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Hydrology
Precipitation
Module 2
Precipitation
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Hydrologic WATER
Precipitation CYCLE
Water Cycle
Watersheds and Focus for

Land Resources this lecture
Evapo-Transpiration
Surface
Runoff
and
Rivers
Infiltration
Water Sources
Ground Rivers, Lakes,
• Water Supply Stormwater
Water Seas, Wetlands,
• Irrigation
Wastewater and Open Areas
• Hydropower
Hydrology in Engineering
1. Planning and design of engineering projects for the

control and use of water
2. Design and operation of hydraulic structures for the

protection against the ill effects of extreme conditions
3. Data collection (measuring the quantities of water in

transit in the cycle)
4. Frequency analysis (deal with the interrelations between

factors) of occurrence of extremes in the cycle
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Precipitation Classification
TYPE SIZE
d<0.5mm d>0.5mm
Liquid drizzle rain
liquid in atmosphere but freezed
Freezing freezing drizzle freezing rain upon landing on surface
graupel (soft) sleet (soft)

Frozen ice crystal (hard) hail (hard)
snow grain snow flake
liquid or solid: but evaporated or
Mixed virga or fall streak sublimed upon landing on surface
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Liquid Precipitation: Drizzle and Rain

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OdesSenwQgM
Frozen Precipitation
hail
sleet
snow flake
graupel
snow grain
ice crystal
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Mixed Precipitation: Virga
Virga is like a tangent line…

it can only get closer but never will be
Virga drops from the sky, but has no chance to touch the ground
as it evaporates before it lands the surface
A. Addition of Water Vapor – humidity increase

B. Coalescence
1. Warm Air Process – merging of water vapors
2. Bergeron Process – transfer of water vapor to ice
crystals
a. Nucleation – clouds
b. Contact – merging cloud droplet with
raindrop (aggregation)
c. Riming – detaching or peripherals
d. Accretion – continuous contact
e. Multiplication – division of large drops into
smaller units
C. Cooling of Air
1. Radiational – heat escape at night
2. Conductive – ground heats the air
https://personal.ems.psu.edu
3. Evaporative – warm air rises in convection

4. Adiabatic – air parcel expansion and depressuring
a. Frontal – warm air rises over cooler air
b. Convectional – warm air rises, expands, cools
c. Orographic – rising of warm moist air
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Cooling of Air – General Process
https://www.thoughtco.com
Adiabatic Processes
Rising parcel of air is large and therefore has a small surface to volume ratio. As air
parcel rises the pressure exerted on it by the surrounding air gets less and less.
Frontal Orographic Convectional
Foehn
https://www.geographyalltheway.com
Warm air rises Warm moist air Warm air rises,

over cooler air is forced to rise expands, and cools
Foehn – or rainshadow area (dry air)
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Types of Frontal System
Cold air mass Warm air mass No air mass is Cold front
pushes warm air glides over cold moving, Winds blow overtakes
mass to rise air mass in opposite directions warm front
Types of Frontal System

Cold Front Warm Front
Stationary Front Occluded Front
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Measurement of Precipitation
Rain Gauges – measures rainfall depths collected through time.
www.yoctopuce.com
Areal Precipitation
1. Arithmetic Average
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑅𝑖
𝑅ത =
𝑛
In this case, there are only 3 stations inside
the area of interest, therefore consider only 3
stations inside excluding the outside station.
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Areal Precipitation
2. Thiessen Polygon
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅ത = 𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖
There are 3 stations inside the area of
interest, but, must consider the station
outside since it formed a thiessen
polygon inside the area of interest.
Thiessen
Polygon
How to make Thiessen Polygons

1. Note that all dashed lines are perpendicular with thiessen black boundary lines
2. The area of the polygon around a station and its boundary is the Thiessen Area
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Thiessen
Polygon
Estimate the Island’s Areal Precipitation Scale:

using Thiessen Polygon 1 unit is 1 sq.km.
2
1
1=2000mm
3 2=2300mm
3=2100mm
4=2900mm
5=2400mm
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Areal Precipitation
3. Isohyetal Method
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑅𝑖
𝑅ത = 𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖
This is similar to thiessen, but the polygons
follow the area between two isohyets (similar to
contour line in surveying) and the value R used
is the average of the two contour values.
Estimation of Precipitation
At a point surrounded by rainfall stations
Distance between station and location Weight per station

1
D =x +y
2 2 2 Wi = 2
Di
For example… there are three (3)
stations surrounding a location n
without rainfall record W R i i
W1 R1 + W2 R2 + W3 R3
Rlocation = i =1
=
n
W1 + W2 + W3
W
i =1
i
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References
V.T. Chow, D.R. Maidment, and L.W. Mays (1988):

Applied Hydrology, McGraw-Hill Education New York
P.J.M. de Laat and H.H.G. Savenije (2002):

Hydrology – Lecture Notes, Delft, Netherlands
W. Viessman and G.L. Lewis (2003): Solutions

Manual Introduction to Hydrology – 5th Edition,
Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, New Jersey
Chong-yu Xu (2002): Textbook of Hydrologic

