Discuss the definition and characteristic features of conversion.

Ý1 Definition:
Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech without
adding any element. Examples : work – to work, fish – to fish
Conversion is also called “functional change” or “zero derivation”
Ý2 Characteristic features of conversion:
The difference between the words in each pair is morphological, syntactic and
semantic.
+ Morphological: The verb “to hand”, for example, has a new paradigm – a new
system of forms: hand – handed – handing.
Ý3 + Syntactic: the function of “to hand” is new; it is predicate:
Eg. He handed me the watch.
+ Semantic: the verb “to hand” has a completely new meaning: to give, to pass
something to somebody…, but “hand” is part of the body.
Discuss the characteristics of the English Language.
Ý1 The mixed character of the vocabulary is the most charaacteristic feature of English
since its grammar and phonetic systems are very stable and not easily influenced by
other languages.
English words are divided into two main layers: native and borrowed. The term
“native” is used to indicate words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British Isles
from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. These words formed
the foundation for the further development of the English vocabulary.
Ý2 The present-day English vocabulary contains over 600.000 words, while in old
English period it was composed of only 30.000 words. It underwent and is
nowadays still undergoing considerable changes: new words or new meaning of old
words appear while some old words and meanings are no longer used or even drop
out of the language completely.
Ý3 In English, there is always a layer of words which is considered most stable, most
significant for communicative purposes. This layer of words is called the basic stock
of words. The basic stock of words consists of five groups which denote:
- The most common objects and phenomena of nature: sky, earth, sun, star, moon,
rain, wind, water, tree etc.
- The names of human beings, parts of the body, relatives: man, woman, arm, foot,
etc.
- Men’s dwelling, domestic animals: house, dog, cat.
- Actions in everyday life, labour tools: eat, drink.
Main qualities and properties: big, small, hot, etc.
Find out the difference between prefixes and suffixes.
Ý1 Prefixes rarely form new parts of speech
Ý2 Eg. happy (adj) => unhappy (adj)
Ý3 Suffixes usually change the meaning of stems both lexically and grammatically.
Ý4 Eg. use (n) => useful (adj)
How are prefixes classified according to their meaning?
According to their meaning, prefixes are classified into three groups:
Group one: has negative meaning
Ý 1 Eg. un-, dis-, non-, mis-, in-
unlucky, dishonest, nonsense, misunderstand, incorrect
Ý 2 Group two: denotes reversal or repetition of an action
Eg. re-, dis-, un-
 replay, disconnect, unlock
Group three: shows time and space relationship
Ý 3 Eg. pre-, post-, over-, fore-, super-
prewar, postwar, oversleep, foresee, supermarket
Express the definition and characteristic features of compounding
Definition: Compounding is the building of a new word by joining two or more
Ý 1 words.
Examples: schoolboy, country girl, easy-going
Characteristics of compound words:
A compound word consists of at least two root morphemes, the second component
Ý 2 expressing a general meaning and the first one making the meaning specific.
Eg. goal-keeper, shop-keeper
The components of a compound word may be a simple word, a derived word or
Ý 3 another compound word
Eg. classroom, kind-hearted, aircraft-carrier
In general, English compounds have two stems. The second component usually
Ý 4 undergoes inflections.
Eg. store-keeper => store-keepers
Discuss all the ways to form nouns in English.
The ways to form nouns are:
Affixation:
+ Definition: Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of affixes.
Ý1
+ Examples: happy + -ness =>happiness
non- + sense => nonsense
Compounding:
+ Definition: Compounding is the building of a new word by joining two or more
Ý2
words.
+ Examples: goal-keeper, shop-keeper
Shortening:
+ Examples:
Ý3
examination => exam
bicycle => bike
Conversion:
+ Definition: Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech
without adding any elements.
Ý4
+ Examples:
look (v) => look (n): “have a look”
talk (v) => talk (n): “have a talk”
Sound and stress interchange:
- Sound interchange
+ Definition: Sound interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the root
vowel or consonant of the old word.
+ Examples: speak => speech, sing => song
Ý 5 - Stress interchange
+ Definition: Stress interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the
place of the stress on the old one.
+ Examples:
‘black ‘board => ‘blackboard
‘dancing ‘girl => ‘dancing girl
 Words from names:
Ý6
+ Examples: sandwich, robot, diesel
Indicate the characteristic features and types of shortening.
Features of shortening:
Shortening is a very productive way of forming new words in English.
Ý 1 It is productive in colloquial speech and advertisement. It can be considered a good
way of creating new roots since new roots are used as free roots and can take
endings.
Types of shortening
1. Abbreviation:
1.1 Acronyms:
Ý 2 + Definition: Acronyms are words built from the initials of several words
+ Examples: BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), UNICEF (United Nations
International Children’s Emergency Fund), FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organization)
+ Two special cases of acronyms:
- Monograms are two or more letters combined in one design. They are usually used
in handkerchiefs, note-paper, and wedding invitation cards.
Ý3
- Homonymy-based acronyms are based on the use of identical sounds of words and
letters.
Eg. I.O.U (I owe you); RU18? (Are you 18?)
1.2 Clipping:
+Types of clipping:
- Initial clipping: The first part of a word is clipped: phone, car, plane.
- Final clippinh: The last part of a word is clipped: exam, lab, sis, doc.
