Business Mathematics

First Year

Business

Prepared by

Dr/ Marwa Yahya

2022
 ‫رؤيـة ورســالة األكاديمية الحديثة‬
‫• الرؤيــة ‪:‬‬

‫تتطلع األكاديمية الحديثه لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة إلى أن تكون متميزة‬
‫فى مجاالت تخصصاتها لمسايرة المستجدات المحلية واإلقليمية والعالمية فى سوق‬
‫األعمال‪.‬‬

‫• الرسالة ‪:‬‬

‫تلتزم األكاديمية الحديثه لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة بإعداد كوادر متخصصة فى‬

‫مجاالت علوم الحاسب اآللى وإدارة األعمال والمحاسبة والمراجعة واقتصاديات التجارة‬

‫الدولية ونظم معلومات األعمال وذلك إلمداد المجتمع المحلى والعربى بالكوادر البشرية‬

‫المؤهلة والمزودة باألسس النظرية والتطبيقية الالزمة لسوق العمل فى التخصصات‬

‫المذكورة‪ ،‬ومن خالل االستفادة من جميع الموارد المتاحة تواكب األكاديمية التطورات‬

‫العلمية والتكنولوجية بأنشطتها البحثية كما تساهم فى خدمة المجتمع وتنمية البيئة فى‬

‫محيطها‪ ،‬ويتم ذلك فى إطار من اإللتزام بالقيم األخالقية والعلمية المتعارف عليها‪.‬‬
Vision:
Achieving excellence in its fields of specializations to be in line with the local,
regional, and international updates in the labor market.

Mission
Modern academy is committed to preparing professional graduates specialized
in the fields of Computer Science, Business Administration, Accounting and
Auditing, Economics of International Trade and Business Information Systems
to provide the regional and Arab community with qualified cadres equipped with
theoretical and professional foundations required in the labor market in the
aforementioned fields. By utilizing all the available resources, the academy
keeps up with the scientific and technological advancements through research
activities in addition to participating in serving the society and developing the
surrounding environment, all this within a frame of commitment to the
recognized moral and scientific values.
 ‫رؤية ورسالة برنامج إدارة األعمال‬
‫▪ رؤية برنامج إدارة األعمال‬

ً‫تحقيق التميز فى مجال إدارة األعمال لتأهيل كوادر لديهم قدرة على المنافسة محلياً واقليميا‬
.‫ في ضوء المعايير المعتمدة لجودة التعليم‬،‫وصوالً للمستوى الدولى‬
▪ Business Administration Program Vision
Achieving excellence in the field of Business Administration to prepare
a graduate capable of competing locally, regionally and up to the
international level in, view of the approved standards of the quality of
education.
‫▪ رسالة برنامج إدارة األعمال‬
‫يلتزم برنامج إدارة األعمال باألكاديمية الحديثة لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة بتقديم‬
‫خدمات تعليمية مطوره تواكب معايير جودة التعليم بما يسهم فى إعداد خريج متميز له‬
‫ ولديه القدرة على إجراء أبحاث علمية‬،‫القدرة على المنافسة فى تخصص ادارة االعمال‬
.‫مت قدمة وتقديم خدمات فعالة للمجتمع والبيئة المحيطة‬
▪ Business Administration Program Mission
The Business Administration program in the Academy is committed
to providing updated educational services that match the standards
of the quality of education, in order to prepare a distinguished
graduate having the ability to compete in the field of Business
Administration, conduct advanced scientific researches and provide
effective services to the society and surrounding environment.
 ‫رؤية ورسالة برنامج المحاسبة والمراجعة‬

‫▪ رؤية برنامج المحاسبة والمراجعة‬

ً‫تحقيق التميز فى مجال المحاسبة والمراجعة لتأهيل كوادر لديهم قدرة على المنافسة محليا‬
.‫ في ضوء المعايير المعتمدة لجودة التعليم‬،‫ال للمستوى الدولى‬
ً ‫واقليمياً وصو‬
▪ Accounting and Auditing Program Vision
Achieve excellence in the field of Accounting and Auditing to prepare a
graduate capable of competing locally, regionally and up to the
international level, in view of the approved standards of the quality of
education.

‫▪ رسالة برنامج المحاسبة والمراجعة‬

‫يلتزم برنامج المحاسبة والمراجعة باألكاديمية الحديثة لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة‬
‫بتقديم خدمات تعليمية مطوره تواكب معايير جودة التعليم بما يسهم فى إعداد خريج متميز‬
‫ ولديه القدرة على إجراء أبحاث‬،‫له القدرة على المنافسة فى تخصص المحاسبة والمراجعة‬
.‫علمية متقدمة وتقديم خدمات فعالة للمجتمع والبيئة المحيطة‬

▪ Accounting and Auditing Program Mission

The Accounting and Auditing program in the Academy is committed
to providing updated educational services that match the standards
of the quality of education, in order to prepare a distinguished
graduate having the ability to compete in the field of Accounting and
Auditing, conduct advanced scientific researches and provide
effective services to the society and surrounding environment.
 ‫وزارة التعليم العالى‬
Ministry of High Education ‫وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة بالمعادى‬
Modern Academy For Computer ‫األكاديمية الحديثة لعلوم الكمبيوتر‬
Science and Management Technology
‫ اقتصاد‬:‫القسم‬

‫رؤية ورسالة برنامج اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية‬

‫▪ رؤية برنامج اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية‬

ً‫تحقيق التميز في مجال اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية لتأهيل كوادر لديهم قدرة على المنافسة محليا‬
.‫ في ضوء المعايير المعتمدة لجودة التعليم‬،‫واقليمياً وصوالً للمستوى الدولى‬
▪ Economics of International Trade Program Vision
Achieve excellence in the field of Economics of International Trade to
prepare a graduate capable of competing locally, regionally and up to the
international level, in view of the approved standards of the quality of
education.
‫▪ رسالة برنامج اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية‬
‫يلتزم برنامج اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية باألكاديمية الحديثة لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة بتقديم‬
‫خدمات تعليمية مطوره تواكب معايير جودة التعليم بما يسهم فى إعداد خريج متميز له القدرة على‬
‫ ولديه القدرة على إجراء أبحاث علمية متقدمة‬،‫المنافسة في تخصص اقتصاديات التجارة الدولية‬
.‫وتقديم خدمات فعالة للمجتمع والبيئة المحيطة‬
▪ Economics of International Trade program Mission
The Economics of International Trade program in the Academy is
committed to providing updated educational services that match the
standards of the quality of education, in order to prepare a distinguished
graduate having the ability to compete in the field of Economics of
International Trade, conduct advanced scientific researches and provide
effective services to the society and surrounding environment.
 ‫األكاديمية الحديثــة‬
‫لعلوم الكمبيوتروتكنولوجيا اإلدارة‬
‫بالمعادى‬

‫رؤية ورسالة برنامج نظم معلومات األعمال‬

‫أوالً‪ :‬رؤية برنامج نظم معلومات األعمال‬

‫تحقيق التميز فى مجال نظم معلومات األعمال لتأهيل كوادر لديهم قدرة على المنافسة محلياً واقليمياً وصوالً‬
‫للمستوى الدولى‪ ،‬في ضوء المعايير المعتمدة لجودة التعليم‪.‬‬

‫‪▪ Business Information Systems Program Vision‬‬

‫‪Achieving excellence in the field of Business Information Systems to‬‬

‫‪prepare a graduate capable for competing locally, regionally and up to‬‬
‫‪the international, in view of the approved standards of the quality of‬‬
‫‪education.‬‬

‫ثانياً‪ :‬رسالة برنامج نظم معلومات األعمال‬

‫يلتزم برنامج نظم معلومات األعمال باألكاديمية الحديثة لعلوم الكمبيوتر وتكنولوجيا اإلدارة بتقديم خدمات تعليمية‬
‫مطوره تواكب معايير جودة التعليم بما يسهم فى إعداد خريج متميز له القدرة على المنافسة فى مجال نظم‬
‫معلومات األعمال‪ ،‬ولديه القدرة على إجراء أبحاث علمية متقدمة وتقديم خدمات فعالة للمجتمع والبيئة‬
‫المحيطة‪.‬‬

‫‪▪ Business Information Systems Program Mission‬‬

‫‪The‬‬ ‫‪Business Information Systems program in the Academy is‬‬

‫‪committed to providing updated educational services that match the‬‬
‫‪standards of the quality of education, in order to prepare a‬‬
‫‪distinguished graduate having the ability to compete in the field of‬‬
‫‪Business Information Systems, conduct advanced scientific researches‬‬

‫‪2-1‬‬
 ‫األكاديمية الحديثــة‬
‫لعلوم الكمبيوتروتكنولوجيا اإلدارة‬
‫بالمعادى‬

and provide effective services to the society and surrounding

environment.

2-2
1- Course Specifications
Academic year / Level: 1st year /1st term Specialization: Business English

Title: Business Mathematics Code: S102

Lecture: 3 Tutorial: 1 Practical: ---- Total: 3 (Hour/week)

2 – Overall Aims of Course

Aims
Providing students with knowledge of mathematical functions (function definition /
of Course:
different types of mathematical functions / domain and range of the function /
composed functions / decomposition of functions / symmetry tests / even and odd
functions / inequalities and their solutions), solving systems of linear equations using
(the substitution method - the elimination method - the matrix method) Graphical
solution of systems of linear inequalities in two variables, matrix algebra (operations
on matrices/ special types of matrices/ determinants/ solving systems of linear
equations using determinants as well as the inverse of the matrix), limits and continuity
of functions (basic concepts in limits/ rules of limits/ function continuity at a point );
Differentiation (definition / differentiation equation / rules of differentiation / degrees
of higher differentiation), the maximum and minimum values of functions (the first
and second derivative test to determine the maximum and minimum value of the
function) and finally integration (the basic principles of definite and indefinite
integration, in addition to an explanation of its practical importance in the field of
business and economics)
3 – Intended Learning Outcomes of Course (ILOs):
A-Knowledge
A7-
and
a1- Recognize mathematical functions.
Understandin
a2- Describe systems of linear equations.
g:
a3- Define matrices and determinants and their properties.
A11-.
a4- Presents the use of the concepts of differentiation and integration in the field of
specialization.

B1
B-Intellectual
b1- Presents mathematical functions.
Skills:
b2- Apply different methods for solving systems of linear equations.
b3- Employs differentiation and integration to solve problems.
b4- Uses Graph to solve problems.
B5-
b5- Calculates differentiation and integration.
b6- Illustrates the domain and range of the function as well as the limit of the
function.
b7- Calculates the inverse and determinant of a matrix.

-85 -
 C1-
C-Professional
and Practical c1- Uses systems of linear inequalities as well as systems of linear equations.
Skills: C6-
c2- Applies mathematical functions in prediction.
C11-
c3- Calculates the maximum and minimum value of mathematical functions using
differentiation.

D1.
D-General and
d1- Development of time management skills
Transferable
D4.
Skills:
d2. Supporting problem-solving skills in different ways

1- Mathematical functions (function definition / different types of mathematical

4-Contents: functions / domain and range of the function / decomposed functions /
decomposition of functions / symmetry tests / even and odd functions /
inequalities and their solutions)
2- Solving systems of linear equations using (substitution method - elimination
method - matrix method)
3- Graphical solution for systems of linear inequalities in two variables
4- Matrix algebra (operations on matrices/ special types of matrices/
determinants/ solving systems of linear equations using determinants as well
as the inverse of the matrix)
5- Limits and Continuity of Functions (Basic Concepts in Limits / Limit Rules /
Function continuity at a Point)
6- Differentiation (definition / equation of differentiation / rules of
differentiation / higher degrees of differentiation)
7- The maximum and minimum values of functions (the first and second
derivative test to determine the maximum and minimum value of the
function)
8- Integration (the basic principles of definite and indefinite integration, as well
as an explanation of their practical importance in business and economics)

Practical training: (X ) Exercises: ( √ ) Lectures: ( √ )

5–Teaching Presentation: ( X ) Projects: (𝑿𝑿 ) -Open Discussion: ( √ )
and E. Learning: ( √ ) Self Studies: ( √ ) -Web-Site searches: ( √ )
Learning
Case Study: ( X ) Virtual class ( 𝑿𝑿 ) - Chat Room ( √ )
Methods:
Virtual lab ( X ) Movie Lecture (X ) - Voice Lectures (X )
Simulation lab ( 𝑿𝑿 ) - Others (list): ( 𝑿𝑿 )

6- Education
and
learning 1. Organize the strengthening groups.
methods for 2. Prepare for meetings and academic guidance.
students 3. Repeat the information in a simple way in the office hours.
with limited
capacity

-86 -
7-Student Assessment Methods:

A-Student - Assignments. ( √ ) - Quizzes ( √ ) - Reports ( X )

Assessment
Methods: - Researches ( X ) - Projects ( X ) - Discussions (√)
-Presentations ( X ) - Participation ( √ ) - Midterm Exam (√ )
- Practical Exam. ( X ) - Open Book Exam ( X ) - Oral Exam ( X )
- Final Exam. ( √ ) Others (list)

Assessment method Week no.

B-Assessment 1. Assignments Every week from 2 to 11
Schedule: 2-Quizzes Weeks 3 and 10
6- Discussions Every week from 2 to 11
8- Participations Every week from 2 to 11
9- Midterm written exam Week 7
11- Final exam Week 16
Assessment Method Marks Percentage (%)
C-Weighting of 1-Assignments
Assessment
s: 2-Quizzes
Year work 20 20%
4-Discussions
5-Participations
6-Mid-Term Examination 20 20%
7-Final-Term Examination 60 60 %
Total 100 100%

8-List of References:

A-lecture notes.
Lecture Notes For Mathematics Of Finance By Basic Science Department
B- Essential Frank S. Bdnic, " Applied Mathematics for Business, Economics and the social
books (text Sciences" McGraw-Hill Book Inc.
books)

C- Lial, M., Hungerford, T., & Holcomb, J. (2007). Mathematics with Applications in the
Recommende Management, Natural, and Social Sciences. Pearson Education Limited.
d Books
D- Periodicals,
Web- Sites, Egyptian knowledge bank
etc….

-87 -
 9- Facilities and
teaching
1- White Board (√) 2- PC / Laptop ...
materials:
Lecture(√) Class(√) Lecture(√) Class….. Lab…
Lab……
3- Printers ... 4- Data Show ....
Lecture…..Class….. Lecture (√) Class………..
Lab…… Lab…….….
5- White Board for (√) 6- Laser Pointer (√)
Presentation
7- Laboratories(List): ... 8- Software Packages (list): ...
…………………..… ……………………..
9- Supplies and raw ... 10- Library (√)
materials(list):

11- Others(list): ...

- Course Teacher: ………………………………… Signature:…………

- Head of Department: Prof.……………………… Signature: …………

-88 -
 Matrix (1) Course Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Knowledge and c. Professional

b. Intellectual Skills d. General Skills
Understanding Skills
Course Content

a1 a2 a3 a4 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 c1 c2 c3 d1 d2

Mathematical functions √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
systems of linear Solving √ √ √ √ √
equations
Graphical solution for systems of linear √ √ √ √
inequalities in two variables

Matrix algebra √ √ √ √
Limits and continuity of functions √ √ √ √

differentiation √ √ √ √ √
Maximum and minimum values of √ √ √
functions
Integration √ √ √ √

-85 -
 Matrix (2) of Course Assessment Techniques versus Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Knowledge and c. Professional d. General

b. Intellectual Skills
Understanding Skills Skills
Assessment Techniques

a1 a2 a3 a4 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 c1 c2 c3 d1 d2

Mid-term exam √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Final term Exams √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Assignments √ √
Quizzes √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √
Discussions

Sharing √ √ √ √ √ √

-86 -
Matrix (3) Teaching and learning methods versus Intended Learning Outcomes

a. Knowledge c. d.
and b. Intellectual Skills Professional General
Teaching Activities Understanding Skills Skills

a1 a2 a3 a4 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 c1 c2 c3 d1 d2

Lectures √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Exercises
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

E. Learning √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Search over the web √ √
√ √
Self-Studies

-109 -
Introduction

Mathematics provides an effective way of

building mental discipline and encourages
logical reasoning and mental rigor. In addition,
mathematical knowledge plays a crucial role in
understanding the contents of other school
subjects such as science, social studies, and
even music and art. Business mathematics is
the study of mathematics required by the field
of business. it helps us know the financial
formulas, fractions; measurements involved in
interest calculation, hire rates, salary
calculation, tax calculation etc. which help
complete business tasks efficiently. Business
mathematics also includes statistics and
provides solution to business problem. The use
of business mathematics assists you to make
an important decision based on numerical and
measurable scale and not on personal belief and
opinions.
Topic Page
Chapter 1: Systems of Linear Equations 4
The Slope of a Line 5
Parallel and perpendicular lines 17
Applications 20
Linear Equations 28
Exercises 40
Chapter 2: Matrices 42
Introduction 43
Matrix Arithmetic 45
Inverse Matrix 50
Solving Linear Systems Using Augmented
60
Matrices
The Determinant of a Matrix 68
Exercises 73
Chapter 3: Functions 77
The Definition of the function 78
Evaluating a Function 81
Exponential Function 95
Compound Interest 103
Logarithmic Function 108
Exercises 115

2
Chapter 4: Limits and Continuity 118
Limits 118
Properties of limits 118
One- and Two-Sided Limits 122
Continuity 123
Chapter 5: Derivative and Antiderivative 128
Power Rule 130
sum and Difference Property 132
Derivatives of Products and Quotient 133
The Inverse of Differentiation 136
Chapter 6: Linear Programming 139
Introduction 140
Optimization problems 146
Formulation Of Linear programs Problem
126
Formulation Of Linear programs Problem 147
Geometric method for solving linear
156
programming problem
Some Special Cases 166
Simplex Method 168
Exercises 186
References 188

3
 Chapter 1
Systems of Linear Equations

4
The Slope of a Line
Every line in the plane is the graph of a linear
equation. The equation of a horizontal line is 𝑦 = 𝑎,
where a is the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 of every point on the line. Some
examples of horizontal lines are 𝑦 = 4, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 =
−5. The equation of a vertical line is 𝑥 = 5, where a is the
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 of every point on the line.