Models, Uppsala University, Sweden
V.T. Chow (1959): Open Channel Hydraulics, University

of Illinois, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York
USDA - NRCS (1986): Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds

TR-55, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service
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Module 2
Precipitation
Areal Precipitation: Example Determine the average areal annual

precipitation in the shaded area in the
figure if the following stations have
the annual precipitation:
A=2800mm
B=2500mm
C=1800mm Note: each square
D=2200mm cell has an area of
100sq.km.
E=2400mm
a. Arithmetic
b. Thiessen polygon
c. Estimated Rainfall at Point X
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A=2800mm Note: each square

Weighted Precipitation: Example B=2500mm cell has an area of
C=1800mm 100sq.km.
D=2200mm
E=2400mm
Arithmetic Mean = 2,340mm
Thiessen Mean = ?
Area km2
A = 500
B = 1050
C = 900
D = 2050
E = 1500
Area km2 2800 ∗ 500 + 2500 ∗ 1050 + 1800 ∗ 900 + 2200 ∗ 2050 + 2400 ∗ 1500
A = 500 𝐴𝑣𝑒 = 500 + 1050 + 900 + 2050 + 1500
B = 1050
C = 900 Thiessen Mean = 2,292.5 mm
D = 2050
Rainfall Distance to X Weight (1/D2)
E = 1500
A = 2800mm 20 0.00250
B = 2500mm 44.72 0.00050
C = 1800mm 60 0.00028
D = 2200mm 44.72 0.00050
E = 2400mm 20 0.00250
2800 ∗ 0.0025 + 2500 ∗ 0.0005 + 1800 ∗ 0.00028 + 2200 ∗ 0.0005 + 2400 ∗ 0.0025
𝑋=
0.0025 + 0.0005 + 0.00028 + 0.0005 + 0.0025
X = 2,524.8 mm
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Hydrology
Frequency Analysis
Module 3
Frequency Analysis
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Characteristics of Rainfall
Intensity (mm/hr)
Duration (min, hours, days)
Areal extent (m2, ha) area of distribution
Frequency: once in 25, 50 or 100 years
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Rainfall
= 50 year
return period
No Flood since Drainage is Adequate
ground surface inlet

manhole culvert
Qcapacity = 50 year return period
Vector Results Economic Losses

• Health Impacts • Trade losses
Rainfall • Accidents • Damaged Goods
= 100 year Building Damage Traffic Delays
return period • Cars and Machines • School Suspensions
• Household • Trucking Business
There is Flood since Drainage is Not Adequate

Flood = RT=100 – Qdrainage (T=50)
ground surface inlet

manhole culvert
Qcapacity = 50 year return period
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Statistical Hydrology
N = time period of interest

P = probability of occurrence (exceedance)
T = recurrence interval or return period
Return Period is the average

number of years during which a 1
storm of given magnitude T=
(maximum depth or intensity) may Pexceedance
be expected to occur once, i.e.,
may be equalled or exceeded.
Probability of Probability of
Non-exceedance Exceedance
Pnon −exceedance = 1 − Pexceedance Pexceedance = 1 − Pnon −exceedance
1   1 
Pnon −exceedance = 1−   Pexceedance = 1 − 1 −  
T    T 
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Exceedance and Non-exceedance
Pexceedance = 1 − Pnon −exceedance = 1 − 1 −  1 

 
  T 
Probability of Exceedance
(of T-year rainfall MAY OCCUR in a series of N years)
N
  1 
Pexceedance = 1 − 1 −  
  T 
Exceedance and Non-exceedance
  1 
Pexceedance = 1 − Pnon −exceedance = 1 − 1 −  
  T 
Probability of Non-Exceedance
(of T-year rainfall MAY NOT OCCUR in a series of N years)
N
  1 
Pnon −exceedance = 1 −  
  T 
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1.If the probability of exceedance is 0.5%,

Answer: 200 years
the return period is?
2.If the Return Period is 50 years, the

Answer: 98%
probability of non-exceedance is?
3.The probability that a 50 year return period

Answer: 55.43%
daily rainfall to occur within 40 years is?
Example: Probability of Rainfall
The probability of a 50 year return period to   1 

N
occur within the next 30 years is? Pexceedance = 1 − 1 −  

  T 
30
1
𝑃 =1− 1−
50
𝑃 = 0.4545 or 45.45 %
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Example: Probability of Rainfall
The probability of a 100 year return period N

not to occur within the next 60 years is?   1 
Pnon −exceedance = 1 −  
  T 
60
1
𝑃 = 1−
100
𝑃 = 0.5472 or 54.72 %
Frequency Analysis
• Once a distribution has been selected and its

parameters estimated, then how do we use it?
• Chow proposed using: xT = x + KT s

where fX(x)
xT = Estimated event magnitude

x
KT s
K T = Frequency factor
1
P( X  xT ) =
T = Return period T
x = Sample mean
s = Sample standard deviation xT x
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Probability Distributions
Normal family
• Normal, lognormal, lognormal-III
Generalized extreme value family