Ý 4 - Initio-final clipping: Both the first and the last parts are clipped: fridge, flu, tec.
- Medial clipping: The medial part is clipped: maths, specs, V-day, H-bomb.
- Elliptico-conversional clipping: This is a special case in which there is a
combination of ellipsis, conversion and clipping: sitdown (a sitdown demonstration);
pop (popular music); pub (public house).
2. Blending:
+ Definition: Blending is a special type of shortening where parts of words merge
Ý 5 into one new word.
+ Examples: motel (motor hotel); medicare (medical care).

Express your knowledge of sound imitation as a way of forming new words in English.
Definition: Sound imitation is the way to form words by imitating sounds produced
Ý1
by actions, things and so on. This is also called phonetical motivation.
Words showing animals: based on the sounds produced by the animals themselves:
crow, cuckoo.
Ý 2 Words showing movement of water: flush, splash, babble.
Words showing actions made by man: giggle, chatter, grumble, murmur, whisper.
Words showing sounds made by animals: moo, roar, howl.
Some words formed by sound imitation have developed figurative meanings.
Eg: The hungry boy is roaring in the kitchen.
Ý3
“roar” is a word normally showing sounds made by animals, but in this case, it is
used metaphorically.
Sometimes we can make use of sound imitation to create vivid words for special
Ý4
occasions.
What is suffixation? What are the characteristics of suffixes? How are suffixes classified according to
the part of speech?
Ý 1 Suffixation is the formation of words by means of suffixes.
The most distinctive feature of suffixes is that they usually change the meaning of
Ý 2 the stem, both lexically and grammatically. In other words, they modify the lexical
meaning of the stem and transfer words to different parts of speech.
Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech formed:
Noun – suffixes:
Ý3
Eg. -er (teacher); -or (actor), -tion (action), -ness (happiness), -ist (artist), etc.
Adjective – suffixes:
Ý4
Eg. -able (eatable); -ish (British); -ed (interested); -less (hopeless); -y (noisy), etc.
Verb – suffixes:
Ý5
Eg. -ize (industrialize); -en (weaken); -fy (identify), etc.
Adverb – suffixes:
Ý6
Eg. -ly (luckily); -ward (backward); -wise (clockwise), etc.
Express the definition and characteristic features of compounding.
Definition: Compounding is the building of a new word by joining two or more
Ý 1 words.
Examples: schoolboy, country girl, easy-going
Characteristics of compound words:
A compound word consists of at least two root morphemes, the second component
Ý 2 expressing a general meaning and the first one making the meaning specific.
Eg. goal-keeper, shop-keeper
The components of a compound word may be a simple word, a derived word or
Ý 3 another compound word
Eg. classroom, kind-hearted, aircraft-carrier
In general, English compounds have two stems. The second component usually
Ý 4 undergoes inflections.
Eg. store-keeper => store-keepers
Compounds can function in a sentence as separate lexical units due to their integrity,
Ý 5 semantic unity and so on.
Eg. She is very kind-hearted. (adj-Complement).
Present all the ways to form nouns in English.
The ways to form nouns are:
Affixation:
+ Definition: Affixation is the formation of new words with the help of affixes.
Ý1
+ Examples: happy + -ness =>happiness
non- + sense => nonsense
Compounding:
+ Definition: Compounding is the building of a new word by joining two or more
Ý2
words.
+ Examples: goal-keeper, shop-keeper
Shortening:
+ Examples:
Ý3
examination => exam
bicycle => bike
Ý 4 Conversion:
+ Definition: Conversion is the formation of a new word in a different part of speech
without adding any elements.
+ Examples:
 look (v) => look (n): “have a look”
talk (v) => talk (n): “have a talk”
Sound and stress interchange:
- Sound interchange
+ Definition: Sound interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the root
vowel or consonant of the old word.
+ Examples: speak => speech, sing => song
Ý 5 - Stress interchange
+ Definition: Stress interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the
place of the stress on the old one.
+ Examples:
‘black ‘board => ‘blackboard
‘dancing ‘girl => ‘dancing girl
Words from names:
Ý6
+ Examples: sandwich, robot, diesel
Discuss all the ways to classify English compound words.
Ý 1 The ways to classify English compounds:
According to the meaning:
+ Non-idiomatic compounds: are those whose meanings are easily deduced from the
meanings of the components.
Ý 2 Eg. goal-keeper, salesman, good-looking
+ Idiomatic compounds: are those whose meanings cannot be deduced because there
is no relationship between the meanings of the components.
Eg. lip-service, blackleg, monkey-business.
According to componental relationship
+ Coordinative compounds: are those whose components are both structurally and
semantically independent.
Ý 3 Eg. actor-manager, willy-nilly, fifty-fifty.
+ Subordinative compounds: are those that are characterized by the domination of
one component over the other.
Eg. book-keeper, spaceship, bottlefeed.
According to the part of speech:
+ Compound nouns: door-handle, lady-killer, blackboard
Ý 4 + Compound adjectives: hot-tempered, easy-going
+ Compound verbs: whitewash, team-teach
+ Compound adverbs: whole-heartedly, self-confidently, herein, therein
According to compositional types:
+ Compounds formed by justaposition, i.e. without connecting elements: backache,
doorstep, heart-broken
+ Compounds formed by morphological means, i.e. with vowel or consonant as a
Ý 5 linking element: statesman, spokesman, handicraft, speedometer.