Other equations normally come in one of two

forms:𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏. An equation
in this form gives us two important pieces of
information. The first is 𝑚, the slope. The second is
2
𝑏, the y-intercept form. In the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4, the
3
2
slope of the line is and the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 is (0,4),
3

or simply 4.

We can find an equation of a line from its

slope and any point on the line. There are two
common methods for finding this equation. One is
to put 𝑚, 𝑥, and y in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 and use algebra to
find 𝑏. The other is to put these same numbers in

5
the point-slope form of the line, 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 −
𝑥1 ), and then use algebra to solve for 𝑦.

The slope of a line measures its tilt. The sign

of the slope tells us whether the lines tilt up (if the
slope is positive) or tilts down (if the slope is
negative). The larger the number, the steeper the
slope.

We can find the slope of a line by putting the

coordinates of any two points on the line, (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), in the slope formula.

𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
For example, (0,3), (−2,2), (6,6) and (−1,2.5) are
all points on the same line. We can pick any pair of
points to compute the slope.

2−3 1
(0,3) and (−2,2): 𝑚 = =
−2−0 2

2.5−2 1
(−2,2) and (−1,2.5): 𝑚 = =
−1−(−2) 2

3−6 1
(6,6) and (0,3): 𝑚 = =
0−6 2

6
 2.5−3 1
(0,3) and (−1,2.5): 𝑚 = =
−1−0 2

7
6
5
4
3 The slpoe =…
2
1
0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8

Figure (1)
1
A slope of means that if we increase the 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2

by 2, then we need to increase the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 by 1 to get

another point on the line. For example, knowing that (0,3)
means that we know (0 + 2,3 + 1) = (2,4) is also on the
line (see Figure (1).

Because the horizontal line is not tilted at all, we

expect the slope to be zero, (−4, −2) and (1, −2) are two
points on horizontal line. When we put these points in the
slope formula, we will see that the slope really is zero.

−2 − (−2) 0
𝑚= = =0
1 − (−4) 5

7
The 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 on a horizontal line do not change but the
𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 do, so the numerator of the slope is always
zero for a horizontal line. What happens to the slope
formula for two points on a vertical line?

−1 − (−2) −3
𝑚= =
3−3 0
This is not a number, so the slope of a vertical does not
exist. The 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 on a vertical line do not change but
the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 do.

Example (1)
3
Find an equation of the line with slope −
4

containing the point (8, −2).

Solution
3
We let 𝑚 = − , 𝑥 = 8, 𝑦 = −2 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 to
4
find 𝑏.
−3
−2 = (8) + 𝑏 this gives us −2 = −6 + 𝑏.
4

4 = 𝑏 Add 6 to each side.

−3
The line is 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4.
4
−3
Now we let 𝑚 = , 𝑥1 = 8, 𝑦1 = −2 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 − 𝑦1 =
4
𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
8
 −3
𝑦 − (−2) = (𝑥 − 8)
4
−3
𝑦+2= 𝑥 + 6 Simplify
4
−3
𝑦= 𝑥+4 Subtract 2 form each side.
4

Find an equation of the with slope 4,

containing the point (0,3). We know the slope is 4
and the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 is 3 [because (0,3) is on the
line], so we can write the equation without having
to do work: 𝑦 = 4𝑥 + 3.

Find an equation of the horizontal line that

contains the point (5, −6).

Because the 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 are the same on a

horizontal line, we know that this equation is 𝑦 =
−6. We can still find the equation algebraically
using the fact that 𝑚 = 0, 𝑥 = 5, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = −6. They
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 becomes −6 = 0(5) + 𝑏. From here
we can see that 𝑏 = −6, 𝑠𝑜 𝑦 = 0𝑥 − 6, 𝑜𝑟 simply
𝑦 = −6.

9
 Find an equation of the vertical line containing
the point (10, −1). Because the x-values are the
same on a vertical line, we know that the equation is
𝑥 = 10. We cannot find this equation algebraically
because 𝑚 does not exist.

We can find an equation of a line if we know

any two points on the line. First we need to use the
slope formula to find 𝑚, and then we pick one of
the points to put into 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Example (2)
Find the slope of the line 6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3.
Solution
6𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 3 Solve this for 𝑦
−2𝑦 = −6𝑥 + 3 Subtract 6𝑥
3
𝑦 = 3𝑥 − Divide by −2
2
3
The slope is = 3
1

10
 Example (3)

Sketch a line through each pair of pints, and

find the slope of each line.

(𝐴) (−3, −2), (3,4)

(𝐵) (−1,3), (2, −3)
(𝐶 ) (−2, −3), (3, −3)
(𝐷) (−2,4), (−2, −2)

Solution

(𝐴) (−3, −2), (3,4)

4 − (−2) 6
𝑚= = =1
3 − (−3) 6
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-4 -2 0 2 4

11
(𝐵) (−1,3), (2, −3)
−3 − 3 −6
𝑚= = = −2
2 − (−1) 3
4
3
2
1
0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-1
-2
-3
-4

(𝐶 ) (−2, −3), (3, −3)

−3 − (−3) 0
𝑚= = =0
3 − (−2) 5
5
4
3
2
1
0
-3 -2 -1 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5

12
(𝐷) (−2,4), (−2, −2)
−2 − 4 −6
𝑚= =
−2 − (−2) 0
5
4
3
2
1
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3

Slope is not defined

If we let 𝑥 = 0, then 𝑦 = 𝑏. So the graph of
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 crosses that y axis at (0,b). the constant
b is the y-intercept. For example, the y intercept of
the graph of 𝑦 − 4𝑥 − 1 is -1.

To determine the geometric significance of 𝑚,

we proceed as follows: if 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏, then by
setting 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 1, we conclude that (0, 𝑏)
and (1, 𝑚 + 𝑏). The slope of this line is given by

13
 𝒚

-5 -3 -1 1 3 5

𝑦2 − 𝑦1 (𝑚 + 𝑏) − 𝑏
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =𝑚
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 1−0
So m is the slope of the line given by 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
Definition Slope-Intercept Form
The equation
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑚 = 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒, 𝑏 = 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
is called the slope-intercept of an equation of a line.

Example (4)
Using the Slope-Intercept Form
(A) Find the slope and y-intercept, and graph
−2
𝑦= 𝑥 − 3.
3

14
 2
(B) Write the equation of the line with slope
3

and −𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 −2.

Solution
−2
(A) 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = ,
3

𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑏 = −3.
2
(B) 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑚 = ,
3

𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 𝑏 = −2.

Example (5)

Using the Slope-Intercept Form

(A) Find an equation for the line that has slope
1
and passes through (−4,3). Write the
2

final answer in the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶.

(B) Find an equation for the line that passes
through the points (−3,2) and (−4,5).
Write the resulting equation in the form
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

15
 Solution
1
(A) Use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ). Let 𝑚 = and
2

(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−4,3). Then

1
𝑦−3= [𝑥 − (−4)]
2
1
𝑦 − 3 = [𝑥 + 4] Multiply both sides by 2
2

2𝑦 − 6 = 𝑥 + 4
−𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 10 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 2𝑦 = −10

(B) First, find the slope of the line by using the

slope formula
𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑚=
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
5−2 −3
𝑚= = = −3
−4 − (−3) 1
Now use 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) with
𝑚 = −3 and (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) = (−3,2)
𝑦 − 2 = −3[𝑥 − (−3)]
𝑦 − 2 = −3(𝑥 + 3)
𝑦 − 2 = −3𝑥 − 9
𝑦 = −3𝑥 − 7

16
The various forms of the equation of a line that we
have discussed are summarized in the following
table.
Standard 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶 A and B not both
form 0
Slope- 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 Slope: m; y
intercept intercept, b
form
Point-slope 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) Slope: m; point:
form (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
Horizontal 𝑦=𝑏 Slope: 0
line
Vertical line 𝑦=𝑎 Slope: undefined
Table (1)
Parallel and perpendicular lines
- Two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal
(or if both lines are vertical).
- Two lines are perpendicular f their slopes are
negative reciprocals of each other (or if one
line is horizontal and the other is vertical).
- Two numbers are negative reciprocals of each
other if one is positive and the other is negative and
inverting one gets the other (if we ignore the sign).
5 −6
For example 𝑎𝑛𝑑 are negative reciprocals.
6 5

17
 Example (6)
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −15 and 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 6
Solution
We begin by solving each equation for 𝑦, and
then we compare their slopes.
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −15 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 6
−3𝑦 = −4𝑥 − 15 − 3𝑦 = −4𝑥 + 6
4 4
𝑦 = 𝑥+5 𝑦 = 𝑥−2
3 3
The lines have the same slope, so they are
parallel
3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −15
3𝑥 − 5𝑦 = 20 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 = −15
3 5
𝑦= 𝑥−4 𝑦 = 𝑥+5
5 3
The slope of the first line is 1 and that of the
second is -1. Because 1 and -1 are negative
reciprocals, these lines are perpendicular.
- 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 = 𝟑
The line 𝑦 = 10 is horizontal, and the line
𝑥 = 3 is vertical. They are perpendicular.

18
 Example (7)
Find an equation of the line containing the
point (−4,5) that is parallel to the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1.
Solution
The slope of 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 is 2. This is the same as
the line we want, so we let 𝑥 = −4, 𝑦 = 5, and
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 2 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
We get 5 = 2(−4) + 𝑏, so 𝑏 = 13. The equation
of the line we want is 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 13.
Example (8)
Find an equation of the line with x-intercept 4
that is perpendicular to 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 12.
Solution
The x-intercept is 4 means that the point (4,0) is
on the line. The slope of the line we want is
negative reciprocal of the slope of the line
𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 12. We find the slope of 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 12
by solving for 𝑦.

19
 Example (9)
Find an equation of the line containing the points
(3,-8), perpendicular to the line 𝑦 = 9.
Solution
The line 𝑦 = 9 is horizontal, so the line we want
is vertical. The vertical line passing through (3, −8)
is 𝑥 = 3.
Applications
In this section, applications of lines and slopes will
be reviewed

Example (10)
The management of a company that manufactures
skateboards has fixed costs (costs at 0 output) of
$300 per day and total costs of $4,300 per day at an
output of 100 skateboards per day. Assume that coat
C is linearly related to output 𝑥.
(A) Find the slope of the line joining the points
associated with outputs of 0 and 100; that
is, the line passing through (0,300) and
(100,4,300).

20
 (B) Find an equation of the line relating output
to cost. Write the final answer in the form
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.

Solution
𝑦2 −𝑦1
(A) 𝑚=
𝑥2 −𝑥1

4,300 − 300 4,000

𝑚= = = 40
100 − 0 100
(B) We must find an equation of the line that
passes through (0,300) with slope 40. We
must the slope-intercept form:
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏
𝐶 = 40𝑥 + 300
Example (11)
A family paid $52.50 for water in January when
they used 15,000gallons (gal) and $77.50 in May
when they used 25,000 gal. Find an equation that
gives the amount of the water bill in terms of the
number of gallons of water used.

21
 Solution

Because we need to find the cost in terms of

water used, we let 𝑦 represent the cost and 𝑥, the
amount of water used. Our ordered pairs are (water,
cost): (15,000, 52.50) and (25,000, 77.50). now we
can compute the slope.

77.50 − 52.50
𝑚= = 0.0025
25,000 − 15,000
We use 𝑥 = 15,000, 𝑦 = 52.50, and 𝑚 =
0.0025 in 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 to find b.
52.50 = 0.0025(15,000) + 𝑏
15 = 𝑏
The equation is 𝑦 = 0.0025𝑥 + 15. With this
equation, the family can represent its water bill by
putting the amount of water used in the equation.
For example, 32,000 gal would cost
0.0025 (32,000) + 15 = $95

22
Example (12)
We can use the slope of a line to decide
whether points in the plane from certain shapes.
Here, we use the slope to decide whether or not
three points form a right angle triangle and whether
or not four forms points from a parallelogram. After
we plot the points, we can decide which points to
put into the slope formula.

Show that (-1,2) , (4,3), and (5,0) are the

vertices of a right triangle. We see that the line
segment between (5,0) and (-1,2) should be
perpendicular to the line segment between (5,0) and
(4,-3). Once we have the slopes of these segments,
we will see that they are negative reciprocals.
2−0 −1
𝑚= =
−1 − 5 3

−3 − 0
𝑚= =3
4−5
- Show that (-3,1) ,(3,-5), (4,-1), and (-2,5) are
the vertices of parallelogram.

23
 3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-2 0 2 4 6

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6

-2

-4

-6

24
The slope for side a is
5−1
𝑚= =4
−2 − (−3)
and the slope for side c is
−1 − (−5)
𝑚= =4
4−3
The slope for side b is
−5 − 1
𝑚= = −1
3 − (−3)
and the slope for side d is
−1 − 5
𝑚= = −1
4 − (−2)

Example (13)

Show that the points (−5,1), (2,0), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (−2. −3)

are the vertices of a right triangle.

Solution

We show that the slope of the segment between

(−5,1) and (−2 , −3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,0). This will show
that the angle at (−2, −3) is a right angle.

25
 −3 − 1 −4
𝑚= =
−2 − (−5) 3

0 − (−3) 3
𝑚= =
−2 − (−2) 4

1.5

0.5

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

26
Example (14)

Show that the points (-2,-3), (3,6), )-5,2), and (6,1)

are the vertices of a parallelogram.

Solution

We show that the slope of the line segment between

(-5,2) and (-2,-3) is equal to the slope of the line
segment between (3,6) and (6,1).

−3 − 2 1
𝑚= =
−2 − (−5) 2

1 − (−3) 1
𝑚= =
6 − (−2) 2

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-10 -5 -1 0 5 10
-2
-3
-4

27
Linear Equations
Definition A linear equation in n (unknown)
variables 𝑥1 , … … … , 𝑥𝑛 has the form

𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏

Here 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏 are real numbers. We say the

constant term and 𝑎𝑖 is the coefficient of 𝑥𝑖 .

For real numbers 𝑠1 , … … … , 𝑠𝑛 , if

𝑎1 𝑠1 + 𝑎2 𝑠2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑏

We say that
𝑥1 = 𝑠1 , 𝑥2 = 𝑠2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑠𝑛

is a solution of this equation.

The equation
𝑥
3 − 2(𝑥 + 3) = −5
3

and the inequality

𝑥
+ 2(3𝑥 − 1) ≥ 5
2

28
are both first degree in one variable. In general, a
first-degree or linear, equation in one variable is any
equation that can be written in the form

Standard form: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 𝑎≠0 (1)

If the equality symbol, =, in (1) is replaced by

<, >, ≤, or ≥, the resulting expression is called a
first-degree, or linear, inequality. A solution of an
equation (or inequality) involving a single variable
is a number that when substituted for the variable
makes the equation (or inequality) true. The set of
all solutions is called the solution set. When we say
that we solve an equation (or inequality), we mean
that we find its solution set.

Knowing what is meant by the solution set is

one thing; finding it is another. We start by recalling
the idea of equivalent solutions and equivalent
inequalities. If we perform an operation on an
equation (or inequality) that produces another
equation (or inequality) with the same solution set,

29
 then the two equations (or inequalities) are said to
be equivalent.

Theorem: Equality Prosperities

An equivalent equation will result if
1. The same quantity is added to or subtract from each side
of a given equation.
2. Each side of a given equation is multiplied by or divided
by the same nonzero quantity.

Example (15) Solve and check

𝟖𝒙 − 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟒) = 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟒) + 𝟔

Solution

8𝑥 − 3(𝑥 − 4) = 3(𝑥 − 4) + 6
8𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 12 = 3𝑥 − 12 + 6
5𝑥 + 12 = 3𝑥 − 6
2𝑥 + 12 = −6
2𝑥 = −18
𝑥 = −9
Check

8(−9) − 3((−9) − 4) = 3((−9) − 4) + 6

30
 −72 − 3(−13) = 3(−13) + 6
−𝟑𝟑 = −𝟑𝟑
Definition

By a system of linear equations in n variables

𝑥1 , … … … , 𝑥𝑛 we mean a collection of linear
equations in these variables. A system of m linear
equations in these n variables can be written as

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2

𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎3𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏3

.
.
.

𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑛3 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and 𝑏𝑖 are all numbers.

Such a linear system is called a homogenous

linear systems if 𝑏1 = 𝑏2 = ⋯ = 𝑏𝑛 = 0 . A
solution to such a system is a sequence of 𝑛

31
numbers 𝑠1 , … … … , 𝑠𝑛 that is solution to all these
𝑚 equations.