• EV1 (Gumbel), GEV, and EVIII (Weibull)
Exponential/Pearson type family

• Exponential, Pearson type III, Log-Pearson
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Frequency Analysis
• For each distribution, estimate of rainfall event follows this form
• In this course: examples are xT = x + KT s

(a) Normal, (b) Log-normal, (c) Gamma, and (d) Gumbel
xT = Estimated event magnitude fX(x)
K T = Frequency factor x
KT s
T = Return period 1
P( X  xT ) =
x = Sample mean
T
s = Sample standard deviation xT x
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Sample Data: Quezon City
Estimate 50 and 100 year annual daily rainfall… using several methods
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Plotting Procedure
1. Rank the data from largest (m = 1) to smallest (m = n)
2. Assign plotting position to the data

a. Plotting position – an estimate of exccedance probability
b. Use Pexceed = (m)/(n + 1) -> based on Weibull (most common)
c. Get return period T = 1/Pexceed
d. Determine reduced variate (yT)
e. Plot the data against (yT)   1 
T y = − ln − ln1 − 
  T 
Plotting Procedure – probability assignment
• Most plotting position formula are represented by:
𝑚−𝑏
𝑝 𝑋 ≥ 𝑥𝑚 =
𝑛 + 1 − 2𝑏
where b is a parameter
• b = 0.5 Hazenʼs formula
• b = 0.3 Chegodayevʼs formula
• b=0 Weibullʼs formula -> most common!!!
• b = 3/8 Blomʼs formula (normal)
• b = 1/3 Tukeyʼs formula
• b = 0.44 Gringortenʼs formula (extreme value type I)
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Example: NORMAL
• Get mean and standard deviation of annual max rainfall
• Choose return period (T) and get its

xT = x + KT s
probability of non-exceedance (Pnon-excd)
• Estimate frequency factor using =NORMSINV(Pnon-excd )

in excel or consult a table of normal distribution  1
Pnon −excd = 1 − 
 T
• Evaluate XT (rainfall magnitude with return period T)
Example: NORMAL
Frequency Factor KT
Probability of Non-exceedance
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Other Probability Distributions
1. LOG-NORMAL
2. Gamma
3. Gumbel
In this lecture, these will not be discussed in detail and will not be
included in any computational assessments.
Example: LOG-NORMAL
• Get mean and standard deviation

of logarithm of of annual max xT = x + KT s
rainfall log10(R)
• Choose return period (T) and get  1
(Pnon-excd) Pnon −excd = 1 − 
 T
• Estimate frequency factor using
=NORMSINV(Pnon-excd ) in excel or consult a
table of normal distribution
• Evaluate XT (rainfall magnitude with return
period T) then actual XT is…
converting back from logarithm actualX T = 10 X T
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Example: LOG-NORMAL
mean and stdev

 1
= 1 − 
Pnon −excd
 T xT = x + KT s actualX T = 10 X T
Example: GAMMA
• Get mean, standard deviation, and  1

skewness of annual max rainfall Pnon −excd = 1 − 
• Choose return period (T) and get its  T
probability of non-exceedance (Pnon-excd)
• Estimate frequency factor

using GAMMA K Table
• Evaluate XT (rainfall magnitude xT = x + KT s
with return period T)
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Example: GAMMA
Example: GAMMA
 1
 T
mean and stdev

xT = x + KT s
KT=f(T and skewness)
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Example: GUMBEL
• Get mean and standard deviation

of annual max rainfall
• Choose return period (T) and get its
probability of non-exceedance  1
(Pnon-excd) Pnon −excd = 1 − 
 T
6s
• Estimate alpha using:  =

• Estimate u using: u = x − 0.5772
• Estimate Reduced Variate (yT)   1 
yT = − ln − ln1 − 
• Estimate XT…   T 
xT = u + yT
Example: GUMBEL
mean and stdev

 1
 T
6s
=

u = x − 0.5772
  1 
yT = − ln − ln1 − 
  T 
xT = u + yT
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Example
ANNUAL Maximum Daily Rainfall (mm)
Reduced Variate (unitless)
Another Example
1. Use the standard plotting procedure to generate 2. Estimate 30, 50, 100, and 200 year annual daily
its Reduced Variate vs. Actual Recorded Rainfall rainfall… using several methods
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Use these TABLES: fill-out !!!