+ Compounds formed by syntactical means, i.e. a group of words condensed into
one words: merry-go-round, cash-and-carry, up-to-date.
+ Compounds formed by both morphological and syntactical means, i.e. phrases
turned into compounds by means of suffixes: long-legged, kind-hearted, teenager.
Ý 6 Miscellanea of compounds:
+ Derivational compounds: are words whose structural integrity is ensured by a
suffix: long-legged, kind-hearted, teenager.
+ Reduplicative compounds: are words built by imitating sounds or repeating one of
their components in one way or another: ping-pong, tick-tack, chit-chat.
 + Faded compounds: are words whose compositional characteristics have faded and
are hardly recognizable: breakfast, Sunday, cupboard.
+ Dead compounds: are words whose compositional characteristics can be
discovered by etymological analysis only: kidnap, husband, England.
+ Compounds formed by prepositional adverbs: are words whose final elements are
preposition-like-adverbs: give up, look after, put up with.
Discuss the classification and features of bookish words.
Bookish words are subdivided into:
Ý 1 + General bookish words are chiefly used in formal speech especially in writing.
Examples: infant, assist, retire
+ Scientific/learned words are used like neutral words:
- Usually they have one meaning (monosemantic): morpheme, radio,
television.
- When used for different sciences they become polysemantic:
Eg: operation: act performed by a surgeon; addition, subtraction,
Ý2
multiplication, etc.
- They have no connotational meaning and are stylistically neutral.
- A number of them are borrowed from slang: know-how, rake-off.
- They are also coined from available material with the help of affixation,
compounding, conversion, etc.: speedometer, air-conditioner.
+ Poetic and archaic words:
- They are used in poetry: steed (horse), thee (you), foe (enemy)
Ý3 - They are more abstract in meaning than their synonyms.
- A stylistic function of these words is to create the elevated, solemn
atmosphere of poetry and convey the intensity of poets’ feeling.
+ Non-assimilated foreign words:
- They are borrowed from different languages which still remain their spelling
and pronunciation.
- Usually, they have equivalents in English: chic (fashionable), fiancé (would-
Ý4
be husband).
- They are understandable to educated people.
- Their stylistic function is to create local color, describing conditions of life,
manners of a given country at e given time, etc.
Discuss the types of English dictionaries
1. General dictionaries:
+ Explanatory dictionaries:
- Definition: Most explanatory dictionaries focus on the form, usage and meaning
of words in present day English.
- Examples: The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English, Webster’s
New International Dictionary.
+ Bilingual dictionaries:
Ý1
- Definition: Bilingual dictionaries are like word-books containing vocabulary
items in one language and their equivalents in another language.
- Examples: English-Vietnamese Dictionary, Russian-Vietnamese Dictionary.
+ Learners’ dictionaries:
- Definition: These are the dictionaries specially compiled for English language
learners at different stages of advancement.
- Examples: The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.
Ý 2 2. Specialised dictionaries:
Specialized dictionaries aim at covering only a certain part of the vocabulary
 (synonyms, antonyms, terms, phraseology, etc.) or at providing information about
one particular aspect (pronunciation, etymology, etc.)
They are subdivided into:
+ Technical Dictionaries
+ Phraseological Dictionaries
+ Pronouncing Dictionaries
+ Etymological Dictionaries
+ Usage Dictionaries
+ Dictionaries of word frequency
+ Dictionaries of collocations
+ Dictionaries of synonyms
Express your knowledge of morphemes.
Definition of morpheme : Morphemes may be defined as the minimal meaningful
langugae units as they cannot be divided any further into meaningful parts. A
Ý 1 morpheme has its sound form and meaning but unlike a word , it is not independent
and occurs in speech only as part of a word although a word may consist of only one
morpheme, ie. they coincide.
Types of morphemes: There are two main types of morphemes: the root morpheme and the
affixational morpheme.
1. The root morphem:
+ Definition and characteristics:
- The root morpheme is also called the lexical morpheme or simply the root.
Ý 2 - It is the primary element of the word and conveys its essential lexical meaning.
- The root remains after removing all the other elements and cannot be analyzed any
further.
+ Examples: bookish, unlucky.
The affixational morphem: is further divided into grammatical morpheme and derivational
morpheme.
2.1. The grammatical morpheme:
+ Definition + Characteristics:
- It is also called inflection or ending.
Ý3
- It is used to create different forms of the same word.
- It carries the grammatical meaning only and is, therefore, studied in grammar.
+ Examples: open, opens, opening, opened
2.2. The derivational morpheme:
+ Definition + Characteristics:
- It carries both lexical and grammatical meaning, so it can be called lexico-
Ý 4 grammatical morpheme.
- Derivational morphemes are used to create new words and are, therefore, studied in
lexicology.
+ Examples: unhappy, happiness, happily
II Nhóm câu hỏi mức độ nhận thức bậc 2 – áp dụng (4 điểm)
What are the criteria to distinguish between compound words and free word groups? Are multi-word
verbs compound words? Give your explanation.
Criteria to distinguish between free word groups and compound words:
- Phonological criterion:
+ Explanation: In English, there is a great tendency to give compounds a heavy
Ý 1 stress on the first element. Free word groups have even stresses.
