1. Explain metallic bonding; Arrangement of cations and mobile electrons.

METALLIC BONDING
Metallic bonding is defined as the electrostatic attraction of positively charged metal ions and
their delocalised electrons in a metal lattice.

● Metal atoms are tightly packed together in lattice structures.

● When the metal atoms are in lattice structures, the electrons in their outer shells are free to move
throughout the structure
● The free-moving electrons are called ‘delocalized electrons’ and they are not bound to their
atom
● When the electrons are delocalized, the metal atoms become positively charged cations
● The positive charges repel each other and keep the neatly arranged lattice in place
● There are very strong forces between the positive metal centres and the ‘sea’ of delocalized
electrons.
Video: (35) GCSE Chemistry - Metallic Bonding #19 - YouTube

HOW IS THE STRENGTH OF THE METALLIC ATTRACTION INCREASED?

○ Increasing the number of delocalised electrons per metal atom (Ex: Al metal would be stronger
than Na metal)
○ Increasing the positive charges on the metal centres in the lattice
○ Decreasing the size of the metal ions (Ex: Na+ stronger than K+)

NB: Due to the delocalised ‘sea’ of electrons, metallic structures have some characteristic
properties shown below:
PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS:

__________________________________________________________________
_____
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES VS. INTRAMOLECULAR BONDING
Intramolecular forces are forces within a molecule (ex: Ionic, covalent and metallic bonds)

Intermolecular forces are forces between molecules and are also called van der Waals’ forces.

In general, the intramolecular forces are stronger than the intermolecular forces.

Hydrogen Bonds:

A hydrogen bond is a special type of intermolecular bond that involves interaction between
hydrogen of one molecule and an electronegative atom (such as oxygen, chlorine, or fluorine) of
another molecule.

A hydrogen bond is weaker than an ionic bond or a covalent bond, but stronger than other van
der Waals forces.

How can hydrogen be attracted to another atom when it is already bonded? For
intramolecular bonds, one side of the bond (H) can still exert a slight positive charge, while the
other side (O) has a slight negative electrical charge.
Two examples of hydrogen bonds: between water molecules, holds strands of DNA together.

______________________________________________________________________________
________

2. Describe ionic crystals, simple molecular crystals and giant molecular crystals; Make diagrammatic
representations/ models of sodium chloride, graphite and diamond.

3. Distinguish between ionic and molecular solids; Use melting point, solubility in water and organic solvents, and
conductivity.

LATTICE STRUCTURES
Most ionic, metallic and covalent compounds are crystalline lattices. This means that the ions,
atoms or molecules are held in a regular and repeating arrangement.

Giant ionic lattices:

Ionic compounds are arranged in giant ionic lattices (also called giant ionic structures).

The type of lattice formed depends on the sizes of the positive and negative ions which are
arranged in an alternating fashion.
Covalent lattices: Simple and Giant

Covalent compounds can be arranged in simple molecular or giant molecular lattices

○ Simple molecular lattices: Iodine, buckminsterfullerene (C60), and ice

○ Giant molecular: silicon(IV) oxide, graphite, and diamond.
Simple molecular lattices

Giant molecular lattices

Metallic lattices

● Metals form giant metallic lattices in which the metal ions are surrounded by a ‘sea’ of
delocalised electrons
● The metal ions are often packed in hexagonal layers or in a cubic arrangement
 PROPERTIES/CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC AND COVALENT
COMPOUNDS :

Giant covalent lattices have a large number of covalent bonds linking the whole structure intermolecular
forces between the molecules. A lot of energy is required to break the lattice so they have high melting
and boiling points.

The compounds can be hard or soft. Graphite is soft as the forces between the carbon layers are weak.
Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide are hard as it is difficult to break their 3D network of strong covalent
bonds.

Most (generally), compounds are insoluble with water and do not conduct electricity. Graphite has
delocalised electrons between the carbon layers which can move along the layers when a voltage is
 applied. Diamond and silicon(IV) oxide do not conduct electricity as all four outer electrons on every
carbon atom is involved in a covalent bond so there are no free electrons available.

Videos:

● (35) Properties of Ionic Substances | Properties of Matter | Chemistry | FuseSchool - YouTube

● (35) GCSE Chemistry - Properties of Simple Molecular Substances & Giant Covalent Structures
#15 - YouTube

____________________________________________________________________________________
_______

4. Explain the term allotropy. Reference to the allotropes of carbon.

5. Relate structure of sodium chloride, diamond and graphite to their properties and uses; Use melting point,
solubility in water, conductivity, hardness and lubricating power

ALLOTROPES
Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same physical state.
They have different physical properties but the same chemical properties.

Carbon does this very well because of its ability to form bonds with other neighboring carbon
atoms. The way in which carbon atoms are connected to each other makes a big difference to the
physical & electronic properties of the material.

Diamond - Each carbon atom is connected to

four other carbon atoms by a covalent bond to
form a giant crystal lattice that forms a tetrahedral
structure. Because of this tetrahedral shape,
diamond is one of the hardest known materials.
Diamond is used for drill bits in oil exploration and for slicing through concrete and jewelry
(naturally-made diamonds are of higher purity and very expensive!) Diamonds have a high
refractive index, light is reflected internally, so it sparkles.

All of a diamond’s electrons are used to create the bonding lattice, leaving none spare; it is,
therefore, a poor conductor of electricity.

Graphite - Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to just three

others, leaving one electron spare. This results in atoms arranged
in flat layers of hexagons, between which is a sea of free,
delocalised electrons that’s made up from the spare electrons.

Graphite is used for pencil leads because its layer-like structure

makes it soft and flaky, so it leaves marks on paper. It is also a
good conductor of electricity due to its free electrons.

(35)
Network
Solids and
Carbon:
Crash
Course
Chemistry
#34 -
YouTube