Show sample calculation for
T=100 years ONLY!!!
References






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Module 3
Frequency Analysis
Example 1: NORMAL
In a data set of annual maximum rainfall with average of 250mm and standard
deviation of 40mm, the probable rainfall with 60 year return period is?
1
xT = x + KT s 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑣 1 −
60
𝑋𝑇 = 250 + 𝐾𝑇 40 𝐾𝑇 = 2.128
or the value
will be given…
𝑋𝑇 = 250 + 2.128 40
𝑋𝑇 = 335𝑚𝑚
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Example 2: NORMAL
The data set of annual maximum rainfall in mm:

399 288 275 144 147 176 388 367 278 391
287 178 315 334 332 324 233 142 269 258
the probable rainfall with 70 year return period is?
xT = x + KT s 𝑥ҧ = 276.25 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 = 83.86

1
𝑋𝑇 = 276.25 + 𝐾𝑇 83.86 𝐾𝑇 = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑣 1 −
70
𝑋𝑇 = 276.25 + 2.1893 83.86 𝐾𝑇 = 2.1893
𝑋𝑇 = 459.84𝑚𝑚
Another Example
Estimate 30, 50, 100, and 200 year annual daily

rainfall… using several methods
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Another Example
Use these TABLES: fill-out !!!
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Hydrology
Evapotranspiration
Module 4
Evapotranspiration
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Hydrologic WATER
Precipitation CYCLE
Water Cycle
Watersheds and Focus for

Land Resources this lecture
Evapo-Transpiration
Surface
Runoff
and
Rivers
Infiltration
Water Sources
Ground Rivers, Lakes,
• Water Supply Stormwater
Water Seas, Wetlands,
• Irrigation
Wastewater and Open Areas
• Hydropower
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Evapotranspiration
The process by which precipitation reaching

the earth’s surface is returned to the
atmosphere as water vapor.
1. Evaporation from wet surfaces
2. Transpiration through plants

U.S. Geological Survey
Measurement of Evapotranspiration
1. pan evapotranspiration
2. lysimeters
3. catchment water balance

University of Utah
4. eddy covariance technique
5. empirical equations (estimation methods)
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Amount of Evapotranspiration
Pan Evaporation:
measured evaporation
EP
ETO = k P (EP )
Potential Evapotranspiration: amount of water
that could be evaporated and transpired if there were
sufficient water available
Actual Evapotranspiration: heating of air masses

followed by condensation
ETC = kC (ETO )
where:
kP = pan coefficient
kC = crop coefficient
1. Pan Evapotranspiration
Pan Coefficient: kP
kp depends on:
• type of pan used
• pan environment: if
the pan is placed in a
fallow or cropped area
• climate: humidity and
wind speed Class A Pan
Note: the other type of pan is Colorado Sunken Pan…
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Class A Pan
• circular, 120.7 cm in diameter and 25 cm • water should be regularly
deep (made of galvanized iron gauge 22) renewed, at least weekly, to
eliminate extreme turbidity.
• mounted on a wooden open frame
platform, 15 cm above ground level • should be protected by
fences to keep animals
• soil is built within 5 cm of the bottom of from drinking.
the pan (the pan must be level)
• filled with water to 5 cm below the rim,

and the water level should not be allowed
to drop more than 7.5 cm below the rim.
Pan Coefficient
The table for kp values using Class A Pan
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Crop Coefficient (kc)
The figure showing kc values across seasonal variation
Sample Problem
In a Class A evaporation pan installed in Baler, Aurora…

the following has been observed.
• End water depth in pan on July 1 = 150 mm
• End water depth in pan on July 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours)
• Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm
Determine the pan evaporation.
Also determine the potential evapotranspiration if the Pan is situated in a dry

fallow area with relative humidity of 30% and recorded wind speed at 4 m/s. The pan
approximately has 100m windward side distance.
Determine the approximate actual evapotranspiration if the time considered is at

initial onset of season for cropping.
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Sample Problem
In a Class A evaporation pan installed in Baler, Aurora…

the following has been observed.
• End water depth in pan on July 1 = 150 mm
• End water depth in pan on July 2 = 144 mm (after 24 hours)
• Rainfall (during 24 hours) = 0 mm
Pan evaporation: EP = 150 – 144 = 6 mm/day
Potential evapotranspiration: from the table, kP = 0.50

ETO = kPEP = 0.50 (6 mm/day) = 3 mm/day
Actual evapotranspiration
From the figure, kC = 0.35
ETC = kCETO = 0.35 (3 mm/day) = 1.05 mm/day
2. Lysimeter
Lysimeter - measures the amount of

evapotranspiration released by plants
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3. Catchment Water Balance
ET = P − RO − GW − S
P: precipitation or rainfall
RO: surface runoff (river discharges)
GW: groundwater
S: change in soil moisture storage
Water Balance will be discussed soon!!!
4. Eddy Covariance
directly estimates the transfer of water vapor
(evapotranspiration) from the land (or canopy)
surface to the atmosphere
Eddy Station
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5. Empirical Equations
❑ Climatological Methods
A. Air Temperature-Based
B. Solar Radiation-Based
C. Penman Combination
D. Penman-Monteith
❑ Micrometeorological Methods
E. Mass-Transfer-Based
F. Aerodynamic
G. Bowen Ratio-Energy Balance
Air Temperature Methods
Common Form Examples