Classification of linear systems: Given a

linear system in n variables, precisely on the
following three is true:

(a) The system has exactly one solution (consistent

system).
(b) The system has infinitely many solutions
(consistent system).
(c) The system has no solution (inconsistent
system).

The systems of linear equations are called

equivalent, if they have precisely the same set of
solutions. Following operations on a system
produces an equivalent system:
(a) Interchange two equations.
(b) Multiply an equation by nonzero constant.
(c) Add a multiple of an equation to another one.

These three operations are sometimes known as

basic or elementary operations.
32
 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + ⋯ + a1n xn = b1
x2 + a23 x3 + ⋯ + a2n xn = b2
x3 + ⋯ + a3n xn = b3
.
.
.
xn = bn
is said to be row-echelon form.

A system of equations is a collection of two or

more equations whose graphs might or not might
not intersect (share a common point or points). If
the graphs do intersect, then we say that the solution
to the system is the point or points where the graphs
intersect. For example

x+y=4
3x − y = 0

is (3,1) because the point (1,3) is on both graphs.

We say that (1,3) satisfies the system because

if we let x=1 and y=3 in each equation, both are
true.

33
x+y=4 1+3=4 This is a true statement
3x − y = 0 3(1) − 3 = 0 This is a true statement

Example (16) Solve the systems of

equations. Write the solution in the form of a
point (𝒙, 𝒚)

𝒙+𝒚=𝟓

−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = −𝟏
Solution
We have four places to start

1. Solve for x in the first equation: 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑦

2. Solve for y in the first equation: 𝑦 = 5 − 𝑥
1 1
3. Solve for x in the second equation: 𝑥 = + 𝑦
2 2

4. Solve for y in the second equation: 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1

The third option looks like the most

troublesome option, so we use one of the others. We
use the first option. Because 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑦 came from
the first equation, we substitute 5 − 𝑦 for x tn the
second equation, then −2𝑥 + 𝑦 = −1 becomes

34
−2(5 − 𝑦) + 𝑦 = −1. Now we have one equation
with a single variable.

−2(5 − 𝑦) + 𝑦 = −1
−10 + 2𝑦 + 𝑦 = −1
3𝑦 = 9
𝑦=3
We can find x by substituting 𝑦 = 3 into any of the
equations above. We know that 𝑥 = 5 − 𝑦; so we
use this.
𝑥 =5−3=2
The solution is 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑦 = 3 or the point (2,3).
It is a good idea to check the solution.
𝑥+𝑦 =5 2+3=5 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒
−2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 − 2(2) + 3 = −1 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒

Example (17) Solve the systems of

equations. Write the solution in the form of a
point (𝒙, 𝒚)

𝟒𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟐 𝑨

𝟑𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟐 𝑩

35
 Solution
We solve for y in equation B: 𝑦 = 2 − 3𝑥. Next we
substitute 2 − 3𝑥 for y in equation A and solve for
𝑥.

4𝑥 − 𝑦 = 12
4𝑥 − (2 − 3𝑥 ) = 12
4𝑥 − 2 + 3𝑥 = 12
7𝑥 = 14
𝑥=2
Now that we know 𝑥 = 2, we substitute 𝑥 = 2 in
one of the above equations. we use 𝑦 = 2 −
3𝑥; 𝑦 = 2 − 3(2) = −4. The solution is 𝑥 =
2, 𝑦 = −4, 𝑜𝑟 (2, −4).

Example (18) Solve the systems of

equations. Write the solution in the form of a
point (𝒙, 𝒚)

𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟏𝟔 𝑨
𝟓𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = −𝟐 𝑩

36
 Solution
We add the equations by adding like terms. Because
we are adding −3𝑦 to 3𝑦, the y term cancels,
leaving one equation with a single variable.

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 16
5𝑥 + 3𝑦 = −2
7𝑥 + 0𝑦 = 14
𝑥=2
We can substitute 𝑥 = 2 into either A or b to find 𝑦.
We put 𝑥 = 2 into A

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 16
2(2) + 3𝑦 = 16
−3𝑦 = 12

𝑦 = −4

The solution is (2, −4).

Example (19) Solve the systems of

equations. Write the solution in the form of a
point (𝒙, 𝒚)

37
 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 = −𝟏𝟐 𝑨
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟔𝒚 = −𝟏𝟒 𝑩

Solution
Because the coefficients of y are the same, we only
need to make one of them negative. Multiply either
A or B by -1, and then add.

−3𝑥 − 6𝑦 = 12 𝐴
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 = −14 𝐵
−𝑥 = −2
𝑥=2
3(2) + 6𝑦 = −12 put 𝑥 = 2 in A
𝑦 = −3
The solution is (2, −3).

Example (20) Solve the systems of equations.

Write the solution in the form of a point (𝒙, 𝒚)

𝟖𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 = −𝟐 𝑨
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟕 𝑩

38
 Solution
They are many options. Some are 3𝐴 − 8𝐵, −3 +
8𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐴 + 5𝐵. We compute 2𝐴 + 5𝐵.

16𝑥 − 10𝑦 = −4 2𝐴
15𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 35 + 5𝐵

31𝑥 = 31
𝑥=1
8(1) − 5𝑦 = −2 𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑛 𝐴
𝑦=2

The solution is (1,2)

Theorem The following are some facts

1. Any system of linear equations is equivalent
to a linear system in row-echelon form.
2. This can be achieved by a sequence of
application of the three basic elementary
operations.
3. This process is known as Gaussian
elimination.

39
Exercises
1. Find the slope of the line containing the points
(-4,1) and (2,5)
𝟑 −𝟑
A. C.
𝟐 𝟓
−𝟓 𝟐
B. D.
𝟑 𝟑

2. Find an equation of the line that contains the

points (11,3) and (1,8).
A. −𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 30 C .𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 17
B. −𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 19 D. 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 10
3. Are the lines −3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 20 and
4𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 15 parallel, perpendicular, or
neither?
A. parallel C. Nether
B. Perpendicular D. This cannot be determined
4. Find an equation of the line containing the point
(2, −7) and parallel to the line
−3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2.
3 −2 17
A. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 10 C. 𝑦 = 𝑥−
2 3 3
2 25 −3
B. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − D. 𝑦 = 𝑥−4
3 3 2

40
5. Describe the line 𝑦 = 15.
A. the line has slope 1 and y-intercept 15.
B. The line has undefined slope and y- intercept 15.
C. The line is vertical.
D. The line is horizontal.
6. A rental company charges $30 per day to rent a
car plus $0.20 per mile. Find an equation that
gives the daily rental in terms of the number of
miles driven.
A. 𝑅 = 30𝑚 + 0.20 C. 𝑅 = 0.30𝑚 + 20
B. 𝑅 = 0.20𝑚 + 30 D. 𝑅 = 20𝑚 + 0.30
7. True or False: the slope of the line 𝑥 = 4 is 0
A. True B. False
8. Find the slope of the graph of each equation
A. 4𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3
B. 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 15
C. −4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 9
9. Solve the systems of equations. Write the
solution in the form of a point (𝑥, 𝑦)
8𝑥 − 5𝑦 = −2 𝐴
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 7 𝐵

41
Chapter 2

Matrices

42
Introduction

Matrices have many applications. They used in

business (for linear programming), in physics and
engineering (for work with vectors). In this chapter,
basic concept of matrices and solving a system of
linear equations will be introduced.

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers written

within brackets. Two examples are

−4 9 12
1 −4 5 7 0 8
𝐴=[ ] 𝐵=[ ] (𝟏)
7 0 −2 23 15 17
−2 10 3

Each number in a matrix is called an element of the

matrix. Matrix A has 6 elements arranged in 2 rows
and 3 columns. Matrix B has 12 elements arranged
in 4 rows and 3 columns. If a matrix has 𝑚 rows
and 𝑛 columns, an 𝑚 × 𝑛 is called the size of the
matrix, and the numbers 𝑚 and 𝑛 are called the
dimensions of the matrix. It is important to note
that the number of rows is always given first.

43
Referring to equation (1), 𝐴 is 2 × 3 matrix and 𝐵 is
a 4 × 3 matrix. A matrix with 𝑛 rows and 𝑛
columns is called a square matrix of order 𝑛. a
matrix with only one column is called a column
matrix, and a matrix with only one row is called a
row matrix.

1 −8 −3 5
𝐴 = [7 6 4] 𝐵 = [4] 𝐶 = [−1 4 3]
0 10 −2 2

where 𝐴 is a square matrix of order 3, 𝐵 is a column

matrix and 𝐶 is a row matrix.

The position of an element in a matrix is given by

the row and column containing the element. This is
usually denoted using double subscript notation
𝑎𝑖𝑗 , as illustrated below:

1 −8 −3
𝐴 = [7 6 4]
0 10 −2

𝑎11 = 1, 𝑎12 = −8, 𝑎13 = −3

𝑎21 = 7, 𝑎22 = 6, 𝑎23 = 4
𝑎31 = 0, 𝑎32 = 10, 𝑎33 = −2

44
Note that 𝑎32 is read " 𝑎 sub one two". The
principle diagonal of a matrix 𝐴 consists of the
elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎33 .

Matrix Arithmetic

Two matrices must be of the same size before

we can add them or find their difference. The sum
of two or more matrices is the sum of their
corresponding entries.

The sum of two or more matrices is the sum of their

corresponding entries. The sum of two or more
matrices is the sum of their corresponding entries.

1 −8 −3 3 8 −2 4 0 −5
[7 6 4 ] + [2 5 10 ] = [9 11 14 ]
0 10 −2 6 7 3 6 17 1

Subtract one matrix from another by subtracting

their corresponding entries

1 −8 −3 3 8 −2 −2 −16 −1
[7 6 4 ] − [2 5 10 ] = [ 5 1 −6]
0 10 −2 6 7 3 −6 3 −5

45
The scalar product of a matrix whose entries are
multiplied by a fixed number

1 −8 −3 3 −24 −9
3 [7 6 4 ] = [21 18 12 ]
0 10 −2 0 30 −6

It might seem that matrix multiplication is carried

out the same way addition and subtraction entries.
This operation is not very useful. The matrix
multiplication operation that is useful requires more
work. Two matrices need not be of the same size,
but the number of columns of the first matrix must
be the same as the number of rows of the second
matrix. This is because we find the entries of the
product matrix by multiplying the rows of the first
matrix by the columns of the second matrix. Here,
we multiply a 3 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 2 matrix.

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐾 𝐿
[𝐷 𝐸 𝐹 ] × [𝑀 𝑁] =
𝐺 𝐻 𝐼 𝑃 𝑄
𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 1 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 2
[𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 1 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 2]
𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 1 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 2

46
Row 1 of the first matrix is ABC and column 1 of
𝐾
the second matrix 𝑀. The first entry of the product
𝑃
matrix is 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 × 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 1, which is this sum.

𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 1
𝐴 × 𝐾
𝐵 × 𝑀
+ 𝐶 × 𝑃
𝐴𝐾 + 𝐵𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐾 𝐿
[𝐷 𝐸 𝐹 ] × [𝑀 𝑁]
𝐺 𝐻 𝐼 𝑃 𝑄
𝐴𝐾 + 𝐵𝑀 + 𝐶𝑃 𝐴𝐿 + 𝐵𝑁 + 𝐶𝑄
= [𝐷𝐾 + 𝐸𝑀 + 𝐹𝑃 𝐷𝐿 + 𝐸𝑁 + 𝐹𝑄 ]
𝐺𝐾 + 𝐻𝑀 + 𝐼𝑃 𝐺𝐿 + 𝐻𝑁 + 𝐼𝑄

Example (1)

Find the product

1 −8 2 4 −7
a. [5 0 −1] × [−2 1]
2 1 1 3 0

47
 1.4 + (−8)(−2) + 2.3 1(−7) + (−8)1 + 2.0
= [ 5.4 + 0(−2) + (−1)3 5(−7) + 0.1 + (−1)0]
2.4 + 1(−2) + 1.3 2(−7) + 1.1 + 1.0
26 −15
= [17 −35]
9 −13

−6 2 4 1 0
b. [ ]×[ ]
7 1 −3 5 2

−6.4 + 2(−3) (−6)1 + 2.5 −6.0 + 2.2

=[ ]
7.4 + 1(−3) 7.1 + 1.5 7.0 + 1.2
−30 4 4
=[ ]
25 12 2
An identity matrix is a square matrix with 1s
on the main diagonal (from the upper left corner to
the bottom right corner) and 0s everywhere else.
The following are the 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 identity
matrices

1 0 0
1 0
[ ] [0 1 0]
0 1
0 0 1
Row operations: row operations are used to solve
systems of equations and to find the multiplicative
inverse of a matrix. These operations are similar to
the elimination by addition method. For instance,

48
we can switch the order of the rows, multiply every
entry in one row by a nonzero number, and we can
replace a row with the sum of two rows. For now,
we will multiply each entry in a raw by nonzero
number and add two rows together. Our aim is to
make a particular entry a zero. for example, in the
1 −3 2
matrix [ ], we might want to change the
4 1 6
entry with a 4 in it to 0. To do so, we can multiply
the first row (Row 1) by −4 and add it to the second
row (Row 2).

−4 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 = −4(1 −3 2) = −4 12 −8

−4 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1 − 4 12 −8
+ 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 4 1 6

𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝟎 𝟏𝟑 −𝟐
1 −3 2
The matrix becomes [ ].
0 13 −2

Example (2)
Using Row 2 and Row 3, Change the entry
with a 3 in it on the second row to 0.

49
 1 8 5
[−2 1 3]
1 0 4
when adding the rows together, we need the last
entry in each column to be the opposites. If we
multiply Row 2 by -4 and Row 3 by 3, we would be
adding -4(3) to 3(4) to get zero. Multiplying Row 2
by 4 and Row 3 by -3 also works.

−4 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 = −4(−2) − 4(1) − 4(3) = 8 − 4 − 12

+3 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 = 3(1) 3(0) 3(4) = 3 0 12
𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝑹𝒐𝒘 𝟐 𝟏𝟏 −𝟒 𝟎

1 8 5
The new matrix is [11 −4 0].
1 0 4

Inverse Matrix
The inverse of a matrix is the first use of the
row operations. If we multiply a matrix by its
inverse, we get the corresponding identity matrix.
1 −2
For example, the inverse of [ ] is the matrix
−1 4
2 1
[ ] because their product is the 2 × 2
1/2 1/2
identity matrix.

50
 1 2 2 1 1 0
[ ]×[ ]=[ ]
−1 4 1/2 1/2 0 1
s

𝐴 𝐵
To find the inverse of [ ], we first need to
𝐶 𝐷
write the augmented matrix. An augmented matrix
for this method has the original matrix on the left
and the identity matrix on the right.
𝐴 𝐵 1 0
[ ]
𝐶 𝐷 0 1

We use row operations to change the left half of the

matrix to 2 × 2 identity matrix. The inverse matrix
becomes the right half of the augmented matrix in
Step 6.

Step 1: Use row operations to make the C entry a 0

for the new Row 2.

Step 2: Use row operations to make the B entry a 0

for the new Row 1.

Step 3: Write the next matrix.

Step 4: Divide Row 1 by the A entry.

Step 5: Divide Row 2 by the D entry.

51
Step 6: Write the new matrix. The inverse matrix is
the right half of this matrix.

Example (3) Find the inverse matrix.

𝟏 −𝟐
[ ]
−𝟏 𝟒

1 −2 1 0
The augmented matrix is [ ]
−1 4 0 1

Step 1 We want to change -1, the c entry, to 0

Row 1 1 -2 1 0
+ Row 2 -1 4 0 1

New Row 2 0 2 1 1

Step 2 We want change -2, the B entry, to 0.

2 Row 1 2 -4 2 0
+ Row 2 -1 4 0 1

New Row 1 1 0 2 1

Step 3
1 −2 1 0
[ ]
−1 4 0 1

52
Step 4 This step is not necessary because dividing
Row 1 by 1, the A entry, does not change any of its
entries.

Step 5 Divide Row 2 by 2, the D entry.

1/2 (0 2 1 1) = 0 1 1/2 1/2.

1 0 2 1
Step 6 [ ]
0 1 1/2 1/2

1 0 2 1
The inverse matrix is [ ].
0 1 1/2 1/2

Finding the inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix takes a few

more steps. Again, we begin by writing the
augmented matrix.

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 1 0 0
[𝐷 𝐸 𝐹] [𝐷 𝐸 𝐹 0 1 0]
𝐺 𝐸 𝐻 𝐺 𝐸 𝐻 0 0 1

We use row operations to turn the left half of

the augmented matrix into the 3 × 3 identity matrix.
There are many methods for getting from the first
matrix to the last. The method outlined below
always works, assuming the matrix has an inverse.

53
Step 1 Use Row 1 and Row 2 to make the D entry
to 0 for new Row 2.

Step 2 Use Row 1 and Row 3 to make the G entry

to 0 for new Row 3

𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1
Step 3 Write the next matrix. [𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2].
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3

Step 4 Use Row 1 and Row 2 to make the B entry a

0 for new Row 1.

Step 5 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make the H entry a

0 for new Row 3.

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1
Step 6 Write the next matrix [ 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2 ].
𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3

Step 7 Use Row 1 and Row 3 to make the C entry

a 0 for New Row 1.

Step 8 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make F entry a 0

for new Row 2.

𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 1
Step 9 Write the next matrix. [𝑁𝑒𝑤 𝑅𝑜𝑤 2].
𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑅𝑜𝑤 3
54
Step 10 Divide Row 1 by A, Row 2 by E, and Row
3 by I. the inverse is the right half of the augmented
matrix.

Example (4) Find the inverse matrix

𝟏 𝟎 −𝟏
[𝟐 𝟐 𝟑]
𝟒 −𝟐 𝟏

The augmented matrix is

1 0 −1 1 0 0
[2 2 3 0 1 0].
4 −2 1 0 0 1

Step 1 Use Row 1 and Row 2 to make the D entry a

0 by computing-2 Row 1 + Row 2.

-2 Row 1 -2 0 2 0 0 0
+ Row 2 2 2 3 0 1 0

New Row2 0 2 5 -2 1 0

Step 2 Use Row 1 and Row 3 to make the G entry a

0 computing -4Row 1 + Row 3.

-4 Row 1 -4 0 4 -4 0 0
+ Row 2 4 -2 1 0 0 1

55
New Row2 0 -2 5 -4 0 1

Step 3

1 0 −1 1 0 0
[0 2 5 −2 1 0]
0 −2 5 −4 0 1

Step 4 This step is not necessary because the B

entry is already 0. New Row 1 is old Row 1.

Step 5 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make the H entry a

0 by computing Row 2 + Row 3.

Row 2 0 2 5 -2 1 0
+ Row 3 0 -2 5 -4 0 1

New Row 3 0 0 10 -6 1 1

1 0 −1 1 0 0
Step 6 [0 2 5 −2 1 0]
0 −2 5 −4 0 1

Step 7 Use Row 1 and Row 3 to make the C entry a

0 by computing 10 Row 1 + Row 3

10 Row 1 10 0 -10 10 0 0
+ Row 3 0 0 10 -6 1 1

New Row 3 10 0 0 4 1 1
56
Step 8 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make the F entry a
0 by computing -2 Row2 + Row 3

-2 Row 1 0 -4 -10 4 -2 0
+ Row 3 0 0 10 -6 1 1

New Row 3 0 -4 0 -2 -1 1

Step 10 Divide Row 1 by Row 10, Row 2 by -4,

and Row 3 by 10 to get the next matrix.

1 0 0 2/5 1/10 1/10

[0 1 0 1/2 1/4 −1/4]
0 0 1 −3/5 1/10 1/10

2/5 1/10 1/10

The inverse matrix is [ 1/2 1/4 −1/4]
−3/5 1/10 1/10

Example (5) Find the inverse matrix

𝟔 𝟎 𝟐
[𝟏 −𝟏 𝟎]
𝟎 𝟏 𝟏

The augmented matrix is

6 0 2 1 0 0
[1 −1 0 0 1 0]
0 1 1 0 0 1

57
Step 1 Use Row 1 and Row 2 to make the 1 entry a 0.

Row 1 6 0 2 1 0 0
+(-6) Row2 -6 6 0 0 -6 0

New Row 3 0 6 2 1 -6 0

Step 2 This step is not necessary because 0 is

already in the G entry. New Row 3 is old Row 3.

6 0 2 1 0 0
Step 3 [0 6 2 0 −6 0]
0 1 1 0 0 1

Step 4 This step is not necessary because the B

entry is already 0. New Row 1 is old Row 1.

Step 5 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make the 1 entry a 0.

Row 2 0 6 2 1 -6 0
+(-6) Row 3 0 -6 -6 0 0 -6

New Row 3 0 0 -4 1 -6 -6

6 0 2 1 0 0
Step 6 [0 6 2 1 −6 0]
0 0 −4 1 −6 −6

Step 7 Use Row 1 and Row 3 to make 2, the C

entry, a 0.
58
 2Row 1 12 0 4 2 0 0
+ Row 3 0 0 -4 1 -6 -6

New Row 1 12 0 0 3 -6 -6

Step 8 Use Row 2 and Row 3 to make 2, the F

entry, a 0.

2Row 2 0 12 4 2 -12 0
+ Row 3 0 0 -4 1 -6 -6

New Row 2 0 12 0 3 -18 -6

12 0 2 3 −6 −6
Step 9 [0 12 2 3 −18 −6]
0 0 −4 1 −6 −6

Step 10 Divide Row 1 and Row 2 by 12 and Row 3

by -4.

1 0 0 1/4 −1/2 −1/2

[0 1 0 1/4 −3/2 −1/2]
0 0 1 −1/4 −3/2 −3/2

1/4 −1/2 −1/2

The inverse matrix is [ 1/4 −3/2 −1/2]
−1/4 −3/2 −3/2

59
Solving Linear Systems Using
Augmented Matrices
The coefficients and constant terms in a
system of linear equations can be used to form
several matrices of interest. Related to the system

2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 5
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = −3
are the following matrices
Coefficient matrix Constant matrix Augmented
coefficient matrix

2 −3 5 2 −3 5
[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 −3 1 2 −3

The augmented coefficient matrix contains all the

essential parts of the system both the coefficients
and the constants. The vertical bar is included only
as a visual aid to help us separate the coefficients
from the constant terms. In general, associated with
each linear system of the form

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 = 𝑘1
𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 = 𝑘2 (2)

60
where 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are variables, is the augmented
matrix of the system:

Column 1 (C1)

Column 2 (C2)

Column 3 (C3)

2 −3 5 Row 1 (R1)
[ ]
1 2 −3 Row 2 (R2)

Recall that two linear systems are said to be

equivalent if they have the same solution set. Two
augmented matrices are row equivalent, denoted by
the symbol ~ placed between the two matrices, if
they are augmented matrices of equivalent systems
of equations. How do we transform augmented
matrices into row-equivalent matrices?

Theorem (1)

An augmented matrix is transformed into a row-

equivalent matrix by performing any of the following
row operations:
A. Two rows are interchanged (𝑹𝒊 𝑹𝒋 ).

61
 B. A row is multiplied by a nonzero constant
(𝒌𝑹𝒊 𝑹𝒋 ).
C. A constant multiple of one row is added to
another row
(𝒌𝑹𝒋 + 𝑹𝒊 𝑹𝒊 ).
Note: The arrow means " replaces".

Example (6) Solve using augmented matrix

3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 1
𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 7

We start by writing the augmented matrix

3 4 1
[ ] (3)
1 −2 7

Our objective is to use row operations from theorem

1 to try to transform matrix (3) into the form

1 0 𝑚
[ ] (4)
0 1 𝑛

where m and n are real numbers. Then the solution

to system (2) will be obvious, since matrix (4) will
be the augmented matrix of the following system (a

62
row in an augments matrix always corresponding to
an equation in a linear system):

Now we use row operations to transform matrix (3)

into form (4).

Step 1 To get a 1 in the upper left corner, we

interchange R1 and R2:

3 4 1 1 −2 7
[ ] 𝑅1 𝑅2 [ ]
1 −2 7 3 4 1

Step 2 To get a 1 in the second row, second

column, we multiply R2 by 1/10

1 −2 7 1 0 3
[ ] 2𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅1 [ ] (4)
0 1 −2 0 1 −2

We have accomplished our objective. The last

matrix is the augmented matrix for the system

𝑥1 = 3 , 𝑥2 = −2

Since system (4) is equivalent to system (3), our

starting system, we have solved system (3); that is
𝑥1 = 3 , 𝑥2 = −2.

63
CHECK

3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 1 𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 = 7

3(3) + 4(−2) = 1 3 − 2(−2) = 7

1=1 7=7
The preceding process may be written more
compactly as follows:

3 4 1 1 −2 7
[ ] 𝑅1 𝑅2 [ ]
1 −2 7 3 4 1
1 −2 7 (−3)𝑅1 + 𝑅2 1 −2 7
[ ] 𝑅2 [ ]
3 4 1 0 10 −20

1 −2 7 1 0 3
[ ] 2𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅1 [ ]
0 1 −2 0 1 −2

Example (7)
Solve using augmented matrix methods:
2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 = 6
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 1/2

2 −3 6 1
[ ] 𝑅1
3 4 1/2 2𝑅1

1 −3/4 3
[ ] (−3)𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2
3 4 1/2

64
 1 −3/2 3 2
[ ] 𝑅2 𝑅2
0 17/2 −17/2 17

1 −3/2 3 3
[ ] 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅1
0 1 −1 2

1 0 3/2
[ ]
0 1 −1
3
So, 𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = −1
2

Example (8)

Solve using augmented matrix method

2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 4
−6𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = −12

The augmented matrix

2 −1 4 1
[ ] 𝑅1 𝑅1
−6 3 12 2
1
𝑅2 𝑅2
3

1 −1/2 2
[ ] 2𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2
−2 1 −4

1 −1/2 2
[ ]
0 0 0

The last matrix corresponding to the system

65
 1 1
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 2 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 2
2 2
0=0 0𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 = 0

This system is equivalent to the original

system. Geometrically, the graphs of the two
original equations coincide, and there are infinitely
many solutions. In general, if we end up with a row
of zeros in an augmented matrix for a two-
equations, two variable system, the system is
dependent, and there are infinitely many solutions.
By introducing the parameter, we start by solving
1
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 2, for either variable in terms of the
2

other. We choose to solve for 𝑥1 in terms of

𝑥2 because it is easier:

1
𝑥1 = 2 + 𝑥2 ,
2

Now we introduce a parameter 𝑡 (we can use other

letters, such as 𝑘, 𝑠, 𝑝, 𝑞, and so on, to represent a
parameter also). If we let 𝑥2 = 𝑡, then for any real
number 𝑡,

66
 1
𝑥1 = 2 + 𝑡,
2
𝑥2 = 𝑡,
Using ordered-pair notation, we write: For any real
number (1/2 𝑡 + 2, 𝑡) is a solution of the system.

Check

2𝑥1 − 𝑥2 = 4 − 6𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = −12

1 1
2 ( 𝑡 + 2) − 𝑡 =? 4 − 6 ( 𝑡 + 2) + 3𝑡 =? −12
2 2
𝑡 + 4 − 𝑡 =? 4 − 3𝑡 − 12 + 3𝑡 =? −12
4=4 − 12 = 12

Example (9)

Solve using augmented matrix method

2𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 = −3
𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 2

2 6 −3
[ ] 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 3 2

67
 1 3 2
[ ] (−2)𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2
2 6 −3

1 3 2
[ ] implies the contradiction 0 = −7
0 0 −7

This is the augmented matrix of the system

𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 2 𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 2

0 = −7 0 𝑥1 + 0𝑥2 = −7

The second equation is not satisfied by any

ordered pair of real numbers. The original system is
inconsistent and has no solution. If in a row of an
augmented matrix we obtain all zeros to the left of
the vertical bar and a nonzero number to the right,
the system is inconsistent and there are no solutions.

The Determinant of a Matrix

The usual notation for a determinant is to

enclose the matrix using two vertical bars instead of
two brackets. The determinant for the matrix
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
[ ] is | |. Finding the determinant for a
𝐶 𝐷 𝐶 𝐷
2 × 2 matrix is not hard.
68
 𝐴 𝐵
| | = 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶
𝐶 𝐷

Example(10)

Finding the determinant

4 −3
| | = 4(2) − (−3)(5) = 23
5 2

We find the determinant of larger matrices by

breaking down the larger matrix into several 2 × 2
submatrices. For larger matrices, there are
numerous formulas for computing their
determinants. Some of them come from expanding
the matrix along each row and each column. This
means that we multiply the entries in a row or a
column by the determinant of a smaller matrix. This
smaller matrix comes from deleting the row and
column where an entry is in. when working with a
3 × 3 matrix, these submatrices are 2 × 2 matrices.

Suppose we choose to expand the following matrix

along the first row.

69
 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
[𝐷 𝐸 𝐹]
𝐺 𝐻 𝐼

We multiply the A entry by the submatrix obtained

by removing the first row [A B C] and the first
𝐴
column [𝐷]. This leaves us with the matrix
𝐺
− − −
[− 𝐸 𝐹 ]. Our first calculation is
− 𝐻 𝐼

𝐸 𝐹
𝐴| | = 𝐴(𝐸𝐼 − 𝐹𝐻)
𝐻 𝐼

Similarly, when we use entry B, we need to remove

the first row [A B C] and the second column
B
D F
[ E ]. This leaves us with | |. There is a
G I
H
complication- the signs on the entries must alternate
when we perform these expansions. For our matrix,
the signs alternate beginning with A not changing,
but B and D changing.

A −B C
−D E −F
G −H I
70
For our 3 × 3 matrix, the expansion along the first
row looks like this

𝐸 𝐹 𝐷 𝐹 𝐷 𝐸
𝐴| |−𝐵| |+𝐶| |
𝐻 𝐼 𝐺 𝐼 𝐺 𝐻

= 𝐴(𝐸𝐼 − 𝐹𝐻) − 𝐵(𝐷𝐼 − 𝐹𝐺) + 𝐶(𝐷𝐻 − 𝐸𝐺)

The expansion along the second column looks like

this.

𝐷 𝐹 𝐴 𝐶 𝐴 𝐶
−𝐵 | |+𝐵| |−𝐻| |
𝐺 𝐼 𝐺 𝐼 𝐷 𝐹

= −𝐵 (𝐷𝐼 − 𝐹𝐺 ) + 𝐸 (𝐴𝐼 − 𝐶𝐺 ) − 𝐻(𝐴𝐹 − 𝐶𝐷)

Example (11)
𝟒 𝟏 −𝟑
Find the determinant for | 𝟐 𝟎 𝟒|
−𝟐 𝟐 𝟏

We use two calculations, along Row 2 and column

3. By Row 2 we have

1 −3 4 −3 4 1
−2 | | + 0| | − 4| |
2 1 −2 1 −2 2

= −2[1.1 − (−3)2] + 0[4.1 − (−3)(−2)]

−4[4.2 − 1(−2)] = −54

71
 By column 3 we have

2 0 4 1 4 1
−3 | | − 4| | + 1| |
−2 2 −2 2 2 0

= −3[2.2 − (−2)0] − 4[4.2 − 1(−2)]

+ 1[4.0 − 1.2] = −54

Example (12)
−𝟖 𝟏 𝟑
Find the determinant for | 𝟐 𝟓 𝟎|
𝟔 −𝟒 𝟐

Expanding this matrix along with Row 2, we have

1 3 −8 3 −8 1
−2 | | + 5| | − 0| |
−4 2 6 2 6 −4
= −2[1.2 − 3(−4)] + 5[−8.2 − 3(6)]
− 0[(−8)(−4) − 1.6] = −198

72
Exercises
Solve the indicated operations in the following problems

𝟓 −𝟐 −𝟓 −𝟑
1. [ ]+[ ]
𝟒 𝟑 𝟕 𝟎
𝟐 𝟏𝟓 𝟗 𝟑
2. [−𝟏 𝟏𝟎] + [𝟖 −𝟒]
−𝟓 𝟑 𝟕 −𝟓
𝟐 𝟓 −𝟐 𝟖 𝟕
3. [ ][ ]
𝟔 𝟏 −𝟓 𝟔 −𝟏
4. [𝟐 𝟑] + [−𝟏]
−𝟓

Problems 5-12 refer to the following matrices

𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 −𝟏 𝟒
𝑨=[ ] 𝑩=[ ]
𝟔 𝟒 −𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 −𝟐 𝟑 𝟐 𝟒
𝑪=[ 𝟑 𝟒 −𝟓] 𝑫=[ 𝟎 𝟐]
−𝟐 𝟒 𝟔 −𝟑 𝟏
Perform the indicated operations, if possible
5. 𝑨𝑪
6. AB
7. 𝑩𝟐
8. 𝑩 + 𝑨𝑫
9. (0.1)DB
10. (3)BA+(4)AC

73
11. ACD
12. DBA

Perform the row operations indicated in

problems 13-24 on the following matrix
𝟏 −𝟑 𝟐
[ ]
𝟒 −𝟔 −𝟖
13. 𝐑𝟏 ↔ 𝑹𝟐
14. −𝟒𝑹𝟏 → 𝑹𝟏
15. 𝟐𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐
16. (−𝟒)𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐
17. (−𝟐)𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐
18. (−𝟏)𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 → 𝑹𝟏

Find the inverse of the following matrices

𝟐 −𝟏
19. [ ]
𝟑 𝟒

𝟎 𝟐 𝟏
20. [𝟑 𝟒 𝟔]
𝟎 𝟐 −𝟏

Use a matrix method to solve the system in

problems 21-23

21. −𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 = −𝟏𝟎

74
 𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏

22. 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟓𝒛 = 𝟏𝟑
−𝟑𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 − 𝒛 = 𝟏𝟏
𝟑𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚 + 𝒛 = 𝟏𝟎

23. 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓𝒚 + 𝒛 = −𝟏𝟓
𝒙+𝒚−𝒛=𝟔
−𝟑𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒛 = −𝟏

Find the determinant of the matrices in

problems 24-25
𝟏𝟐 −𝟏
24. [ ]
𝟑 𝟏/𝟒
𝟐 𝟏 𝟎
25. [−𝟐 𝟎 𝟑]
𝟑 𝟓 −𝟏

Solve problems 26-30 using augmented matrix

26. 𝒙 − 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏
𝟐𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟓

27. 𝒙 − 𝟒𝒚 = −𝟐
−𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = −𝟑

75
28. 𝟑𝒙 − 𝒚 = 𝟐
𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎
29. 𝒙 + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝟒
𝟐𝒙 + 𝟒𝒚 = −𝟖

30. 𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟔
𝒙 − 𝒚 = −𝟑

76
Chapter 3
Functions

77
The Definition of the function

A relation between two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is a

collection of ordered pairs, where the first
coordinate comes from 𝐴 and the second comes
from B. for example, if 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and
𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, one relation is three pairs
{(1,c),(1,a),(3,a)}. A function on sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is a
special kind of relation where every element of 𝐴 is
paired with exactly one element from 𝐵. the relation
above fails to be a function in two ways. Not every
element from 𝐵. The relation above fails in two
ways. Not every element of 𝐴 is paired with an
element from 𝐵, 1 and 3 are used but not 2 and 4.
Also, the element 1 is used twice, not once. There
are no such restrictions on 𝐵; that is, elements form
𝐵 can be paired with elements form 𝐴 many times
or not at all. For example, (1, 𝑎), (2, 𝑎), (3, 𝑏),
(4, 𝑏)} is a function from A to B.