+ Examples: ‘bluebottle vs. ‘blue ‘bottle;
a ‘white ‘house vs. the ‘White House
 - Inseparability criterion:
+ Explanation: This can be also called criterion of structural integrity. It means that
compounds are indivisible. Between the elements of a compound word it is
Ý2
impossible to insert any other word. These elements lose their grammatical
independence and endings are added to the whole word.
+ Examples: armchairs, handwashed, handwashing.
- Semantic criterion:
+ Explanation: A compound word only expresses a single idea despite the fact that it
Ý 3 consists of two or more words. The meaning of the whole compound word is not the
sum of the meanings of its components.
+ Examples: red tape (bureaucratic) vs. red tape (tape of red colour)
- Graphic criterion:
+ Explanation: We can rely on the spelling of a word group to discriminate between
Ý 4 free word groups and compounds. Compounds words are often spelt with a hyphen
or with no separation at all.
+ Examples: mankind, bookcase, mother-in-law
Are multi-word verbs compound words? Give your explanation.
Ý 1 Yes, they are.
Ý 2 - Phonological criterion: The stress often fall on the first element: ‘give up
- Inseparability criterion: Many multi-word verbs are indivisible. Between the
elements of a multi-word verb it is impossible to insert any other word. These
Ý 3 elements lose their grammatical independence and endings are added to the whole
word.
+ Examples: grow up, grows up
- Semantic criterion:
+ Explanation: A multi-word verb only expresses a single idea despite the fact that it
Ý 4 consists of two or more words. The meaning of the whole multi-word verb is not the
sum of the meanings of its components.
+ Examples: give up = stop
a. Express your knowledge of metaphor. b. Discuss the change of meaning
Definition of metaphor: Metaphor is the transference of names based on the
Ý1
association of similarity. In other words, metaphor is a hidden comparison.
Types of similarity: There are various types of similarity:
- The similarity of shape: the teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage.
- The similarity of position: the foot of a mountain.
- The similarity of function: the key to the mystery, the head of the class.
Ý2
- The similarity of movement: to worm.
- The similarity of colour: orange, rose.
- The similarity of size: elephantine.
- The similarity of behavior or characters: a fox, a snake.
Ý 3 Classification:
- Living metaphor: When a word has an unusual metaphorical sense or the metaphor
is created and used by an individual.
Eg. “… she lent wings to his imagination….” (J. London)
- Faded metaphor: is one that has lost its freshness due to long and traditional use.
The meanings of faded metaphors are registered in dictionaries.
Eg. Her voice is sweet.
- Dead metaphor: is a metaphor which is no longer felt as a metaphor because the
direct meaning of the word has been completely lost.
Eg. “to ponder” originally meant “to weigh” but now only means “to meditate, to
 think or consider carefully”
Metaphor versus simile:
- Both metaphor and simile are forms of comparisons. The former is direct and the
latter indirect.
- In simile, we have to use formal elements of comparison: like, as, etc.
Ý4
Eg. She is like a fox.
- A metaphor may be extended into a simile and a simile may be condensed into a
metaphor.
- Metaphor is a hidden comparison and simile is an open comparison.
the change of meaning
Narrowing of meaning:
Ý 1 This means that from a wide range of meaning a word now has a narrow one.
Eg. The word “queen” meant “wife” but now refers to only a king’s wife.
Broadening of meaning:
As opposed to narrowing of meaning, English vocabulary has undergone broadening
Ý 2 as well.
Eg. “boot-legger” meant “an illegal dealer in liquor”, but now refers to any illegal
dealer.
The so-called degeneration of meaning:
Degeneration means that the meaning of a certain word becomes “worse, less nice”,
Ý3
lower in status.
Eg. “knave” meant “boy” but now means “swindler, rogue”
Elevation of meaning:
Elevation means that the meaning of a word becomes “better, nicer”, higher in
Ý4
status.
Eg. “minister” meant “a servant, an attendant”, but now “head of a ministry”.
a. Express your knowledge of homonyms. b. What are the criteria to distinguish between set
expressions and compound words?
a. Express your knowledge of homonyms.
Definition: Homonyms are words identical in pronunciation and/or spelling but
Ý 1 different in meaning.
Eg. tear (v) – tear (n); hear - here
Characteristic features:
- Most English homonyms are monosyllabic: write-rite-right-wright.
Ý2
- Homonymy is a source of ambiguity.
Eg. Is life worth living? – It depends on the liver.
Classification:
- Homophones: are words identical in pronunciation only.
Eg. piece – peace; buy – by
Ý 3 - Homographs: are words identical in spelling only.
Eg. tear – tear; wind – wind
- Full/perfect homonyms: are words identical in both pronunciation and spelling.
Eg. ring (a piece of jewelry) – ring (a phone call)
b. What are the criteria to distinguish between set expressions and compound words?
The divisibility of a set expression into separately structured elements.
Ý1
Eg. cats and dogs (set expressions)
The structural integrity of a compound. In a compound, the process of integration is
Ý 2 much more advanced.
Eg. bluebottle (a kind of insect)
 Derivational ability:
Ý3
Eg. red tape (compound word) => red tapist, red taperism
The solid and hyphenated spelling of some compounds.
Ý4
Eg. greenhouse, bottlefeed, mother-in-law
a. Express your knowledge of motivation of words. b. Discuss standard colloquial words.
a. Express your knowledge of motivation of words.