1. Thornthwaite (1948)
ET = cT a 2. Linacre (1977)
ET = c1d1T (c2 − c3 h ) 3. Blaney-Criddle (1950)
4. Hargreaves (1985)
ET = potential 5. Kharrufa (1985)
evapotranspiration 6. Hamon (1961)
T = air temperature 7. Remanenko (1961)
h = humidity term
c1, c2, c3 = constants
d = day-length
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A1 Thornthwaite
Step 1: The annual value of the heat index I is

calculated by summing monthly indices over a 12-month
period. The monthly indices are obtained from the
equation
I = annual heat index

i = monthly heat index for the month j
note: i = 0 if mean monthly temperature is 0°C or less
Ta = mean monthly air temperature (degree Celsius)
j = number of months (1 - 12)
A1 Thornthwaite
Step 2: calculates unadjusted monthly

values of potential evapotranspiration,
ET' (in mm), based on a standard
month of 30 days, 12 hr of sunlight/day
in which C = 16 (a constant) and a = 67.5 x 10 -8I3 – 77.1 x 10-6I2 + 0.0179 I + 0.492
The value of the exponent a in the preceding equation varies from zero to 4.25
(e.g. Jain and Sinai, 1985)
Annual heat index varies from 0 to 160, and ET' = 0 for temperature below 0 0 Celsius.
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A1 Thornthwaite
Step 3: The unadjusted monthly evapotranspiration values ET' are

adjusted depending on the number of days N in a month (1≤N≤31)
and the duration of average monthly or daily daylight d (in hr) which
is a function of season and latitude.
ET = adjusted monthly potential evapotranspiration (mm)

d = duration of average monthly daylight (hr)
N = number of days in a given month, 1 - 31 (days)
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IWMI Atlas
IWMI Atlas
Estimate the monthly evapotranspiration rate in Beijing.
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A2 Linacre
ET = Linacre potential evapotranspiration in mm/day

Tm = T + 0.006h
T = daily temperature
h = the elevation (meters)
A = latitude (degrees)
Ta = mean monthly temperature
Td = mean dew-point temperature
Ta , Tm , and Td in °C
A3 Blainey-Criddle
ET = evapotranspiration (mm) for the period in which p is expressed

Ta = mean temperature in °C
p = percentage of total daytime hours for the used period
(daily or monthly) out of total daytime hours of the year (365×12)
k = monthly consumptive use coefficient, depending on vegetation type,
location and season (according to Blaney-Criddle, for the growing season
(May to October) k varies from 0.5 for orange tree to 1.2 for dense natural
vegetation.
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A4 Kharrufa
ET = evapotranspiration (mm) for the period in which p is expressed
p = percentage of total daytime hours for the used period (daily or

monthly) out of total daytime hours of the year (365×12)
A5 Hargreaves
ET = evapotranspiration (mm)
For a given latitude and day… RA is obtained from tables or may be

calculated using a set of equations (Jensen et al., 1990)
TD = difference between mean monthly maximum and minimum

temperatures (°C)
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A6 Hamon
ET = evapotranspiration (inch/day)
D = hours of daylight for a given day in units of 12 hr

Pt = saturated water vapor density term
Ta = mean daily air temperature in °C
A7 Remanenko
ET = evapotranspiration
Ta = mean air temperature in °C

Td = mean dew-point temperature
Rh = mean monthly relative humidity
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Solar Radiation Methods

ET = Cr (wRS ) Examples
Common Forms
ET = Cr (wRn ) 1. Turc (1961)
2. Makkink (1957)
3. Jensen and Haise (1963)
4. Hargreaves (1975)
λ = latent heat of vaporisation 5. Doorenbos and Pruitt (1977)
(calories per gram) 6. McGuinness and Bordne (1972)
ET = potential evapotranspiration
(in mm per day)
7. Abtew (1996)
Rs = total solar radiation 8. Priestley and Taylor (1972)
(in calories per cm2 per day)
Rn = net radiation (in calories per cm2 per day)
w = temp and altitude-dependent weighting factor
Cr = coefficient depending on the relative humidity and wind speed
B1 Turc
ET = evapotranspiration (mm/day for 10-day periods)
T = air temperature in ºC
Rs = total solar radiation in cal/cm2/day
RH = relative humidity (%)
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B2 Makkink

 = slope of saturation vapor pressure curve (in mb/ºC)
γ = psychromatic constant (mb/ºC)
EL = elevation (in meters) cp varies slightly with atmospheric pressure

λ = latent heat (in calories per gram) and humidity (0.2397 to 0.260) or an
average value of 0.242 is reasonable…
P = atmospheric pressure in (millibar)
cp = specific heat of air (cal/g/ºC)
B3 Jensen and Haise
ET = potential evapotranspiration (in mm per day)

λ = latent heat of vaporization (calories per gram)
Rs = total solar radiation (in calories per cm2 per day)
CT = 0.025 (temperature constant)
Tx = -3 when T is in degree Celsius
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B4 Hargreaves
ET = potential evapotranspiration (in mm per day)

λ = latent heat of vaporization (calories per gram)
Rs = total solar radiation (in calories per cm2 per day)
T = temperature in °C
B5 Doorenbos and Pruitt
a = adjustment factor that varies with mean The adjustment factor a was
relative humidity and daytime wind speed presented in graphic and tabular
forms, and can also be calculated from
RH = mean relative humidity in percentage