Functions exist all around us. The weekly pay

of an hourly worker is a function of how many

78
hours he worked. For any number of hours worked,
there is exactly one pay amount that corresponding
to the time. If 𝐴 is the set of all triangles and 𝐵 is
the set of real numbers, then we have a function that
pairs each triangle with exactly one real number that
is the area.

In Chapter 1, we found that the graph of an

equation of the form 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐶, where 𝐴 and 𝐵
are not both zero, is a line. Because a line is
determined by any two of its points, such an
equation is easy to graph: Just plot any two points
in its solution set and sketch the unique line through
them.

More complicated equations in two variables,

such as 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 or 𝑥 2 = 𝑦 4 , are more difficult
to graph. To sketch the graph of an equation, we
plot enough points from its solution set in
rectangular coordinate system so that the total graph
is apparent, and then we connect these points with a

79
smooth curve. This process is called point-by point
plotting.

Example (1) Sketch the graph of each

equation 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2
Solution
Make up a table of solutions-that is, ordered
pairs of real numbers that satisfy the given equation.
For easy mental calculation, choose integer values
for 𝑥.

x -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
y -7 0 5 8 9 8 5 0 -7

10
8
6
4
2
0
-6 -4 -2 -2 0 2 4 6

-4
-6
-8

Figure (1)

80
 Central to the concept of function is
correspondence. You are familiar with
correspondences in daily life. For example,
- To each person, there corresponds an annual
income.
- To each item in a supermarket, there corresponds
a price.
- To each student, there corresponds a maximum
temperature.
- For the manufacture of x items, there corresponds
a cost.
- For the sale of x items, there corresponds
a revenue.
- To each square, there corresponds an area.
- To each number, there corresponds its cube.

Evaluating a Function
Evaluating a function at a quantity means to
substitute the quantity for x (or whatever the
variable is). For example, evaluating the function
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2(6) − 5 = 7
 We might also 𝑓(6) = 7. The quantity inside
the parentheses is x and the quantity on the right of
the equal sign is y. one advantage to this notation is
that we have both the 𝑥 −and 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 without
having to say anything about x and y. functions that
have no variables in them are called constant
functions. All 𝑦 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 for these functions are
the same.

Definition

A function is a corresponding between two sets

of elements such that to each element in the first set,
there corresponds one and only one element in
second set.
The first set is called the domain, and the set of
corresponding elements in the second set is called
the range.
Consider Tables 1-3. Tables 1 and 2 specify
functions, but Table (3) does not. Why not?

82
 Table 1 Table 2 Table 3
Domain Range Domain Range Domain Range
Number Cube Number Square Number Square
root
-2 -8 -2 4 0 0
-1 -1 -1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 4 -1
1 1 1 9 2
2 8 2 -2
3
-3

Table 1 and specify functions since to each

domain value, there corresponds exactly one range
value (for example, the cube of -2 is -8 and no other
number). On the other hand, Table 3 does not
specify a function since to at least one domain
value, there corresponds more than one range value
(for example, to the domain value 9, there
corresponds -3 and 3, both square roots of 9).

Definition (Functions Specified Equations)

83
 If in an equation in two variables, we get
exactly one output (value for the dependent variable)
for each input (value for the independent variable),
then the equation specifying equation.
If we get more one output for a given input, the
equation does not specify a function.

The input values are domain values, and the

output values are range values. The equation assigns
each domain value 𝑥 a range value 𝑦. The variable 𝑥
is called an independent value (since values can be
independently assigned to 𝑥). In general, any variable
used as a placeholder for domain values is called an
independent variable; any variable that is used as a
placeholder for range values is called a dependent
variable.

Example (2)

Determine which of the following equations

specify functions with independent variable 𝑥.
A. 4𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 8, 𝑥 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

84
 B. 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 = 9 𝑥 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Solution
A. Solving for the dependent variable y, we have
4𝑦 − 3𝑥 = 8
4𝑦 = 8 + 3𝑥
3
𝑦 =2+ 𝑥
4
Since each input value 𝑥 corresponds to exactly one
3
output value (𝑦 = 2 + 𝑥).
4

B. Solving for the dependent variable 𝑦 we have

𝑦2 − 𝑥2 = 9
𝑦2 = 9 − 𝑥2

𝑦 2 = ± √9 + 𝑥 2
Since 9 + 𝑥 2 is always a positive real number for any
real number 𝑥, and since each positive real number
has two square roots. Then to each input value 𝑥 there
corresponds two output values (𝑦 =
−√9 + 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = √9 + 𝑥 2 . For example, if 𝑥 = 4.
Theorem (Vertical-Line Test for a Function)

85
 An equation specifies a function if each vertical
line in the corresponding system passes through, at
most, one point on the graph of the equation.
If any vertical line passes through two or more points
on the graph of an equation, then the equation does
not specify a function.

Example (3)

Find 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(0), and 𝑓(6) for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 3.

Solution

𝑓(−2) = √−𝟐 + 𝟑 = √𝟏 = 𝟏
𝑓(0) = √𝟎 + 𝟑 = √𝟑
𝑓(6) = √𝟔 + 𝟑 = √𝟗 = 𝟑
Example (4)
Find 𝑓(−8), 𝑓(𝜋), and 𝑓(10) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 16.
Solution
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 16 is a constant function, so the 𝑦 −
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is 16 no matter what quantity y. which formula
we use depends on where x is. There is an interval for
𝑥 written next to each formula for 𝑦.

86
𝑓(−8) = 16
𝑓(𝜋) = 16
𝑓(10) = 16
A piecewise function is a function with two or
more formulas for computing 𝑦. Which formula we
use depends on 𝑥 is. There is an interval for 𝑥 written
next to each formula for .
𝑥−1 𝑖𝑓𝑥 ≤ −2
𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 2𝑥 𝑖𝑓 − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
𝑥2 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 2
in this example, there are three formulas for 𝑦:
𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1, 𝑦 = 2𝑥, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , and three intervals
for 𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ −2, −2 < 𝑥 < 2, and 𝑥 ≥ 2. When
evaluating this function, we need to decide to which
interval x belongs. Then we will use the
corresponding formula for 𝑦.
Example (5)
Find 𝑓(5), 𝑓(−3), and 𝑓(0) for the piecewise
function above.
Solution

87
 For 𝑓(5), does 𝑥 = 5 belong to 𝑥 ≤ −2, −2 <
𝑥 < 2, 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2? Because 5 ≥ 2, we use 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , the
formula written next to 𝑥 ≥ 2.

𝑓(5) = 52 = 25
For 𝑓(−3), does 𝑥 = −3 belong to 𝑥 ≤
−2, −2 < 𝑥 < 2, 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2? Because −3 ≥ −2, we
use 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1, the formula written next to 𝑥 ≤ −2.

𝑓(−3) = −3 − 1 = −4
For 𝑓(0), does 𝑥 = 0 belong to ≤ −2, −2 < 𝑥 <
2, 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 2? Because −2 < 0 < 2, we use 𝑦 = 2𝑥,
the formula written next to −2 < 𝑥 < 2.
𝑓 (0) = 2(0) = 0

Example (6)

Find 𝑓(3), 𝑓(1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(−4) for

Solution
−𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = {
5 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 1
𝑓 (3) = 5 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 3 > 1

88
 𝑓(1) = −1 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 1 ≤ 1
𝑓(−4) = −(−4) = 4 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 − 4 ≤ 1

Example (7)
Suppose a company pays the regular hourly wage
for someone who works up to 8 hours but time and a
half for someone who works more than 8 hours but
no more than 10 hours and double time for more than
10 hours. Then a worker whose regular hourly pay is
$10 has the daily pay function below.
Solution
10ℎ 𝑖𝑓 0 ≤ ℎ ≤ 8
𝑝(ℎ) = { 15(ℎ − 8) + 80 𝑖𝑓 8 < ℎ < 10
20(ℎ − 10) + 110 𝑖𝑓 10 < ℎ < 24

Below is an example of a piece of a function based on

data taken from instructions for $1040. The 𝑦 −
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 is the amount of estimated income tax for a
single person. The 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒is the estimated taxable
income.

89
𝑓(𝑥)
0.10𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≤ 8500
850 + 0.15(𝑥 − 8500) 𝑖𝑓 8500 < 𝑥 < 34500
4750 + 0.25(𝑥 − 34500) 𝑖𝑓 34500 < 𝑥 < 83600
=
17025 + 0.28(𝑥 − 83600) 𝑖𝑓 83600 < 𝑥 < 174400
42449 + 0.33(𝑥 − 174400) 𝑖𝑓 174400 < 𝑥 < 379150
{ 110016.50 + 0.35(𝑥 − 379150) 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 > 379150

A single person who expects a taxable income of

$$100000 would pay
$17025 + 0.28(100000 − 83600) = 21617

Example (8)

Evaluate 𝑓(𝑎 + 3), 𝑓(𝑎2) , 𝑓(𝑢 − 𝑣), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑎 +

ℎ)𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 8𝑥 + 5.

Solution

We let 𝑥 = 𝑎 + 3, 𝑥 = 𝑎2 , 𝑥 = 𝑢 − 𝑣, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ
in the function.

𝑓 (𝑎 + 3) = 8(𝑎 + 3) + 5 = 8𝑎 + 24 + 5
= 8𝑎 + 29

𝑓 (𝑎2 ) = 8(𝑎2 ) + 5 = 8𝑎2 + 5

𝑓(𝑢 − 𝑣) = 8(𝑢 − 𝑣) + 5 = 8𝑢 − 8𝑣 + 5

90
 𝑓 (𝑎 + ℎ) = 8(𝑎 + ℎ) + 5 = 8𝑎 + 8ℎ + 5

In algebra, you learned to use parentheses for

grouping variable. For example,

2(𝑥 + ℎ) = 2𝑥 + 2ℎ

Now we are using parentheses in the function symbol

𝑓(𝑥). For example, if 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 , then 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) =
(𝑥 + ℎ)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2

Note that:

𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑓(ℎ) = 𝑥 2 + ℎ2 ≠ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 . That is,

the function name f does not distribute across the
grouped variables (𝑥 + ℎ), as the "2" does in 2(𝑥 +
ℎ)

Example (9)
Using function notation for 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 7,
find

A. 𝑓(𝑎)
B. 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ)
91
 C. 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
D. , ℎ≠0
ℎ

Solution

A. 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 7
B. 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = (𝑎 + ℎ)2 − 2(𝑎 + ℎ) + 7
= 𝑎2 + 2𝑎ℎ + ℎ2 − 2𝑎 − 2ℎ + 7
C. 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓 (𝑎)

= (𝑎2 + 2𝑎ℎ + ℎ2 − 2𝑎 − 2ℎ + 7)

−(𝑎2 ± 2𝑎 + 7) = 2𝑎ℎ + ℎ2 − 2ℎ

𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎) 2𝑎ℎ+ℎ2 −2ℎ ℎ(2𝑎+ℎ−2)

D. = =
ℎ ℎ ℎ
ℎ
Because ℎ ≠ 0, = 1.
ℎ

= 2𝑎 + ℎ − 2
Example (10)
A manufacturer of a popular digital camera
wholesales the camera to retail outlets throughout
the United States. Using statistical methods, the
financial department in the company produced the
price-demand data in the following table, where p is
92
the wholesale price per camera at which x million
cameras are sold. Notice that as the price goes
down, the number sold goes up.
Price-Demand
𝑋(millions) P($)
2 87
5 68
8 53
12 37
………. ………

Using special analytical techniques, an analyst

obtained the following price-demand function
𝑃(𝑥 ) = 94.8 − 5𝑥 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 15
A. Sketch a graph of the price-demand function in
the same coordinate system?
B. What is the company's revenue function for this
camera, and what is its domain?
Solution

93
 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2 5 8 12

B. 𝑅 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥𝑃(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 (94.8 − 5𝑥 )𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑠

Domain: 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 15
[same domain as the price-demand function]

Example (11)

sketch the graph of the revenue function using

these points in the following table

Revenue
𝑥 millions 𝑅 (𝑥 ) (Million $)
1 90
3 239
6 389
9 448

94
 12 418
15 297

Solution

500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 5 10 15 20

95
Exponential Function
This section introduces an important class of
functions called exponential function these functions
are used extensively in modeling and solving a wide
variety of real-world problems, including growth of
money at compound interest, growth of populations,
radioactive decay and learning associated with the
mastery of such devices as a new computer or an
assembly process in manufacturing plant.

Definition (Exponential Function)

The equation 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑏 𝑥 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1 defines an

exponential function for each constant b, called the
base. The domain of 𝑓 is the set of all real numbers,
and the range of 𝑓 is the set of al positive real
numbers.

Theorem (Basic Properties of the Graph)

1. All graphs will pass through the point (0,1).

2. All graphs are continuous curves, with no holes
or jumps.

96
 3. The x axis is a horizontal asymptote.
4. If 𝑏 > 1, then 𝑏 𝑥 increases as x increases.
5. If 0 < 𝑏 < 1, then 𝑏 𝑥 decreases as x increases.

Example (12)
Sketch a graph of
𝟏
𝒚 = ( ) 𝟒𝒙 , −𝟐 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟐.
𝟐
Solution

Use a calculator to create the table of values shown.

Plot these points, and the join them with a smooth
curve.

97
 𝑥 𝑦
-2 0.031
-1 0.125
0 0.50
1 2.00
2 8.00

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

98
Example (13)

Sketch the graph of the exponential function

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐. 𝟓𝒙

Solution

We begin 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = −3, −2, −1,0,1,2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 in a

table of values. After computing the y-coordinates,
we plot the points and draw the curve,
18

16

14

12

10

0
-4 -2 0 2 4

99
Example (14)
Sketch the graph of the exponential function
𝟏 𝒙
𝒈(𝒙) = ( )
𝟑
Solution
30

25

20

15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

100
Example (15)

Sketch the graph of the exponential function in

problem 1 to 3

3 𝑥
A. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ( )
2
3 𝑥
B. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = ( )
2

C. ℎ(𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 (Use the e or 𝑒 𝑥 key on your

calculator)

Solution

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
-3 0.30
-2 0.44
-1 0.67
0 1
1 1.5
2 2.25
3 3.375

101
 4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

B.
𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
-3 3.375
-2 2.25
-1 1.5
0 1
1 0.67
2 0.44
3 0.30

102
 4

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

c.

𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
-3 0.05
-2 0.14
-1 0.37
0 1
1 2.72
2 7.39
3 20.09

103
 8

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Compound Interest
The fee paid to use another's money is called
interest. It is usually computed as a percent (called
interest rate) of the principle over a given period of
time. If, at the end of a payment period, the interest
due is reinvested at the same rate, then the as well as
the principle will earn interest during the next
payment period. Interest paid on interest reinvested is
called compound interest and may be calculated using
the following compound interest formula:

104
 𝑟 𝑚
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + )
𝑚

Continuous compound interest: 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡

where

A = amount (future value) at the end of

𝑡 years

𝑃 =principle (present value)

𝑟 =annual rate (expressed as decimal)

𝑚 = number of compounded periods per year

𝑡 = time in years

For given r and m, the amount A is equal to the

principle P multiplied by the exponential function 𝑏 𝑡 ,
𝑟
where b=(1 + )𝑚
𝑚

Example (16)

If $1000 is invested in an account paying 10%

compounded monthly, how much will be in the
account at the end of 10 years?

105
 Solution
We use the compound interest formula as follows
𝑟
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + )𝑚
𝑚

0.10 (12)(10)
1000(1 + )
12

= $2707.04

Example (17)

If $1000 is invested in an account paying 10%

compounded continuously, how much will be in the
account at the end f 10 years?

Solution
We use the continuous compound interest formula

𝐴 = 𝑃𝑒 𝑟𝑡 = 1000𝑒 0.10(10) = 1000𝑒 = $2718.28

Example (18)
Find the compound amount
A. $5000, after 3 years, earning 6% interest,
compounded annually.

106
 1
B. $10,000 after years, 7 % interest, compounded
4

annually.
Solution
- We use the formula 𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)𝑡 ; 𝑃 =
5000, 𝑟 = 0.06, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 3. We want to know
A, the compound amount.
𝐴 = 𝑃(1 + 𝑟)𝑡
𝐴 = 5000(1 + 0.06)3
𝐴 = 5000(1.06)3
5000(1.191016) = $955.08
The compound amount is $955.08
1
- $10000 after 8 years, 7 % interest,
4

compounded annually
𝐴 = 5000(1 + 0.0725)8
𝐴 = 10000(1.0725)8
𝐴 = 10000(1.7505656)
𝐴 = 17505.66
The compound amount is $17505.66
Many investments pay more often than once a
year, some paying interest daily. Instead of using

107
the annual interest rate, we use the interest rate par
period, and instead of using the number of years, we
use the number of periods. If there are 𝑚
compounding periods per years, then the interest
𝑟
rate per period is and the total number of periods
𝑚

is 𝑚𝑡.