Definition of motivation: Motivation means the relationship between structure and
Ý1
meaning and between direct and indirect meaning.
Types of motivation: There are three types of motivation.
- Morphologic motivation:
+ Definition: is the direct relationship between the morphologic structure of the
Ý 2 word and its meaning. In other words, it is the relationship between morphemes of
the word.
+ Examples: teacher is the person who teaches.
- Phonetic motivation:
+ Definition: is the direct relationship between the phonetic structure of the word
Ý 3 and its meaning. In other words, there is similarity between the sound-form of the
word and the sound produced by the object the word denotes.
+ Examples: bang, ping-pong, tick-tack, moo.
- Semantic motivation:
+ Definition: is the relationship between direct and indirect meanings. There is co-
Ý4
existence of literal and figurative meanings based on metaphor.
+ Examples: the foot of the mountain.
b. b. Discuss standard colloquial words.
Ý 1 They are used in spoken language rather than written language.
Ý 2 They are informal, casual, lively, friendly and humorous..
Ý 3 They are short or shortened words.
Ý 4 Examples: kid, dad, bike, cute.
a. What are the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words?
b. Is metonymy a way of forming new words? Give your explanations.
a. What are the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words?
b. Is metonymy a way of forming new words? Give your explanations.
a. a. What are the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words?
- Semantic criterion:
+ Explanation: If there is a logical relationship between the meanings of a word, this
word is a polysemantic word. On the contrary, if there is no logical relationship
between the meanings of a word, this word is actually not one word but one of the
Ý1
homonyms – full homonyms.
+ Examples:
head – part of the body; person; leader; etc. => polysemantic word
ring (a piece of jewelry) – ring (a phone call) => full homonyms
- Derivational criterion:
+ Explanation: When one or more meanings of a word can form its/their own
derivatives, we have homonyms.
Ý2
+ Examples:
air – aircraft – airport – airline
air (suggestive appearance) – no derivatives.
 - Synonymy-based criterion:
+ Explanation: When the synonyms of two or more words have nothing in common,
these words are homonyms.
Ý3
+ Examples:
bay – gulf
bay - barking
- Combinability criterion:
+ Explanation: When two or more meanings of a word have different combining
ability or different paradigms, we have homonyms.
Ý4
+ Examples:
game (something to play) – two games
game (hunted animal) – no plural form.
b. b. Is metonymy a way of forming new words? Give your explanations.
Ý 1 Yes ,it is
Because proper names are treated as common nouns, e.g cardigan, sandwich, volt.
Ý 2 When they are common nouns, they are considered as root morphemes and they can
get affixes, e.g sandwiches, American, Victorian
a. Present your knowledge about metaphor. b. How are set expressions classified according to their
function?
a. Present your knowledge about metaphor. b. How are set expressions classified according to
their function?
a. Present your knowledge about metaphor.
Definition of metaphor: Metaphor is the transference of names based on the
Ý1
association of similarity. In other words, metaphor is a hidden comparison.
Types of similarity: There are various types of similarity:
- The similarity of shape: the teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage.
- The similarity of position: the foot of a mountain.
- The similarity of function: the key to the mystery, the head of the class.
Ý2
- The similarity of movement: to worm.
- The similarity of colour: orange, rose.
- The similarity of size: elephantine.
- The similarity of behavior or characters: a fox, a snake.
Classification:
- Living metaphor: When a word has an unusual metaphorical sense or the metaphor
is created and used by an individual.
Eg. “… she lent wings to his imagination….” (J. London)
- Faded metaphor: is one that has lost its freshness due to long and traditional use.
Ý 3 The meanings of faded metaphors are registered in dictionaries.
Eg. Her voice is sweet.
- Dead metaphor: is a metaphor which is no longer felt as a metaphor because the
direct meaning of the word has been completely lost.
Eg. “to ponder” originally meant “to weigh” but now only means “to meditate, to
think or consider carefully”
Ý 4 Metaphor versus simile:
- Both metaphor and simile are forms of comparisons. The former is direct and the
latter indirect.
- In simile, we have to use formal elements of comparison: like, as, etc.
Eg. She is like a fox.
- A metaphor may be extended into a simile and a simile may be condensed into a
metaphor.
 - Metaphor is a hidden comparison and simile is an open comparison.
b. How are set expressions classified according to their function?
They are classified into 6 groups:
Ý1 -set expressions functioning like nouns: a nice kettle of fish
Ý2 -set expressions functioning like verbs: to pull somebody’s leg
Ý3 -set expressions functioning like adjectives: as quick as lightning
Ý4 -set expressions functioning like adverbs: once in a blue moon
Ý5 -set expressions functioning like prepositions: in spite of
Ý6 -set expressions functioning like interjections: Damn it!
a. Express your knowledge of synonyms. b. Discuss metaphor as a transference of names.
a. Express your knowledge of synonyms. b. Discuss metaphor as a transference of names.
a. a. Express your knowledge of synonyms.
Definition
Synonyms are phonetically and morphologically different words belonging to the
Ý 1 same parts of speech, possessing similar denotation but differing in connotation,
combinability.
Examples: to help, to aid, to assist
Characteristics:
- In a synonymous group, there is a synonymic dominant which is the most general,
Ý2
neutral word.
Examples: to help, to aid, to assist, to succour
They are classified into 5 groups:
- Semantic synonyms: are words differing in shades of meaning.