Ud = mean daytime wind speed in m/s
Rs = solar radiation in mm/day

b = -0.3 mm/day
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B6 McGuinness & Bordne
ET = evapotranspiration (cm/day) for a monthly period
T = temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
RS = total solar radiation (cal/cm2/day)
B7 Abtew
ET is in mm/day
Rs = total solar radiation (MJm-2d-1)

λ = latent heat of vaporization (MJ kg-1)
K = dimensionless coefficient
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B8 Priestly and Taylor

 = slope of saturation vapor pressure curve (in mb/ºC)
γ = psychromatic constant (mb/ºC)
λ = latent heat (in calories per gram)
Rn = net radiation (cal cm-2d-1)
C Penman Combination
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C Penman Combination
D FAO Penman-Monteith
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E Mass-Transfer Methods
ET0 = f (u )es − ea 
ET0 = free water-surface evaporation
es = saturation vapor pressure at the
temperature of the water surface
ea = actual vapor pressure in the air
f(u) = wind factor (based on elevation
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The wind speed (monthly mean) u is measured in miles per hour and vapor pressure e, in
inches of Hg. The subscripts attached to u refer to height in meters at which the measurements
are taken; no subscript refers to measurements near the ground or water surface.
The wind speed (monthly mean) u is measured in miles per hour and
vapor pressure e, in inches of Hg. The subscripts attached to u refer to
height in meters at which the measurements are taken; no subscript
refers to measurements near the ground or water surface.
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The wind speed (monthly mean) u is measured in miles per hour and vapor pressure e, in inches
of Hg. The subscripts attached to u refer to height in meters at which the measurements are
taken; no subscript refers to measurements near the ground or water surface.
F Aerodynamic Methods
ρa = density of moist air

k = von Karman’s constant
q = specific humidity
U = logarithmic wind profile
z = elevation from ground surface
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References






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Module 4
Evapotranspiration
Example
Estimate the monthly evapo-transpiration based on
IWMI Records obtained from Tashkent, Uzbekistan
index i potential ET adjusted ET
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A1 Thornthwaite
Step 1: The annual value of the heat index I is
calculated by summing monthly indices over a 12-month
period. The monthly indices are obtained from the
equation
I = annual heat index

i = monthly heat index for the month j
note: i = 0 if mean monthly temperature is 0°C or less
Ta = mean monthly air temperature (degree Celsius)
j = number of months (1 - 12)
A1 Thornthwaite
Step 2: calculates unadjusted monthly
values of potential evapotranspiration,
ET' (in mm), based on a standard
month of 30 days, 12 hr of sunlight/day
in which C = 16 (a constant)
a = 67.5 x 10-8I3 – 77.1 x 10-6I2 + 0.0179 I + 0.492
The value of the exponent a in the preceding equation

varies from zero to 4.25 (e.g. Jain and Sinai, 1985)
Annual heat index varies from 0 to 160, and ET' = 0 for

temperature below 00 Celsius.
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A1 Thornthwaite
Step 3: The unadjusted monthly evapotranspiration values ET' are
adjusted depending on the number of days N in a month (1≤N≤31)
and the duration of average monthly or daily daylight d (in hr) which
is a function of season and latitude.
ET = adjusted monthly potential evapotranspiration (mm)

d = duration of average monthly daylight (hr)
N = number of days in a given month, 1 - 31 (days)
Example For July as example:

IWMI Records obtained from Tashkent, Uzbekistan 𝑑 = 83% 𝑥 24 ℎ𝑟
𝑑 = 19.92 ℎ𝑟
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1.51
Estimate the monthly evapo-transpiration based on 𝑇𝑎
IWMI Records obtained from Tashkent, Uzbekistan 𝑖=
5
1.51
15
𝑖= = 5.25
5
Example I = sum of index

I = 111.12
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𝑎
Estimate the monthly evapo-transpiration based on 10𝑇𝑎
IWMI Records obtained from Tashkent, Uzbekistan 𝐸𝑇′ = 𝐶
𝐼
2.4551
10 ∗ 15
𝐸𝑇′ = 16
if I = 111.12 111.12
then a = 2.4551 ET’ = 33.42 mm/month
Estimate the monthly evapo-transpiration based on 𝑑 𝑁

𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑇′
12 30
19.92 31
𝐸𝑇 = 33.42
12 30
ET = 57.33 mm/month
Then, repeat the process for all months…!!!
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Example
Estimated evapo-transpiration for Tashkent, Uzbekistan
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Hydrology
Introduction for Hydrology
Module 1 (Part 1)
Geophysics and Meteorology
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Reason why we have HYDROLOGY…?
The reason is …?
The SUN
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Solar Radiation
Meteorology Today: An Introduction to Weather, Climate, and the Environment (Donald Ahrens, 2004)
https://energiasalternativasiutc.blogspot.com/
Solar Radiation
The sun is
the driver of
hydrology
on Earth
solar constant = 1,374 W/m2
rate of solar radiation reaching the

upper limits of earth atmosphere on a
surface normal to the incident radiation
at earth’s mean distance from the sun
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Solar Energy Budget
Solar Energy Budget
https://ag.tennessee.edu/solar/Pages
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Albedo
sci.uidaho.edu
fraction of the incoming

solar radiation that is
reflected from a surface
Sun Protection Factor or SPF
It is a measure of how well a sunscreen will protect skin

from UVB rays, the kind of radiation that causes sunburn,
damages skin, and can contribute to skin cancer.
If your skin would normally burn after 10 minutes in the

sun, applying an SPF 15 sunscreen would allow you to
stay in the sun without burning for approximately 150
minutes (a factor of 15 times longer).
This is a rough estimate that depends SPF is actually a measure of protection from
on skin type, intensity of sunlight and amount of UVB exposure and it is not meant
amount of sunscreen used. to help you determine duration of exposure.
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Sun Protection Factor or SPF
https://www.badgerbalm.com/s-30-what-is-spf-sunscreen-sun-protection-factor.aspx
Then for SPF 50 - blocks 98% of UVB rays
Example
An athlete with an exposed body area of 0.25 m2 just

applied a sunblock with SPF 30. If the solar constant is
1,374 W/m2 and 50% of that reaches the athlete’s skin
based on common solar energy budget:
How much solar energy in Watt-hour has been absorbed

by the body if the exposure to sun lasted for 5 hours?

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Example
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐴 = 1374𝑊/𝑚2 0.25𝑚2 1 − 0.93 5ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 120.225 𝑊ℎ𝑟

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑆𝑐 𝐴 = 1374𝑊/𝑚2 0.25𝑚 2 1 − 0.93 5ℎ𝑟𝑠 +
1374𝑊/𝑚2 0.25𝑚2 1 2ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 807.225 𝑊ℎ𝑟
Because after 5 hours the sunblock no longer blocks the radiation,
that’s why the last 2 hours the fraction is 1 as used.
Sun and Earth Geometry Animation: Samantha Lee/Business Insider
Distance between Sun and Earth affects the solar

radiation received at any location and time.
APHELION: sun is farthest from

the earth (occurs about July 4)
about 152 million km.
PERIHELION: sun is nearest

from the earth (occurs about
January 3) about 147 million km.
https://looking-at-the-universe.tumblr.com
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Sun and Earth Geometry
https://www.businessinsider.com
Equinox: sun passes directly Solstice: when the sun’s

over the equator or when the apparent path is displaced
sun’s apparent path and plane farthest north or south
of the earth’s equator coincide from the earth’s equator
Inclined Earth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit_of_the_Moon
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Seasons
seasons occur due to

tilting of earth’s axis.
summer in northern
hemisphere means winter
in southern hemisphere
and vice versa
https://mrstatesolarsystem.weebly.com/our-perspective-from-earth.html
Global Circulation: WITHOUT the Earth’s rotation
From equator, air

moves upward then
towards the pole
(upper atmosphere).
From the poles, air

moves downward then
towards the equator
(lower atmosphere).
https://www.theweatherclub.org.uk
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Global Circulation: WITH the Earth’s rotation
1. latitudinal difference in heating

of the earth’s surface
2. inclination of the earth’s axis of

rotation
3. mechanics of the fluid flow
4. Coriolis effect: rotation of earth
https://www.theweatherclub.org.uk
Three-Cell Global Circulation
The overall effect of the solar

energy received by the Earth is the
circulation of air on a global scale.
https://content.meteoblue.com/es/meteoscool/el-clima-a-gran-escala-lsw/atmospheric-circulation
10
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Local Circulation
General Movement:
from High pressure to
Low pressure area
Local Circulation
General Movement:
from warmer place
to colder place
11
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Land and Sea Breeze
Land breeze is a wind blowing

from land out towards a body of water.
Sea breeze is a wind blowing from the

water onto the land.
Land breezes and sea breezes arise

because of differential heating
between land and water surfaces.
Geography and Wind
• Rainshadow Effect
• Orographic Nature
https://blog.weatherops.com/do-you-know-how-upslope-flow-affects-the-weather
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Geography and Wind
Weather and Climate
Climate: Long-term
Weather: average (over decades) of
daily condition of weather conditions: mean
the atmosphere. annual temperature, mean
total precipitation, etc.
https://www.cbc.ca/kidscbc2/the-feed/whats-the-difference-between-weather-and-climate
13
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Pressure
Barometer for atmospheric pressure
https://www.quora.com/What-causes-helium-weather-balloons-to-expand-as-they-rise
https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/
Temperature
Altitude in kilometers
Temperature
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Temperature
http://blogdesocialesabraham.blogspot.com/2017/01/the-atmosphere-and-its-changes.html
Humidity
amount of water vapor found in the air
https://www.oceannews.com/featured-stories/
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Relative Humidity amount (in %) of water vapor that is present in the air
at a given time compared to the maximum percentage
of water vapor the air is capable of holding
Wind
Anemometer:
measures wind speed
https://www.businessinsider.com/cool-earth-wind-map-2014-2
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Philippine Climate
Climate Controls in the Philippines
• Topography and location