Example (19)
Find the compound amount $5000, after 3
years, earning 6% annual interest
A. Compounded semiannually
B. Compounded monthly
Solution
Interest compounded semiannually means that it is
compounded twice each year, so 𝑚 = 2.
0.06 2(3)
𝐴 = 5000(1 + )
2
𝐴 = 5000(1.03)6
𝐴 = 5000(1.194052)
𝐴 = $970.26
The compound amount is $970.26

108
For (B), the interest compounded monthly means
that it is compounded 12 times each year,
so 𝑚 = 12.
0.06 12(3)
𝐴 = 5000(1 + )
12
𝐴 = 5000(1.005)36
𝐴 = 5000(1.19668)
𝐴 = $983.40
The compound amount is $983.40

Logarithmic Function
The inverse of an exponential function is called a
logarithmic function. For 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 1,
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑥 is equivalent to 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑦
The log to the base b of x is the exponent to which b
must be raised to obtain x. the domain of the
logarithmic function is the set all positive real
numbers. Which is also the range of the
corresponding exponential function; and the range
of the logarithmic function is the set of all real
numbers, which is also the domain of the
corresponding exponential function.
109
 Example (20)
Rewrite the logarithmic equation in exponential
form.
A. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟑 𝟗 = 𝟐
𝟏
B. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 = −𝟑
𝟖
𝟏
C. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟗 𝟑 =
𝟐

Solution
For (A), the base of the logarithm is the base of the
exponent, so 3 is raised to a power. The number that
is equal to the log is the power, so the power on 3 is
2.
𝑙𝑜𝑔3 9 = 2 rewritten in exponential form is 32 = 9.
1
For (B), 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 = −3
8

The base is 2 and the power is -3.

1
2−3 =
8
1
For (C), 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 3 =
2
1
The base is 9 and the power is .
2

91/2 = 3

110
 Example (21)
The first two logarithm properties we learn are
the cancelation properties. They come directly from
rewriting one form of an equation in the other form.
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥
When the bases of the exponent and logarithm
are the same, they cancel, that is, they "undo" each
other. Let us see why these properties are true. What
would the expression 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 be? We rewrite
"𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 =? " as an exponential equation: 𝑎? = 𝑎 𝑥 .

Now we can see that "?" is 𝑥. This is, why

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥. What would 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 be? We rewrite
"𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 " =? In logarithmic form: 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ? = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥, so
"?" is 𝑥, and 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥.
Example (22)

𝑙𝑜𝑔9 3 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 √9 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 91/2 = 1/2

1 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔7 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔7 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔7 7−2 = −2
49 7
4
1 1
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 √10 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 104 =
4

111
 5 5
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 √100 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 √102 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 102/5 = 2/5
Two types of logarithms occur frequently
enough to have their own notation, they are 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 and
𝑙𝑜𝑔10 . The notation for 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 is "ln" and is called the
natural log. The notation for 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 is "log" (no base is
written) and is called the common log. The
cancelation properties for these special logarithms are
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
and
log 10𝑥 = 𝑥
10log 𝑥 = 𝑥
Example (23)
Sketch the graph of the logarithmic functions.
𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 𝒙
Solution
Rewrite the equation in exponential form, 𝑥 = 2𝑦 ,
and let the exponent 𝑦, be the numbers
−3, −2, −1,0,1,2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3. The 𝑥 − 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 for these
points are computed in the following table.

112
 𝒙 𝒚
1/8 -3
1/4 -2
1/2 -1
1 0
2 1
4 2
8 3

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-1

-2

-3

-4

Rewritten in exponent form, this is 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 . Let 𝑦 =

−3, −2, −1,0,1,2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.
113
 As long as a is larger than 1, all graphs for
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 look pretty much the same. The
larger a is, the flatter the graph is to the right of 𝑥 =
1. Knowing this and knowing how to graph
transformations, we have a good idea of the graphs
of many logarithmic functions.
𝒙 𝒚
0.05 -3
0.14 -2
0.37 -1
1 0
2.72 1
7.39 2
20.09 3

4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-1
-2
-3
-4

114
 Exercises
1
1. $10,000, after 8 years, earning 7 % annual
4

interest, compounded weekly interest that is paid

weekly is paid 52 times each year, so 𝑚 = 52.
1
2. Eight hundred dollars after 10 years, 6 %
2

Interest, compounded annually.

3. Twelve hundred dollars after 10 years, earning
1
6 % annual interest
4

a. Compounded quarterly
b. Compounded weekly
1
4. 100 hundred dollars after 10 years, earning 6 %
2

annual interest, compounded continuously.

3
5. Nine thousand dollars after 5 years, earning 6 %
4

annual interest, compounded continuously.

6. For problems 1 − 5 rewrite the logarithmic
equation in exponential form
a. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 16 = 2
1
b. 𝑙𝑜𝑔100 10 =
2

c. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 = 0.6931
115
 d. 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑥+1) 9 = 2
1
e. 𝑙𝑜𝑔7 = −2
49

7. Rewrite in logarithmic form: 𝑒 3𝑥 = 4

8. Use logarithm and exponent prosperities to
simplify the following expression
1. 9𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 3
2. 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 14
3. ln 𝑒 𝑥+1
1
4. ln
𝑒3
1
5. 𝑙𝑜𝑔4
16

116
 Chapter 4

Limits and Continuity

117
 Limits and Continuity

Limits

The concept of the limit is one of the most

crucial things to understand in order to prepare for
calculus. A limit is a number that a function
approaches as the independent variable of the
function approaches a given value.

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) is the real number that 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐

approaches as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐, if such a number exist.

If f(x) does, indeed, approach a real number, we
denote that number by L (for limit value). We say the
limit exists, and we write:

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

Properties of limits

Let f and g be two functions, and assume that

lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝐿, lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑛→𝑐

118
where L and M are real numbers (both limits exist).
Then

1. lim 𝑐 = 𝑐, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐

2. lim 𝑥 = 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐

3. lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) + lim 𝑔(𝑥 )

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

=𝐿+𝑀
4. lim [𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) − lim 𝑔(𝑥 )
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

=𝐿−𝑀
5. lim 𝑘𝑓 (𝑥 ) = k lim 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝐿
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

6. lim [𝑓(𝑥 ). 𝑔(𝑥 )] = lim 𝑓(𝑥 ). lim 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝐿. 𝑀

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐
lim 𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐
7. lim = 𝑥→𝑐 =
lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 lim 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
𝑥→𝑐

𝑛 𝑛
8. lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√lim 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝐿, 𝐿 >
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
Example Find the following limits
1. lim (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)
𝑥→3

2. lim (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)
𝑥→−2

3. lim (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 1)
𝑥→2

119
4. lim √2𝑥 2 + 3
𝑥→−1
2𝑥
5. lim .
𝑥→4 3𝑥+1

Solution
1. lim (𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 ) = 9 − 12 = −3
𝑥→3

2. lim (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 ) = 4 − 10 = −6
𝑥→−2

3. lim (𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 − 1) = 8 − 10 − 2 = −4
𝑥→2

4. lim √2𝑥 2 + 3 = √2 + 3 = √5
𝑥→−1
8 8
5. lim =
𝑥→4 12+1 13

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 , 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 < 𝟐
Example Let 𝒇(𝒙) = { ,
𝒙 − 𝟏, 𝒊𝒇 𝒙 > 𝟐
find each limit
1. lim−𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

2. lim+𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

3. lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→2

4. lim (2)
𝑥→2

120
Solution
1. lim−𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim−𝑥 2 + 1 = 5
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

2. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 1 = 1
𝑥→2

3. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )
𝑥→2

4. Since the one-sided limits are not equal, lim 𝑓 (𝑥 )

𝑥→2

does not exist.

5. lim (2)
𝑥→2

Because the definition of f does not assign a value to

f for 𝑥 = 2, only for 𝑥 < 2 and 𝑥 > 2, 𝑓(2) does not
exist.

Example

Let 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏. Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥 )

𝑥→1

Solution

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝟑𝒙𝟐 + 𝒙 − 𝟏

𝑥→1 𝑥→1

= 𝟑(1)2 + 1 − 1 = 3.

121
Example

2𝒙+𝟏
Let 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑥−2
. Evaluate 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑥→3

Solution

2𝒙 + 𝟏
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥−2
2(𝟑) + 𝟏
=7
(3) − 2

One- and Two-Sided Limits

lim is a two-sided limit operator in lim 𝑓(𝑥 ), because

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

we must consider the behavior of 𝑓 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐

from both the left and the right.

lim is a one-sided left-hand limit operator. lim−𝑓(𝑥)

𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐

is read as:” the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches a from

the left.

lim is a one-sided right-hand limit operator.

𝑥→𝑐 +

lim 𝑓(𝑥) is read as:” the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥

𝑥→𝑐 +

approaches a from the right.

122
 Continuity

Definition: A function f is continuous at the point

𝜶 = 𝒄 if

1. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) exists.
𝑥→𝑐

2. lim 𝑓 (𝑐) exists.

𝑥→𝑐

3. lim 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑐).
𝑥→𝑐

A function is continuous on the open interval

(𝑎, 𝑏) if it is continuous at each point on the interval.
Example Discuss the continuity of each
function at the indicated points
A. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 + 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
𝑥 2 −4
B. 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 2
𝑥−2

Solution
A. 1. lim 𝑥 + 2 = 4
𝑥→𝑐

2. 𝑓(2) = 4
3. lim 𝑥 + 2 = 𝑓 (2) = 4
𝑥→𝑐

The function is continuous.

𝑥 2 −4 4−4 0
B. 1. lim = = is not defined.
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥−2 2−2 0

123
 𝑔 is not continuous at 𝑥 = 2.
Theorem: Continuity properties of some specific
functions
1. A constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a
constant, is continuous for all 𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥) = 7 is
continuous for all 𝑥.
2. For 𝑛 a positive integer, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 is continuous
for all x, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 is continuous for all 𝑥.
3. A polynomial function is continuous for all 𝑥,
2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5 is continuous for all 𝑥.
4. A rational function is continuous for all 𝑥 except
𝑥 2 +1
those values that make a denominator 0. is
𝑥−1

continuous for all x except 𝑥 = 1, a value that

makes the denominator 0.
5. For 𝑛 an odd positive integer greater than 1,
𝑛
√𝑓(𝑥) is continuous wherever f(x) is continuous,
3
√𝑥 2 is continuous for all 𝑥.
𝑛
6. For 𝑛 an even positive integer, √𝑓(𝑥) is
continuous wherever f(x) is continuous and

124
 4
nonnegative. √𝑥 is continuous on the interval
[0, ∞[.
Example Determine where each function is
continuous
A. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑥
B. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑥+2)(𝑥−3)
3
C. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 2 − 4
D. 𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 2
Solution
A. Since 𝑓 is a polynomial function, 𝑓 is
continuous for all 𝑥.
B. Since 𝑓 is a rational function, 𝑓 is continuous
for all x except −2 and 3. (Values that make the
denominator 0).
C. The polynomial function 𝑥 2 − 4 is continuous
for all x. since 𝑛 = 3 is odd, f is continuous for
all 𝑥.
D. The polynomial function x-2 is continuous for
all x and nonnegative for 𝑥 ≥ 2. Since n=2 is

125
even, f is continuous for 𝑥 ≥ 2, or on the
interval [2, ∞[.

126
 Chapter 5

Derivative
and Antiderivative

127
 Derivative
and Antiderivative

The derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐 is

defined as
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓́(x) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Provided the limit exists. If the limit exists, we say
that 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
Example
Compute the derivative of
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
Solution
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥 )
𝑓́(1) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓[3(1 + ℎ)3 + 2(1 + ℎ) − 1] − (3 + 2 − 1)

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓[3(1 + 3ℎ + 3ℎ2 + ℎ3 + (2 + 2ℎ) − 1] − 4

= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

128
 11ℎ + 9ℎ2 + 3ℎ3
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
= lim (11 + 9ℎ + 3ℎ2 ) = 11
ℎ→0

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ). Then 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) 𝑦̀ , all represent
𝑑𝑥

the derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑥.
Theorem If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐, then 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 0. Also, 𝑦̀ =
𝑑𝑦
0 and = 0.
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Note: when we write 𝐶̀ = 0 or 𝐶 = 0, we mean
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
that 𝑦̀ = = 0 when 𝑦 = 𝐶.
𝑑𝑥

Example Find
A) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3
B) 𝑦̀ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = −1.4
𝑑𝑦
C) If 𝑦 = 𝜋, find .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
D) 23.
𝑑𝑥

Solution
A) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 0
B) 𝑦̀ = 0

129
 𝑑𝑦
C) =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
D) =0
𝑑𝑥

Theorem Power Rule

If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑛 , where n is a real number then
𝑑𝑦
𝑓̀ (𝑥 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 . Also, 𝑦̀ = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 and = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
𝑑𝑥

Example Find the indicated derivatives in the

following problems
A) 𝑓̀ (𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 5
𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 5𝑥 5−1 = 5𝑥 4 .
B) 𝑦̀ for 𝑦 = 𝑥 25
𝑦̀ = 25𝑥 25−1 = 25𝑥 24 .
𝑑𝑦
C) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = 𝑡 −3 ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦 −3
= −3𝑡 −3−1 = −3𝑡 −4 = −4 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑡
𝑑
D) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 5/3 ,
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 5/3 5 5−1 5 2
𝑥 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥3.
𝑑𝑥 3 3
1
E) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ,
𝑥4
−4
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 −4 , 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = −4𝑥 −5 = .
𝑥5
130
 −1 −4
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 −1
F) 3 = 𝑥3 = 𝑥3 = 3 .
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 3 √𝑥 4

Theorem Constant Multiple Property

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑢(𝑥 ), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 𝑘𝑢̀ (𝑥 ), 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑦̀ = 𝑘𝑢̀ , =𝑘 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Note that the derivative of a constant times a
differentiable function is the constant times a
function.
A) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2
𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 3(2𝑥 ) = 6𝑥.
𝑡3
B) If 𝑦 = ,
6
1 1
𝑦̀ = 3𝑡 2 = 𝑡 2 .
6 2
1 1
C) If 𝑦 = = 𝑥 −4 ,
2𝑥 4 2
1 1 −4
𝑦= = 𝑥 ,
2𝑥 4 2
1 −2
𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = (−4𝑥 −5 ) = −2𝑥 −5 = 5 .
2 𝑥
𝑑 0.4
D) ( ),
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 3

131
 𝑑 0.4 𝑑 −3
= ( )= [0.4𝑥 2 ],
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

3
−3 −5 −0.6
= 0.4 [ 𝑥 2 ] = −0.4 2 = .
2 √5 √5

Theorem sum and Difference Property

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑈(𝑥 ) ∓ 𝑉 (𝑥 ), then 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) =

𝑈̀(𝑥 ) ∓ 𝑉̀ (𝑥 ), Also, 𝑦̀ = 𝑈̀ ∓ 𝑉̀.

Note: this rule generalizes to the sum and difference

of any given number of functions.

Example Differentiating sums and differences

A) If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
B) 𝑦 = 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 −1
3
C) 𝑦 = √𝑤 − 3𝑤
𝑑 5 2 𝑥3
D) ( − + )
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 2 𝑥4 9

Solution
A) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 6𝑥 + 2
3
B) 𝑦̀ = 0 + 6𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 −2 = 6𝑥 2 +
𝑥2

132
 1 −2
𝑑𝑦 1 1 1
C) = 𝑤 3−1 − 3 = 𝑤 3 − 3 = 3 −3
𝑑𝑤 3 3 3 √𝑤 2
𝒅 𝟓 𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒅 𝟓 𝒅
E) ( − 𝒙𝟒 + ) = ( 𝒙−𝟐 ) − (𝟐𝒙−𝟒 ) +
𝒅𝒙 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟗 𝒅𝒙 𝟑 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒙𝟑
𝒅𝒙
( 𝟗 ),
𝟏𝟎 −𝟑 𝟏
= 𝒙 + 𝟖𝒙−𝟓 + 𝒙𝟐 ,
𝟑 𝟑
𝟏𝟎 𝟖 𝟏
= 𝟑 + 𝟓 + 𝒙𝟐 .
𝟑𝒙 𝒙 𝟑
Derivatives of Products and Quotient
Theorem Product Rule
If 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑆(𝑥 ), and if 𝐹̀ (𝑥 ) and 𝑆̀(𝑥)
exist, then
𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 )𝑆̀(𝑥 ) + 𝑆(𝑥 )𝐹̀ (𝑥 ).
The derivative of the product of two functions is the
first function times the derivative of the second
function, plus the second function times the
derivative of the first function.