Eg. nice, pretty, good-looking, beautiful, handsome.
- Stylistic synonyms: are words differing in stylistic aspects:
Eg. father, dad, daddy.
- Semantico-stylistic synonyms: are words differing both in shades of meaning and
Ý3
stylistic aspects.
Eg. house, shack, slum, pad.
- Phraseological synonyms: are words differing in their collocations (combinability)
Eg. do, make; say, speak
- Territorial synonyms: are synonyms that belong to different countries.
Eg. autumn (in England) – fall (in America)
b. b. Discuss metaphor as a transference of names.
Definition of metaphor: Metaphor is the transference of names based on the
Ý1
association of similarity. In other words, metaphor is a hidden comparison.
Types of similarity: There are various types of similarity:
- The similarity of shape: the teeth of a saw, the head of a cabbage.
- The similarity of position: the foot of a mountain.
- The similarity of function: the key to the mystery, the head of the class.
Ý2
- The similarity of movement: to worm.
- The similarity of colour: orange, rose.
- The similarity of size: elephantine.
- The similarity of behavior or characters: a fox, a snake.
Ý 3 Classification:
- Living metaphor: When a word has an unusual metaphorical sense or the metaphor
is created and used by an individual.
Eg. “… she lent wings to his imagination….” (J. London)
- Faded metaphor: is one that has lost its freshness due to long and traditional use.
 The meanings of faded metaphors are registered in dictionaries.
Eg. Her voice is sweet.
- Dead metaphor: is a metaphor which is no longer felt as a metaphor because the
direct meaning of the word has been completely lost.
Eg. “to ponder” originally meant “to weigh” but now only means “to meditate, to
think or consider carefully”
Metaphor versus simile:
- Both metaphor and simile are forms of comparisons. The former is direct and the
latter indirect.
- In simile, we have to use formal elements of comparison: like, as, etc.
Ý4 Eg. She is like a fox.
- A metaphor may be extended into a simile and a simile may be condensed into a
metaphor.
- Metaphor is a hidden comparison and simile is an open comparison.

a. Present your knowledge about the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and polysemantic words.
b. How are set expressions classified according to their motivation?

a. Present your knowledge about the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and
polysemantic words.
b. How are set expressions classified according to their motivation?
Present your knowledge about the criteria to distinguish between homonyms and
a.
polysemantic words.
- Semantic criterion:
+ Explanation: If there is a logical relationship between the meanings of a word, this
word is a polysemantic word. On the contrary, if there is no logical relationship
between the meanings of a word, this word is actually not one word but one of the
Ý1
homonyms – full homonyms.
+ Examples:
head – part of the body; person; leader; etc. => polysemantic word
ring (a piece of jewelry) – ring (a phone call) => full homonyms
- Derivational criterion:
+ Explanation: When one or more meanings of a word can form its/their own
derivatives, we have homonyms.
Ý2
+ Examples:
air – aircraft – airport – airline
air (suggestive appearance) – no derivatives.
- Synonymy-based criterion:
+ Explanation: When the synonyms of two or more words have nothing in common,
these words are homonyms.
Ý3
+ Examples:
bay – gulf
bay - barking
- Combinability criterion:
+ Explanation: When two or more meanings of a word have different combining
ability or different paradigms, we have homonyms.
Ý4
+ Examples:
game (something to play) – two games
game (hunted animal) – no plural form.
 b. How are set expressions classified according to their motivation?
Ý1 According to their motivation, set expressions are classified into three groups:
- Phraseological fusions:
+ Explanation: are completely non-motivated set expressions. They may be called
Ý 2 completely idiomatic because the meaning of the whole unit is not a mere sum of the
meanings of its components.
+ Examples: a nice kettle of fish, to beat about the bush.
- Phraseological unities:
+ Explanation: are partially motivated set expressions. They can be called partially
idiomatic because the meaning of the whole unit is not a mere sum of the meanings
Ý3
of its components, but it is based on them. We may deduce or guess the general
meaning.
+ Examples: all of a sudden, to fish in troubled waters.
- Phraseological combinations:
+ Explanation: are clearly motivated set expressions. They contain one component
Ý4
used in its direct meaning.
+ Examples: as sweet as honey, as bold as brass
a. Discuss the sources of synonyms. b. What are the types of lexical meaning? Give your explanations.
a. Discuss the sources of synonyms. b. What are the types of lexical meaning? Give your
explanations.
a. Discuss the sources of synonyms.
Ý 1 There are three sources of synonyms.
- Borrowings: The borrowed words form synonymous groups with native words.
Ý2
Eg. to ask (native), to question (Latin), to interrogate (Latin).
- Change of meaning:
Ý 3 Eg. Having acquired the meaning of “worker”, the word “hand” became a synonym
of this word.
- The development of word formation:
+ Derivation: trader - tradesman
Ý 4 + Compounding: return – come back
+ Conversion: conversation – talk/chat
+ Shortening: examination - exam
b. What are the types of lexical meaning? Give your explanations.
There are two types of lexical meanings:
- Direct meaning: is the meaning that directly denotes something without comparing
Ý 1 it or associating it with other things i.e. we do not need a context. Direct meaning is
also called literal meaning.
