
▪ an opening for nerves, a renal vein and a renal artery to enter the kidney is called the HILUM
or the HILUS

THE URETERS
▪ muscular tubes lined with mucous membranes
▪ transport urine in peristaltic waves from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

THE URINARY BLADDER

▪ a hollow, muscular sac in the pelvic cavity
▪ a temporary reservoir for urine
▪ the TRIGONE is a triangular space at the base of the bladder where the ureters enter and the
urethra exit
THE URETHRA
▪ a membranous tube which carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside world
▪ the process of expelling urine through the urethra is called URINATION, VOIDING or
MICTURITION
▪ the external opening of the urethra is called the URINARY MEATUS
MALE AND FEMALE URINARY SYSTEM
- the urethra is about 1.5 inches long (3.81 cm) in the female and about 8 inches in the male (20 cm)
HOW KIDNEYS PRODUCE URINE
NEPHRON
- the functional units of the kidney, tiny filtering structures, responsible for maintaining homeostasis
- selectively remove various substances from the blood (urea, uric acid, creatinine, electrolytes and
excess sugar) and reestablish a level that can sustain life

HOW KIDNEYS PRODUCE URINE

1. blood enters each kidney through renal arteries – branch into arterioles
2. arterioles lead into a collection of tiny cappilaries in the shape of a small ball GLOMERULUS
3. blood passes through glomeruli - water, salts, sugar, wastes (urea and creatinine) leave the
bloodstream
4. collect in a tiny capsule called GLOMERULAR (BOWMAN’S) CAPSULE that surrounds each
glomerulus
5. attached to a glomerular capsule - a long, twisted tube - RENAL TUBULE – most of the water, all
of the sugar and sodium return to the bloodstream
6. final process - the secretion of some substances from the bloodstream into the renal tubule (acids,
drugs e.g. penicillin, and potassium) - eliminated in urine
7. urine ends in in a larger collecting tubule
8. all collecting tubules lead to RENAL PELVIS
- a small funnel-shaped cavity into which urine is discharged, narrows into the upper end of the ureter

PASSIVE
In the final process of urine formation, some metabolic waste products from the blood stream ARE
SECRETED into the renal tubule.

When do we use passive?

When we want readers to focus on the action/or the person/thing affected by it rather than on who is
doing the action.
▪ we do not know who did the action = 'The window was broken.' (we don't know who broke it)
▪ it is irrelevant who did the action = 'Breakfast is served at 7am.' (it is not important who
serves breakfast)
 ▪ it is very clear/obvious who did the action= ‘Two men have been arrested.' (obviously, the
police arrested them)
▪ In academic/scientific writing, passive voice is used to sound more objective, to describe a
process, writing about methods and data collection, the results of study…
e.g.
The sodium hydroxide was dissolved in water.
Responses were collected from 45 teachers.
Data are entered together in an electronic computer file for analysis and study.

How do we make passive?

▪ verb ‘TO BE’ in the same tense as the active verb + the PAST PARTICIPLE of the active
verb
▪ ACTIVE: They publish a new article every two months.
▪ PASSIVE: A new article is published every two months.
The agent or the doer of the action
▪ if it is important to mention the agent or the doer, we use „by”
The new bridge will be opened by the transport minister on 1 May.
▪ “empty subjects” –he, she, they, you, somebody, people...
Somebody cleans this room every day.
This room is cleaned every day.

Passive
BE in the tense of the active verb + PAST PARTICIPLE
• AM, IS, ARE - regular (-ED/-D):
AM, IS, ARE BEING finished, visited...
WAS, WERE - irregular (3rd column):
WAS, WERE BEING been, done, had, made…
HAVE BEEN, HAS BEEN
CAN, MAY, MUST… BE