133
Theorem Quotient Rule
𝑇(𝑥)
If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) = , and if 𝑇̀(𝑥) and 𝐵̀(𝑥) exist, then
𝐵(𝑥)

𝐵(𝑥 )𝑇̀(𝑥 ) − 𝑇(𝑥)𝐵̀(𝑥)

𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = .
[𝐵(𝑥)]2
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is the
denominator function times the derivative of the
numerator function, minus the numerator function
times the derivatives of the denominator function,
divide by the denominator function squared.
Example Find 𝒇̀(𝒙) for the following functions
A) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 (3𝑥 4 − 2).
B) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3 (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1).
C) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 − 9)(𝑥 2 + 6).
Solution
A) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 (12𝑥 3 ) + (3𝑥 4 − 2). 4𝑥
= 24𝑥 5 + 12𝑥 5 − 8𝑥 = 36𝑥 5 − 8𝑥.
B) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 3 (4𝑥 − 3) + (2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1). 9𝑥 2
= 12𝑥 4 − 9𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 4 − 27𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2
= 32𝑥 4 − 36𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 .
C) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = 2(𝑥 2 + 6) + 2𝑥 (2𝑥 − 9)

134
= 2𝑥 2 + 12 + 4𝑥 2 − 18
= 6𝑥 2 − 6.
Example Find 𝒇̀(𝒙) for the following functions
𝑥2
A) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = ,
2𝑥−1
𝑡 2 −𝑡
B) 𝑦 = ,
𝑡 3 +1
𝑑 𝑥 2 −3
C) ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2

Solution
2𝑥(2𝑥−1)−2𝑥 2
A) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥−1)2

4𝑥 2 − 1 − 2𝑥 2
=
(2𝑥 − 1)2
2𝑥 2 − 1
= ,
(2𝑥 − 1)2
(2𝑡−1)(𝑡 +1)−3𝑡 3 2 (𝑡 2 −𝑡)
B) 𝑓̀(𝑥 ) = (𝑡 3 2 +1)

2𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 − 𝑡 3 − 1 − 3𝑡 4 + 3𝑡 3
= ,
(𝑡 3 + 1)2
−𝑡 4 + 2𝑡 3 + 2𝑡 − 1
= .
(𝑡 3 + 1)2

135
 𝑥 2 −3 𝑥2 3
C) 𝑓(𝑥 ) = = −
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2

3
=1− 2
= 1 − 3𝑥 −2 .
𝑥

The Inverse of Differentiation

A function F is an antiderivative of a function f if
𝐹̀ (𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥).

Indefinite integrals: formula and properties

Theorem : states that if the derivatives of two

functions are equal, then the functions differ by at most a
constant. We use the symbol ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 called the indefinite
integral, to represent the family of all antiderivatives of 𝑓(𝑥),
and we write

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

Indefinite Integrals of Basic Functions for C a constant

𝑛
𝑥 𝑛+1
1. ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, 𝑛 ≠ −1
𝑛+1

2. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + C

1
3. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + C
𝑥

136
4. ∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

5. ∫[𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Examples: Find each indefinite integral

1. ∫ 2𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 𝐶
2 3
2. ∫(2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 2 − 1)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 6 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
6 3

= 3𝑥 6 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 3
3. ∫ (2𝑒 𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

= 2𝑒 𝑥 + 3𝑙𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐶

[𝒇(𝒙)]𝒏+𝟏
∫[𝒇(𝒙)] 𝒇́(𝒙) =
𝒏
+𝑪
𝒏+𝟏

Example
(3𝑥+4)11
1. ∫(3𝑥 + 4)10 (3)𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
11
(4+𝑥 2 )2
2. ∫ 4 + 𝑥 2 (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
2
(2𝑥 3 −3)21
3. ∫(2𝑥 3 − 3)20 (6𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
21

137
Integration by Substitution

Procedure Integration by Substitution

 Step 1: Select a substitution that appears to simplify

the integrand. In particular, try to select u so that du is
a factor in the integrand.
 Step 2: Express the integrand entirely in terms of u
and du, completely eliminating the original variable
and its differential.
 Step 3: Evaluate the new integral if possible.
 Step 4: Express the antiderivative found in step 3 in
terms of the original variable

Use a substitution to find each indefinite integral

A)∫(3𝑥 + 4)6 (3)𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 + 4, 𝑑𝑢 = 3𝑑𝑥
1
∫ 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢7 + 𝐶
7
1
= (3𝑥 + 4)7 + 𝐶
7
1
B)∫ 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥+7

Let 𝑢 = 4𝑥 + 7, 𝑑𝑢 = 4𝑑𝑥
1 4 1
∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 4 𝑙𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶
4 𝑢

138
 Chapter 6

Linear Programming

139
 Introduction

Operations research, which is concerned

with the efficient allocation of scarce resources, is
both an art and science. The art lies in the ability to
depict the concepts efficient and scarce in a well-
defined mathematical model of a given situation.

Operations research is the science of rational

decision-making and the study, design and integration
of complex situations and systems with the goal of
predicting system behavior and improving or
optimizing system performance.

The formal activities of Operations Research

(OR) were initiated in England during World War II
when a team of British scientists set out to make
decisions regarding the best utilization of war
material. Following the end of the war, the ideas
advanced in military operations were adapted to
improve efficiency and productivity in the civilian

140
sector. Today, OR is a dominant decision making
tool.

As its name implies, operations research

involves "research on operations" thus, operations
research is applied to problems that concern how to
conduct and coordinate the operations within an
organization. The nature of the organization is
essentially immaterial, and, in fact, OR has been
applied extensively in such diverse areas as
manufacturing, transportation, construction,
telecommunications, financial planning, health care,
the military, and public services, to name just a few.
Therefore, the breadth of application is usually wide.
What is operations research?. Operations means the
activities carried out in an organization. Research is
the process of observations and testing characterized
by the scientific method, situation, problem
statement, model construction, validation,
experimentation, candidate solutions.

141
 The research part of the name means that
operations research uses an approach that resembles
the way research is conducted in established scientific
fields. To a considerable extent, the scientific method
is used to investigate the problem of concern. (In fact,
the term management science sometimes is used as a
synonym for operations research). In particular, the
process begins by carefully observing and
formulating the problem, including gathering all
relevant data. The next step is to construct a scientific
model that attempts to abstract the essence of the real
problem. It is then hypothesized that this model is a
sufficiently precise representation of the essential
features of the situation that the conclusions
(solutions) obtained from the model are also valid for
the real problem. Next, suitable experiments are
conducted to test this hypothesis, modify it as needed,
and eventually verify some form of the hypothesis.
Thus, in a certain sense, operations research involves
creative scientific research into the fundamental
properties of operations. However, there is more to it

142
than this. Specifically, OR is also concerned with the
practical management of the organizations to the
decision maker when they are needed.

An additional characteristic is that OR

frequently attempts to search for a best solution for
the model that represents the problem under
consideration. The goal is to identify a best possible
course of action. Although it must be interpreted
carefully in terms of the practical needs of
management, this is an important theme in OR.

Defining OR is difficult task as its

boundaries and content are not yet fixed. It can be
regarded as use of mathematical and quantitative
techniques to substantiate the decision being taken.
Further, it is multidisciplinary which takes tools from
subjects like mathematics, statistics, engineering,
economics, psychology etc. and uses them to score
the consequences of possible alternative actions.
Today it has become professional discipline that deals
with the applications of scientific method to decision

143
making. Few other definitions of operations research
are as follows:

Definition (1)

Operations research is concerned with

scientifically deciding how to best design and operate
man-machine system usually requiring the allocation
of scarce resources.

Definition (2)

Operation is essentially a collection of

mathematical techniques and tools which in
conjunction with system approach are applied to
solve practical decision problems of an economic or
engineering nature.

Definition (3)

Operations research utilizes the planned

approach and an interdisciplinary team in order to
represent complex functional relationships as
mathematical models for the purpose of providing a
quantitative analysis.

144
Definition (4)

Operations research is a scientific

knowledge through interdisciplinary team effort for
the purpose of determining of determining the best
utilization of limited resources.

Definition (5)

Operation research is a scientific approach to

problem solving for executive management.

The essence of the operations research

activity lies in the construction and use of models.

Definition (6)

A model in the sense used in operation

research is defined as a representation of an actual
object or situation. It shows the relationships and
inter-relationships of action and reaction in terms of
cause and effect.

The main objective of a model is to provide

means for analyzing the behavior of the system for

145
the purpose of improving its performance. Or, if a
system is not in existence, then a model defines the
ideal structure of this feature system indicating the
functional relationships among its elements. The
reliability of the solution obtained from a model
depends on the validity of the model in representing
the real system. A model permits to examine the
behavior of a system without interfering with ongoing
operations.

Sometimes it is desired to maximize or

minimize a function, subject to certain restrictions or
constraints. For example, a manufacturer may want to
maximize a profit function, subject to production
restrictions imposed by limitations on the use of
machinery and labor.

Optimization problems

In an optimization problem one seeks to maximize

or minimize a specific quantity, called the objective which
depends on a finite number of input variables. These

146
variables may be independent of one another, or they may be
related through one or more constraints.

A mathematical program is an optimization

problem in which the objective and constraints are given as
mathematical functions and functional relationships

Optimize: 𝑍 = 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 )

Subject to: 𝑔1 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 )

𝑏1
𝑏2
𝑔2 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 )
≤ .
.
…………………..
= .
.
≥ .
𝑔𝑚 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 ) .
{𝑏𝑚

Formulation Of Linear programs

Problem
A mathematical program is linear if
𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 ) and each 𝑔𝑖 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 )
where 𝑖 = 1,2, … … . , 𝑚 are linear in each of their
arguments, that is, if

147
 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑥𝑛

𝑔𝑖 (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … … . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑎𝑖1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑛

where 𝑐𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑗 (𝑖 = 1,2, … … . , 𝑚; 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑛)

are known constraints.

Optimization problems most often are stated

verbally. The solution procedure is to model the
problem with a mathematical program and then solve
the program. The following approach is
recommended for transforming a word problem into a
mathematical program.

Step I: Introduce decision variables

Step II: Summarize relevant material in table form,

relating columns to the decision variables, if possible.

Step III: Determine the objective and write a linear

objective function.

Step IV: Write non-negative constraints.

148
Example (1)

A furniture maker has 6 units of wood and 28 h

of free time, in which he will make decorative
screens. Two models have sold well in the past, so he
will restrict himself to those two. He estimates that
model I requires 2 units of wood and 7 h of time,
while model II requires 1 unit of wood and 8 h of
time. The prices of the models are $120 and $80,
respectively. How many screens of each model
should the furniture maker assemble if he wishes to
maximize sales revenue?

Solution

The objective is to maximize revenue (in dollars)

Model I Model II
Wood 2 units 1 units
Time 7h 8h
Profits $120 $80

149
Let
𝑥1 : number of model I screens to be produced.
𝑥2 : number of model II screens to be produced
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 120𝑥1 + 80𝑥2
Subject to
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 6
7𝑥1 + 8𝑥2 ≤ 28
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Example (2)
A company produces two products A and B
which possess raw materials 400 quintals and 450
labour hours. It is known that 1 unit of product A
requires 5 quintals of raw materials and 10 man hours
and yields a profit of $ 45. Product B requires 20
quintals of raw materials, 15 man hours and yields a
profit of $80. Formulate the linear programming
problem.

Solution

Let

150
 𝑥1 : the number of units of product A
𝑥2 : the number of units of product B

Product A Product B Availability

Raw
5 20 400
materials
Man hours 10 15 450
Profit $45 S80

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 45𝑥1 + 80𝑥2

Subject to
5𝑥1 + 20𝑥2 ≤ 400
10𝑥1 + 15𝑥2 ≤ 450
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Example (3)
A company two types of widgets: manual and
electric. Each requires in its manufacture the use of
these machines: A, B, and C the following table gives
data relating to manufacture of these widgets

151
 House
Manual Electric
Available
A 2 hr 1 hr 180
B 1 hr 2 hr 160
C 1hr 1 hr 100
Profit/Unit $4 $6

Formulate the linear programming problem.

Solution

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 4𝑥1 + 6𝑥2

Subject to
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 180
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ≤ 160
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 100
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Example (4)
A produce grower is purchasing fertilizer
containing three nutrients, A, B, and C. the minimum
needs are 10 units of A, 200 units of B, and 80 units

152
of C. there are two popular brand of fertilizer on the
market. Fast Grow, Costing 8$ a bag, contains 3 units
of A, 5 units of B, and 1 unit of C. Easy Grow,
costing $6 a bag, contains 2 units of each nutrients
required. Formulate the linear programming problem.

Solution

Fast Grow Easy Grow Units

Required
A 3 units 2 units 160
B 5 units 2 units 200
C 1 unit 2 units 80
Cost/Bag $8 $6

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 8𝑥1 + 6𝑥2

Subject to
3𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ≥ 180
5𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ≤ 200
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ≤ 80
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0
Example (5)
A manufacturer of lightweight mountain tents
makes a standard model and an expedition model.

153
Each standard tents requires labor-hour from the
cutting department and 3 labor-hours from the
assembly department. Each expedition tent requires 2
labor-hours from the cutting department and 4 labor-
hours from the assembly department. The maximum
labor-hours available per day in the cutting and
assembly department are 32 and 84, respectively. If the
company makes a profit of $50 on each standard tent
and $80 on each expedition tent. Formulate the linear
programming problem.

Solution

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 50𝑥1 + 80𝑥2

Subject to
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 ≤ 32
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 ≤ 84
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Example (6)
A person wants to decide the constituents of a
diet which will fulfill his daily requirements of
proteins, fats and carbohydrates at the minimum cost.

154
The choice is to be made from four different types of
foods. The yields per unit of these foods are given in
the table.

Food Yield/unit
Cost/Unit
Type Proteins Fats Carbohydrates
1 3 2 6 45
2 4 2 4 40
3 8 7 7 85
4 6 5 4 65
Min- Req 800 200 700

Solution

𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 45𝑥1 + 40𝑥2 + 85𝑥3 + 6𝑥4

Subject to
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 8𝑥3 + 6𝑥4 ≥ 800
2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 7𝑥3 + 5𝑥4 ≥ 200
6𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 7𝑥3 + 4𝑥4 ≥ 700
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ≥ 0

155
Geometric method for solving
linear programming problem

Linear programming is a mathematical

process that has been developed to help management
in decision making.

Theorem (1)

If the optimal value of the objective function

in a linear programming problem exists, then that
value must occur at one or more of the corner points
of the feasible region.

Theorem (2) Existence of optimal solutions

- If the feasible region for a linear programming

problem is bounded, then both the maximum
value and the minimum value of the objective
function always exist.
- If the feasible region is unbounded and the
coefficient of the objective function are positive,
then the minimum value of the objective function
exists but the maximum value does not.
156
 - If the feasible region is empty (that is, there are
no points that satisfy all the constraints), then
both the maximum value and the minimum value
of the objective function do not exist.

The geometric solution of linear

programming problems with two variables can be
performed by the following procedure

Step I: Graph the feasible region. Then, if an optimal

solution exists according to theorem 2, find the
coordinates of each corner point.

Step II: construct a corner point table listing the

value of the objective function at each corner point.

Step III: Determine the optimal solution from the

table in step 2.

Step IV: For an applied problem, interpret the

optimal solutions in terms of the original problem.

Example (7) solve the following linear

programming problem
Maximization Z = 5x1 + 3x2
157
 Subject to
2x1 + x2 ≤ 1000
x1 ≤ 400
x2 ≤ 700
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution

Step I: Graph the feasible region. Then, after

checking theorem 2 to determine whether an optimal
solution exists, find the coordinates of each corner
point. Science the feasible region is unbounded and
the coefficients of the objective function are positive,
this minimization problem has a solution.
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 1000
𝑥1 = 400
𝑥2 = 700
1200

1000

800

600
Feasible
400 Region

200

0 158
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Step II: evaluate the objective function at each
corner point, as shown in the following table:

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑍 = 5𝑥1 + 3𝑥2
0 0 0
0 700 𝑍 = 5 × 0 + 3 × 700 = 2100

𝑍 = 5 × 150 + 3 × 700
150 700
= 2850

𝑍 = 5 × 400 + 3 × 200
400 200
= 2600

400 0 𝑍 = 5 × 400 + 3 × 0 = 2000

Step III: Determine the optimal solution from step II.

The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 2850 at the corner point
𝐵(150, 700).
Example(8) Solve the following linear
programming problem
Maximization Z = 400x1 + 200x2
Subject to
18x1 + 3x2 ≤ 800
9x1 + 4x2 ≤ 600
x2 ≤ 150
x1 , x2 ≥ 0
159
 Solution
18𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 = 800
9𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 600
𝑥2 = 150
120

100

80

60

40

20 Feasible
Region
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑍 = 400𝑥1 + 200𝑥2

0 0 0

𝑍 = 400 × 0 + 200 × 150

0 150
= 30,000

𝑍 = 400 × 31.11 + 200 × 80

31.11 80
= 28,444.4

𝑍 = 400 × 44.44 + 200 × 0

44.44 0
= 17,777.8

160
Step III: Determine the optimal solution from step II.
The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 30,000 at the corner
point 𝐵 (0, 150).

Example (9) Solve the following linear programming

problem
Maximization Z = 50x1 + 80x2
Subject to
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 32
3x1 + 4x2 ≤ 84
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

35

30 Solution
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 32
25
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 = 84
20

15 Feasible
Region
10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25

161
 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑍 = 50𝑥1 + 80𝑥2

0 0 0

28 0 𝑍 = 50 × 28 + 80 × 0 = 1300

20 6 𝑍 = 50 × 20 + 80 × 6 = 1840

0 16 𝑍 = 50 × 0 + 80 × 16 = 1280

The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 1840 at the corner

point 𝐵 (20, 6).