Eg. head – part of the body.
a. Discuss the assimilation of borrowed words. b. How are synonyms classified?
a. Discuss the assimilation of borrowed words. b. How are synonyms classified?
a. Discuss the assimilation of borrowed words.
Definition
Ý 1 The assimilation of borrowed words is the conformation to the phonetical, graphical,
grammatical and lexical rules of the receiving language.
According to the degree of motivation, there are two groups: completely assimilated
words and partially assimilated words.
Ý 2 - Completely assimilated words: are usually old borrowings. Most of them are
frequent and stylistically neutral words.
Eg. cheese, wine, street (Latin)
 table, face, finish (French)
- Partially assimilated words:
+ Semantically non-assimilated words: are words that denote objects, notions
peculiar to the country from which they come: Kimono, kangaroo.
+ Grammatically non-assimilated words: are usually words that keep their original
Ý3
plural forms: phenomenon - phenomena
+ Phonetically partially assimilated words: police, cartoon
+ Graphically partially assimilated words: café, cliché, fiancé

b. How are synonyms classified?

Synonyms are classified into 5 groups:
- Semantic synonyms: are words differing in shades of meaning.
Ý1
Eg. nice, pretty, good-looking, beautiful, handsome.
- Stylistic synonyms: are words differing in stylistic aspects:
Ý2
Eg. father, dad, daddy.
- Semantico-stylistic synonyms: are words differing both in shades of meaning and
Ý 3 stylistic aspects.
Eg. house, shack, slum, pad.
- Phraseological synonyms: are words differing in their collocations (combinability)
Ý4
Eg. do, make; say, speak
- Territorial synonyms: are synonyms that belong to different countries.
Ý5
Eg. autumn (in England) – fall (in America)
a. Discuss the types of meaning found in words. b. State the way to distinguish between set
expressions and compound words.
a. Discuss the types of meaning found in words. b. State the way to distinguish between set
expressions and compound words.
a. Discuss the types of meaning found in words
There are two main types of meanings found in words: lexical meaning and
Ý1
grammatical meaning.
- Lexical meaning: is the realization of concept or emotion.
Ý 2 Eg. When we hear or see the word “house”, our concept is realized and the picture or
image of a house occurs to our mind.
- Grammatical meaning: is what unites words with different lexical meanings. It is
the meaning recurrent in identical sets of different words. It divides words into
groups with their own grammatical features.
Ý3
Eg. The grammatical meaning of “house, book, ma, etc.” is that they are nouns in
singular and common case.
The grammatical meaning of “pretty, tall, short, etc.” is that they are adjectives.
The basic lexical meaning of a word is retained in all its forms.
Ý 4 Eg. student – students – student’s – students’
go – goes – went – gone - going
The word whose lexical meaning is clear are called notional words. They name
Ý 5 objects, actions, qualities, etc.
Eg. student, boy, girl.
The word whose prevailing meaning is grammatical are called functional words.
Ý 6 They are articles, prepositions, etc.
Eg. in, a , an, the
b. State the way to distinguish between set expressions and compound words.
Ý 1 The divisibility of a set expression into separately structured elements.
 Eg. cats and dogs (set expressions)
The structural integrity of a compound. In a compound, the process of integration is
Ý 2 much more advanced.
Eg. bluebottle (a kind of insect)
Derivational ability:
Ý3
Eg. red tape (compound word) => red tapist, red taperism
The solid and hyphenated spelling of some compounds.
Ý4
Eg. greenhouse, bottlefeed, mother-in-law
a. Express your knowledge of antonyms. b. Explain the motivation of words.
a. Express your knowledge of antonyms. b. Explain the motivation of words.
a. Express your knowledge of antonyms.
Definition: Antonyms are words of opposite meaning and of the same part of speech.
Ý1
Eg. long – short, love - hate
Characteristic feature:
- Usually, adjectives denoting qualities, verbs denoting actions or state and abstract
nouns have antonyms.
Examples: old – young; give – take; joy – sorrow.
- Many words, especially concrete nouns have no antonyms.
Eg. book, pen, house
Ý 2 - Antonyms have an important role in the stock of English set expressions.
Eg. far and near, black and white.
- In different meanings, a polysemantic word can have different antonyms.
Eg. old – new; old – young.
- There may be antonymic pairs that are set expressions.
Eg. on purpose – by chance/by accident.
- Like synonyms, antonyms are sometimes used for stylistic purposes.
Classification:
- Root-word antonyms: are words completely different in sound-forms. They are of
different roots.
Ý 3 Eg. old – young; war – peace.
- Derivational antonyms: are words formed by derivation. They are words of the
same roots.
Eg. like – dislike; happy – unhappy.
b. Explain the motivation of words
Definition of motivation: Motivation means the relationship between structure and
Ý1
meaning and between direct and indirect meaning.
Types of motivation: There are three types of motivation.
- Morphologic motivation:
+ Definition: is the direct relationship between the morphologic structure of the
Ý 2 word and its meaning. In other words, it is the relationship between morphemes of
the word.
+ Examples: teacher is the person who teaches.
- Phonetic motivation:
+ Definition: is the direct relationship between the phonetic structure of the word
Ý 3 and its meaning. In other words, there is similarity between the sound-form of the
word and the sound produced by the object the word denotes.
+ Examples: bang, ping-pong, tick-tack, moo.