SENTENCES
1. They collected data from patients with pneumonia.
Data were collected from patients with pneumonia.
2. He hurt his leg in an accident.
His leg was hurt in an accident.
3. Mucous membrane and fine hairs line the nasal cavity.
 Nasal cavity is lined with mucous membrane and fine hairs.
4. A virus can cause pneumonia.
Pneumonia can be caused by a virus.
5. They admitted the patient on January 14.
The patient was admitted on January 14.
6. In most cases they deal with allergy by identifying the responsible allergen and then avoiding it.
In most cases the allergy is dealt with by identifying the responsible allergen and then avoiding it.
7. They are testing implants that wirelessly connect the nerves of a body part to a PC.
Implants that wirelessly connect the nerves of a body part to a PC are being tested.
8. In the next few years sensors on a chip will read your vital signs.
In the next few years your vital signs will be read by sensors on a chip.
9. They have removed his spleen.
His spleen has been removed.

Present Simple Passive

They publish the magazine monthly. - active
The magazine is published monthly.- passive
The company employs two hundred people.
Two hundred people are employed by the company.

Present Continuous Passive

They are renovating the building. - active
The building is being renovated. - passive
Someone is following you. - You are being followed.
They are examining the findings as we speak. - The findings are being examined as we speak.

Past Simple Passive

Somebody built this house in 1930. - active
This house was built in 1930. - passive
They stole a lot of money in the robbery. - A lot of money was stolen in the robbery.

Past Continuous Passive

Detectives were questioning three men.
Three men were being questioned by detectives
Peter was writing a letter. - A letter was being written by Peter.
Present Perfect Simple – Passive
They have discovered a new cure. - A new cure has been discovered.
Ann has written an essay on neurological disorders. - An essay on neurological disorders has been
written by Anne.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

- can be divided into two groups:
1) the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
2) the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

- composed of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD
- receive, coordinate and transmit nervous impulses

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

 - all other nervous tissue found outside of the CNS:
12 pairs of CRANIAL NERVES - carry impulses between the brain and the head and neck
(exception vagus nerve – to and from other parts of the body)
31 pairs of SPINAL NERVES -carry impulses between the spinal cord and the chest, abdomen and
extremities
- cranial and spinal nerves – nerves that help the body respond to changes in the outside
world
1) SENSORY NERVES - receive impulses from the sense organs, such as the eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin and transmit them to the CNS
- also known as afferent nerves, because they conduct impulses towards the CNS
2) MOTOR NERVES - conduct impulses away from the CNS, thus they are known as efferent
nerves
- the impulses travel to muscles and other body organs causing them to respond
3) MIXED NERVES - composed of both sensory and motor fibers
▪ PNS can be divided into 2 subdivisions:
1) THE SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - responsible for nearly all voluntary muscle movements
as well as for processing sensory information
2) THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM- responsible for involuntary, unconscious activities,
regulates bodily functions such as the heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, pupillary response,
urination...
- carries impulses away from the CNS to the glands, heart, blood vessels, involuntary muscles

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

▪ SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC division
▪ sympathetic nerves initiate or accelerate an autonomic function
▪ initiate body in times of stress and crisis (increase heart rate, blood pressure ,dilate airways,
etc...) “FIGHT OR FLIGHT”
▪ parasympathetic nerves decelerate or stop the initiated activity (slow down heart rate,
decrease respiration, etc… “REST AND DIGEST”

NEURON
▪ an individual nerve cell
▪ consists of 3 major sections:
1) THE DENDRITES - receive impulses and
transmit them to the cell body;
2) THE CELL BODY - contains the cell nucleus;
3) THE AXON - a long single projection which transmits the impulse from the cell body.
- many axons in both the PNS and CNS are covered with a white fatty tissue called MYELIN –
MYELIN SHEATH
- accelerates the impulse that travels
down the axon
- the presence of myelin on axons in the brain and spinal cord gives a white appearance to these
structures - the white matter of the CNS
- unmyelinated fibers, dendrites, and nerve cell bodies make up the grey matter
▪ neurons are not continuous with one another
▪ a small space known as a SYNAPSE is found between the TERMINAL END FIBRES of
the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another
▪ in order for the impulse to travel along a nerve path, the impulse must be transmitted at the
synapse
▪ facilitated by certain chemical substances called neurotransmitters