Example (10) Solve the following linear

programming problem
Maximize 𝑍 = 7 𝑋1 + 5𝑋2
Subject to
4𝑋1 + 6 𝑋2 ≤ 120
6 𝑋1 + 3𝑋2 ≤ 90

𝑋1 , 𝑋2 ≥ 0

162
 Solution

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑍 = 7 𝑋1 + 5𝑋2

0 0 0

15 0 𝑍 = 7 × 15 + 5 × 0 = 105

7.5 15 𝑍 = 7 × 7.5 + 5 × 15 = 127.5

0 20 𝑍 = 7 × 0 + 5 × 20 = 100

The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 127.5 at the corner

point 𝐵 (7.5, 15).
Example (11)
Solve the following linear programming problem

Maximize Z = x1 + 6x2
Subject t x1 + 5x2 ≤ 5
2x1 + x2 ≤ 4
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution

x1 + 5x2 =5
x1 x2
0 1
5 0

163
 2x1 + x2 =4
x1 x2
0 4
2 0

0
0 1 2 3 4 5

Z is maximized at the point (0,1).

Example (12)
Maximize Z = 10x1 + 3x2
Subject to 4x1 + 4x2 ≤ 16
5x1 + x2 ≤ 15
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

Solution

4x1 + 4x2 = 16
x1 x2
0 4
4 0
5x1 + x2 = 15

164
 x1 x2
0 15
3 0

4.5

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20

11 5
Z is maximized at the point ( , ).
4 4

Example (13)
Solve the following linear programming
problem
Maximize Z = 30x1 + 25x2
Subject to 12x1 + 13x2 ≤ 156
10x1 + 15x2 ≤ 150
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

165
 16

14

12

10

0
0 5 10 15

Z is maximized at (13,0) = 390.

Some Special Cases

Unbounded solution and infeasible solution are
some special cases of liner programming problem.

Example (14)
Solve the following linear programming
problem by graphical method

Maximize 𝐙 = 𝟏𝟎𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟕𝐱 𝟐
Subject to 𝟐𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 ≥ 𝟖
𝟕𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟖𝐱 𝟐 ≥ 𝟓𝟔
𝐱𝟏 , 𝐱𝟐 ≥ 𝟎

166
 Solution

9
8
Unbounded
7 Solution
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8

Example (15)
Solve the following linear programming
problem by graphical method

Maximize 𝐙 = 𝟏𝟎𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟕𝐱 𝟐
Subject to 𝟐𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟒𝐱 𝟐 ≤ 𝟖
𝟕𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟖𝐱 𝟐 ≥ 𝟓𝟔
𝐱𝟏 , 𝐱𝟐 ≥ 𝟎

167
 Solution
9
8
Infeasible
7 Solution
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8

Simplex Method
The geometric method of solving linear
programming problems provides an overview of
linear programming. But the geometric method is
useful only for problems involving two decision
variables and relatively few problem constraints.
Simplex method is algebraic method for solving
linear programs involving many variables. Simplex
method is most useful when used with more decision
variables and more problem constraints.

168
 A linear constraint of the form ∑ aij xj ≤ bi
can be converted into equality by adding a new
nonnegative variable to the left-hand side of the
inequality. Such a variable is numerically equal to the
difference between the right and the left sides of the
inequality and is known as a slack variable.

A linear constraint of the form ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑥𝑗 ≥ 𝑏𝑖

can be converted into equality by subtracting a new
nonnegative variable from the left-hand side of the
inequality. Such a variable is numerically equal to the
difference between the left and right hand sides of the
inequality and is known as a surplus variable.

Given a system of linear equations

associated with a linear programming problem (such
a system will always have more variables than
equations). The variables are divided into two
(mutually exclusive) groups as follows: Basic
variables are selected arbitrary with the one
restriction that there are as many basic variables as
there are equations. The remaining variables are
169
called nonbasic variables. A solution found by setting
the nonbasic variables equal to 0 and solving for the
basic variables is called a basic solution. If a basic
solution has no negative values, it is a basic feasible
solution.

To perform the simplex method the

following procedure can be used as follows

Step I: Locate the most negative number in the

bottom row of the simplex tableau, excluding the last
column, and call the column in which this number
appears the pivot column. If more than one candidate
for most negative numbers exists, choose one.

Step II: From ratios by dividing each positive number

in the work (pivot) column, excluding the last row,
into the element in the same row and last column.
Designate the element in the work column that yields
the smallest ratio as the pivot element. If more than
one element yields the same smallest ratio, choose

170
one. If no element in the work column is positive, the
program has no solution.

Step III: Use elementary row operations to convert

the pivot element to 1 and then to reduce all other
elements in the work column to 0.

Step IV: Replace steps 1 through 4 until there are no

negative numbers in the last row, excluding the last
column.

Example (16) Solve using the simplex method

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑍 = 3𝑥1 + 𝑥2
Subject to
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 8
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 ≤ 12
𝑥1 ≥ 0, 𝑥2 ≥ 0

171
 Solution

Step I: write the standard maximization problem in

standard form; introduce slack variables to form the
initial tableau.

2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑠1 = 8
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑠2 = 12
𝑍 − 3𝑥1 − 𝑥2 + 0𝑠1 + 0𝑠2 = 0
Step II: are there any negative indicators in the
bottom row

Basic
𝐱𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b
Variables
𝐬𝟏 2 1 1 0 8

𝑠2 2 3 0 1 12

z -3 -1 0 0 0

Step III: select the pivot column (the most negative

bottom element).
Step IV: Divide each positive element in the pivot
column (except the last one). The pivot row is the
row corresponding element in the smallest quotient

172
obtained.
If there is a tie for the smallest quotient, choose either
row. If the pivot column above the dashed line has no
positive element, there is no solution.
Pivot column

Basic
Pivot 𝐱𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b Ratio
Variables
Row
𝐬𝟏 2 1 1 0 8 8/2=4

𝑠2 2 3 0 1 12 12/2=6

z -3 -1 0 0 0

Pivot element

- The pivot or pivot element is the element in the

intersection of the pivot column and pivot row.

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
2 1 1 0 8

𝑹𝟏 ÷ 𝟐 𝟐÷𝟐 𝟏÷𝟐 𝟏÷𝟐 𝟎÷𝟐 𝟖÷𝟐

= 1 1/2 1/2 0 4

173
 - Note: the pivot is the element in the intersection of
the pivot column and pivot row.
- The entering variable is at the top of the pivot
column, and the exiting variable is the left of the
pivot row.
- Perform a pivot operation: A pivot operation, or
pivoting, consists of performing row operations
as follows:
Step 1: Multiply the pivot row by the reciprocal of
the pivot element to transform the pivot element
into a 1. (If the pivot element is already a 1, omit
this step).
Step 2: Add multiples of the pivot row to other
rows in the tableau to transform all other nonzero
elements in the pivot column into 0's.

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b

𝑹𝟏 1 1/2 1/2 0 4

𝑹𝟐 2 3 0 1 12

𝟏 𝟏
−𝟐𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 −𝟐(𝟏) + 𝟐 −𝟐 ( ) + 𝟑 −𝟐 ( ) + 𝟎 −𝟐(𝟎) + 𝟏 −𝟐(𝟒) + 𝟏𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

= 0 2 -1 1 4

174
 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b

𝑹𝟏 1 1/2 1/2 0 4

𝑹𝟑 -3 -1 0 0 0

𝟏 𝟏
𝟑𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑 𝟑(𝟏) − 𝟑 𝟑( ) − 𝟏 𝟑( ) −𝟏 𝟑(𝟎) + 𝟎 𝟑(𝟒) + 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐

= 0 0.5 3/2 0 4/3

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b
Variables
𝑥1 1 0.5 0.5 0 4

𝑠2 0 2 -1 1 4

z 0 0.5 3/2 0 12

The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 12 at 𝑥1 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 =

0
Note: Performing a pivot operation has the following
effects:
- The (entering) nonbasic variable becomes a basic
variable.
- The (exiting) basic variable becomes a nonbasic
variable.
- The value of the objective function is increased,
or, in some cases, remains the same.

175
Example (17) For the following simplex problem
Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 b
Variables

𝑠1 1 1 1 0 0 20

𝑠2 2 1 0 1 0 35

𝑠3 -3 1 0 0 1 12

z -5 -4 0 0 0 0

a. Find the pivot element.

b. Identify the entering element and exiting variable.
c. Perform one pivot operation.
Solution
a. The pivot element = 2
b. The entering variable 𝒙𝟏 and the exiting
variable 𝑠2 .

176
 Pivot column

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 b Ratio
Variables

𝑠1 1 1 1 0 0 20 20/1=20

𝑠2 2 1 0 1 0 35 35/2=17.5

𝑠3 -3 1 0 0 1 12 -3≯ 0

z -5 -4 0 0 0 0

Pivot row Pivot element

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑 b

R2 2 1 0 1 0 35

𝑹𝟐 ÷ 𝟐 𝟐÷𝟐 𝟏÷𝟐 𝟎÷𝟐 𝟏÷𝟐 𝟎÷𝟐 𝟑𝟓 ÷ 𝟐

= 1 1/2 0 1/2 0 17.5

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑 b

𝑹𝟐 1 1/2 0 1/2 0 17.5

𝑹𝟏 1 1 1 0 0 20

−𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 -1+1 -0.5+1 0+1 -0.5+0 0 -17.5+20

= 0 0.5 1 -0.5 0 2.5

177
 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑 b

𝑹𝟐 1 1/2 0 1/2 0 17.5

𝑹𝟑 -3 1 0 0 1 12

𝟑𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝟑(𝟏) − 𝟑 𝟑(𝟎. 𝟓) + 𝟏 𝟑(𝟎) + 𝟎 𝟑(𝟎. 𝟓) + 𝟎 𝟑(𝟎) + 𝟏 𝟑(𝟏𝟕. 𝟓) + 𝟏𝟐

= 0 2.5 0 1.5 1 64.5

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑 b

𝑹𝟐 1 1/2 0 1/2 0 17.5

𝑹𝟒 -5 -4 0 0 0 0

𝟓𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟒 𝟓(𝟏) − 𝟓 𝟓(𝟎. 𝟓) − 𝟒 𝟓(𝟎) + 𝟎 𝟓(𝟎. 𝟓) + 𝟎 𝟓(𝟎) + 𝟎 𝟓(𝟏𝟕. 𝟓) + 𝟎

= 0 -1.5 0 2.5 0 87.5

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 b
Variables

𝑠1 0 0.5 1 -0.5 0 2.5

𝒙𝟏 1 0.5 0 0.5 0 17.5

𝑠3 0 2.5 0 3/2 1 64.5

z 0 -1.5 0 2.5 0 87.5

178
 Pivot column

Basic Ratio
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 b
Variables

2.5 2.5 ÷ 0.5

𝑠1 0 0.5 1 -0.5 0
=5

17.5 17.5 ÷ 0.5

𝒙𝟏 1 0.5 0 0.5 0
= 35

64.5 64.5 ÷ 0.5

𝑠3 0 2.5 0 3/2 1
= 124

z 0 -1.5 0 2.5 0 87.5

Pivot row Pivot element

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3 b
Variables

𝑥2 0 1 2 -1 0 5

𝒙𝟏 1 0 -1 1 0 15

𝑠3 1 0 -5 4 1 52

z 0 0 3 1 0 95

The optimal solution is 𝑍 = 95 at 𝑥1 = 15 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 = 5

179
 Example (18)

Use the simplex method to solve the following

problem
Maximize 𝑍 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
Subject to 𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 ≤ 5
2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 4
with: 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 nonnegative

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b Ratio
Variables
𝑠1 1 5 1 0 5 5/5=1
𝑠2 2 1 0 1 4 4/1=4
Z -1 -1 0 0 0

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
R1 1 5 1 0 5
𝑹𝟏 ÷ 𝟓 = 1/5 1 1/5 0 1

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝑹𝟏 1/5 1 1/5 0 1
𝑹𝟐 2 1 0 1 4
−𝑹𝟏 +
9/5 0 -1/5 1 3
𝑹𝟐 =

180
 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝑹𝟏 1/5 1 1/5 0 1
𝑹𝟑 -1 -1 0 0 0
𝑹𝟏 + - 1/
0 0 1
𝑹𝟐 = 4/5 5

Basic Ratio
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b
Variables
𝟏
𝑥2 1/5 1 1/5 0 1 𝟏÷ =𝟓
𝟓
𝟗
𝟑÷
𝑠2 9/5 0 -1/5 1 3 𝟓
= 𝟏. 𝟔
Z -4/5 0 1/5 0 1

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
R2 9/5 0 -1/5 1 3
𝟗
𝑹𝟐 ÷ = 1 0 -1/9 5/9 1.6
𝟓

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝑹𝟐 1 0 -1/9 5/9 1.6
𝑹𝟏 1/5 1 1/5 0 1
−𝟏/𝟓𝑹𝟏 + 0.2 - 0.6
0 1
𝑹𝟐 = 2 5/45 8

181
 Example (19)

Use the simplex method to solve the following

problem
Maximize 𝑍 = 2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2
Subject to 2𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 6
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 ≤ 9
with: 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 nonnegative

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b Ratio
Variables
𝑠1 2 1 1 0 6 6/1=6
𝑠2 2 3 0 1 9 9/3=3
Z -2 -4 0 0 0

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
R2 2 3 0 1 9
𝑹𝟐 ÷ 𝟑 = 2/3 1 0 1/3 3

𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝑹𝟐 2/3 1 0 1/3 3
𝑹𝟏 2 1 1 0 6
−𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏
4/3 0 1 -1/3 3
=

182
 𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝑹𝟐 2/3 1 0 1/3 3
𝑹𝟏 -2 -4 0 0 0
−𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏
2/3 0 0 4/3 12
=

Basic
𝒙𝟏 𝑥2 𝑠1 𝑠2 b
Variables
𝑠1 2/3 1 0 1/3 3
𝑥2 4/3 0 1 -1/3 3
Z 2/3 0 0 4/3 12

Z is maximized when 𝑥1 = 0 and 𝑥2 =3 and the

maximum value of Z is 12.

Example (20)

Use the simplex method to solve the following

problem
Maximize 𝐙 = 𝟓𝐱 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝟐
Subject to 𝟑𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟓𝐱 𝟐 ≤ 𝟏𝟓
𝟓𝐱 𝟏 + 𝟐𝐱 𝟐 ≤ 𝟏𝟎
with: 𝐱 𝟏 , 𝐱 𝟐 nonnegative

183
 Solution
𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝒔𝟏 3 5 1 0 15
𝒔𝟐 3 2 0 1 10
z -5 -1 0 0 0
𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝒔𝟏 0 19/5 1 -3/5 9
𝐱𝟏 1 2/5 0 1/5 2
Z 0 1 0 1 10

Example (21)

Use the simplex method to solve the following

problem
Maximize Z = 3 x1 + x2
Subject to x1 + 5x2 ≤ 5
2x1 + x2 ≤ 4
with: x1 , x2 nonnegative
Solution
𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝒔𝟏 1 5 1 0 5
𝒔𝟐 2 1 1 0 5
z -3 -1 0 0 0
𝐱𝟏 𝐱𝟐 𝒔𝟏 𝒔𝟐 b
𝒔𝟏 0 9/2 1 -/12 3
𝐱𝟏 0 9/2 1 -1/2 3
Z 0 0.5 0 3/2 6

184
Example (22)

Use the simplex method to solve the following

problem

Maximize 𝑍 = 10𝑥1 + 5𝑥2

Subject to 4𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ≤ 28
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 ≤ 24
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ≥ 0

Solution

𝑥1 𝑥2 S1 S2 b
S1 4 1 1 0 28
S2 2 3 0 1 24
Z -10 -5 0 0 0
𝑥1 𝑥2 S1 S2 b
𝑥1 1 0.25 0.25 0 7
S2 0 2.5 -0.5 1 10
Z 0 -2.5 2.5 0 70
𝑥1 𝑥2 S1 S2 b
𝑥1 1 0 0.3 -0.1 6
𝑥2 0 1 -0.2 0.4 4
Z 0 0 2 1 80

185
Exercises

Question (1)

A company produces two products A and B

which possess raw materials 600 quintals and 800
labour hours. It is known that 1 unit of product A
requires 20 quintals of raw materials and 25 man
hours and yields a profit of $100. Product B requires
35 quintals of raw materials, 15 man hours and yields
a profit of $ 120. Formulate the linear programming
problem.

Question (2)

A furniture maker has 6 units of wood and 28 h

of free time, in which he will make decorative
screens. Two models have sold well in the past, so he
will restrict himself to those two. He estimates that
model I requires 2 units of wood and 7 h of time,
while model II requires 1 unit of wood and 8 h of
time. The prices of the models are $120 and $80,
respectively. Formulate the linear programming
problem.
186
 Question (3)

Solve the following linear programming

problem

Maximize Z = 10x1 + 3x2

Subject to 4x1 + 4x2 ≤ 16
5x1 + x2 ≤ 15
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

Question (4)

Solve the following linear programming

problem

Maximize Z = 10x1 + 3x2

Subject to 4x1 + 4x2 ≤ 16
5x1 + x2 ≤ 15
x1 , x2 ≥ 0

187
References

Bittingar, M.L., Ellenbogen, D. J. (2008). Calculus and its

applications. Pearson.

Smith, R. T., Minton, R. B., (2007). Calculus early

transcendental functions. McGraw-Hill Companies.

Larson, R., and Hostetler, R. (2007). Precalculus. Houghton

Mifflin Company.

188