Ý 4 - Semantic motivation:
+ Definition: is the relationship between direct and indirect meanings. There is co-
 existence of literal and figurative meanings based on metaphor.
+ Examples: the foot of the mountain.
a. Express your knowledge of substantivation. b. Mention all the ways to form verbs in English.
a. Express your knowledge of substantivation. b. Mention all the ways to form verbs in
English.
a. Express your knowledge of substantivation
- Whether substantivation belongs to conversion is still a matter of controversy;
Ý 1 however, substantivation adheres exactly to the definition of conversion, i.e. the
formation of a new word without adding any elements.
- As a matter of fact, substantivation is the formation of nouns from adjectives. In
other words, it is the transition into nouns.
Ý2
Eg. native => a native, two natives.
male (adj) => a male, two males
- We can have substantivation from ellipsis.
Ý 3 Eg. daily newspaper => a daily.
elastic cord => an elastic.
- We also have partial substantivation.
Eg. rich => the rich; blind => the blind.
Ý 4 These nouns always go with “the” and are not inflected for the plural and in general
can not be used in possessive case. They do not undergo morphological changes.
They have the properties of both nouns and adjectives.
Eg. The very unfortunate; the unusually good.
b. Mention all the ways to form verbs in English.
Ý1 -affixation: beautify, enlarge, widen
Ý2 -compounding: take after, give in, put up with
Ý3 -shortening: to phone, to exam
Ý4 -conversion: to work, to hand
Ý5 -sound imitation: to whisper, to chatter, to giggle
Ý6 -back derivation: beg, escalate
Ý7 -sound and stress interchange: to record, to export
Ý8 -words from names: to fish, to worm
a. How are English adjectives formed? b. Discuss the types of meaning.
a. How are English adjectives formed? b. Discuss the types of meaning.
a. How are English adjectives formed?
Ý1 ● Affixation: sunny, easy, beautiful
Ý2 ● Compounding: kind-hearted, time-consuming
Ý3 ● Word from names: a jumbo plane
b. Discuss the types of meaning.
There are two main types of meanings found in words: lexical meaning and
Ý1
grammatical meaning.
- Lexical meaning: is the realization of concept or emotion.
Ý2 Eg. When we hear or see the word “house”, our concept is realized and the picture or
image of a house occurs to our mind.
Ý3 - Grammatical meaning: is what unites words with different lexical meanings. It is
 the meaning recurrent in identical sets of different words. It divides words into
groups with their own grammatical features.
Eg. The grammatical meaning of “house, book, ma, etc.” is that they are nouns in
singular and common case.
The grammatical meaning of “pretty, tall, short, etc.” is that they are adjectives.
The basic lexical meaning of a word is retained in all its forms.
Ý4 Eg. student – students – student’s – students’
go – goes – went – gone - going
The word whose lexical meaning is clear are called notional words. They name
Ý5 objects, actions, qualities, etc.
Eg. student, boy, girl.
The word whose prevailing meaning is grammatical are called functional words.
They are articles, prepositions, etc.
Ý6
Eg. in, a , an, the

a. Discuss sound and stress interchange as a way of forming new words. b. State some features of
American English.
a. Discuss sound and stress interchange as a way of forming new words. b. State some
features of American English.
a. Discuss sound and stress interchange as a way of forming new words
- Sound interchange
+ Definition: Sound interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the root
Ý1
vowel or consonant of the old word.
+ Examples: speak => speech, sing => song
- Stress interchange
+ Definition: Stress interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the
place of the stress on the old one.
Ý2
+ Examples:
‘black ‘board => ‘blackboard
‘dancing ‘girl => ‘dancing girl
b. State some features of American English
Ý 1 - American English is one of the main English variants and is spoken in the USA.
- American English is by no means a dialect since it has a literary normalized form
Ý2
called standard American.
- Obviously, American English and British English have the same phonetical and
Ý3
grammatical systems, the same ways and means of word-formation and so on.
- However, there are some distinct differences in all language dimensions, especially
Ý4
in vocabulary.
+ Difference in spelling: American people try to make the spellings of Latin and
Ý 5 Greek words easier and simplify long words.
Eg. centre – center; colour – color.
+ Americanisms: are word and expressions used only in the USA. These words and
expressions have no equivalents in British English because what they denote is not
Ý 6 present in Britain.
Eg. junior high school, drive-in (a cinema where you can see a film without getting
out of your car.)
Ý 7 + Different in word-formation:
● Conversion is very widely used in American English, which forms verbs
from all parts of speech: to room, to railroad, etc.
 ● Two-word verbs are numerous hence the great creation of nouns from them:
to mix in => mix-in (adj); to hold up => hold-up (adj).
● Some affixes are more productive in American English than British English:
Eg. –dom (moviedom, gansterdom); -ster (shyster, roaster); super-
(supergangster, superspy, superdog, etc.)
● There is a stronger trend to use shortenings in American English. New
coinages are continuously appearing in the press, advertisements and so on.
a. a. Discuss sound and stress interchange as a way of forming new words
- Sound interchange
+ Definition: Sound interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the root
Ý1
vowel or consonant of the old word.
+ Examples: speak => speech, sing => song
- Stress interchange
+ Definition: Stress interchange is the formation of a new word by changing the
place of the stress on the old one.
Ý2
+ Examples:
‘black ‘board => ‘blackboard
‘dancing ‘girl => ‘dancing girl