• Trade winds
• Fronts
• Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
• Monsoon winds
• Tropical cyclones
• Easterly waves
Coronas, Jose (1920). The Climate and

Weather of the Philippines, 1903 – 1918.
Manila Observatory: Bureau of Philippines.
Climate
The Corona Classification
Type 1
Type 2 TYPE 1. Two pronounced wet and dry seasons: wet
Type 3 during the months of June to November and dry from
Type 4 December to May.
TYPE 2. No dry season with a very pronounced

maximum rain period in December, January and
February.
TYPE 3. No pronounced maximum rain period and

short dry season lasting from one to three months.
TYPE 4. Uniformly distributed rainfall.
17
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Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
https://expeditionusf.wordpress.com/
Tropical Cyclones
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Typhoon Structure
Monsoons Monsoon: seasonal

reversing wind with
corresponding changes in
precipitation and
atmospheric circulation
In the Philippines
Northeast Monsoon
(Amihan: Oct to Mar)
Southwest Monsoon
(Habagat: May to Sept)
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Easterly Waves
Elongated area of
relatively low
pressure region
Region of isobars
(equal pressure lines)
that seems pressed
or gripped.
References


C.D. Ahrens and R. Henson (2009): Meteorology Today:

An Introduction to Weather, Climate and the Environment
– 9th Edition, Brooks/Cole Publishing, London



20
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Hydrology
Introduction for Hydrology
Module 1 (Part 2)
Typhoons and Rainfall
1
19/06/2020
Major Wind Systems
… together with Earth Internal Kinetics
Wind Forms
Scale
• global
• synoptic
• mesoscale
• microscale
Life Span
• Seconds
• Minutes
• Hours
• Days
• Weeks
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Thunderstorm and Tornadoes
Monsoon Wind
3
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Natural Earth Kinetics
Why is global circulation is forced continuously…?
Coriolis
Force
due to
rotation
Coriolis Force
𝑓 = 2Ω𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
Ω = earth rotation (rad/s)
Φ = latitude (deg)
4
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Extreme Winds
Most extreme wind

speed are due to
tropical storms.
1. Cyclone
2. Typhoon
3. Hurricane
Cyclogenesis
Where do they come from?
… the cyclogenesis takes place where?
5
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Cyclogenesis
Cyclogenesis
… all from near equator
6
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Wind Shear Effect on Tropical Cyclones
Wind Shear
7
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Extra Tropical Cyclones
Extra Tropical Cyclone: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d29XoUML6Do
Tropical Cyclone: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2UDbDXXYGE
Ekman Spiral of Wind
https://youtu.be/KBKmKI3tl4Q
Ekman Spiral:
defines the wind
speed and direction
based on elevation
a. Wind Profile
b. Direction
c. Average Flow
8
19/06/2020
barometer
Typhoon and Pressure
Counter Clockwise
Typhoon Movement Parameters
1. Frequency (n)
2. Translation speed (c) θ2 dmin
3. Translation direction (θ)

θ1
4. Minimum distance
from the site of interest
(dmin)
9
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Typhoon Strength Parameters
1. Central Pressure (Pc) 2. Radius of Maximum Wind Speed (Rm)

Wind
Speed
Rm (m/s)
Typhoon Structure
N
Direction of Motion
θ
Rm
β E (θ = 0)
.Point of Interest
10
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Typhoon Structure
Ishihara wind field model:

2 1/2
1 −𝑐 sin 𝜃 −𝑓𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑃
𝑢𝐺 = −𝑐 sin 𝜃 −𝑓𝑟 + +
2 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑟
uG = gradient wind speed c = translation speed

 = relative point location r = radius of typhoon
 = typhoon direction P = center pressure
 = air density f = coriolis factor
Typhoon Structure
Pressure Profile 𝑅
− 𝑚
𝑃 = 𝑃𝐶 + Δ𝑃 𝑒 𝑟
Pressure Gradient
𝜕𝑃 𝑅𝑚 𝑅
− 𝑚
= 𝑃∞ − 𝑃𝐶 2 𝑒 𝑟
𝜕𝑟 𝑟
11
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Typhoon Structure Typhoon MAWAR

Latitude: 23.7 degrees
Central Pressure: 935 hPa
R15 or R-30 knots: 296 km
---------------------------------------
Radius of Maximum Radius of Cyclone:
Assumed PB: 990 hPa Wind: 54 km 489 km
Iterated R0: 40 km
Computed R-15: 360 km

JMA R-15: 296 km
M.B.Solomon (2011): A Study of Averaging Time and Tropical Cyclone Parameter for the Prediction of Extreme Wind Speed, University of Tokyo - Master Thesis.
Surface and Gradient Winds
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐺 𝑟 =
𝑉𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
Gradient Wind Speed
into
Surface Wind Speed
Georgiou, Davenport,
and Vickery (1983) Assuming r = Rm
12
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Averaging Time
Gust Factor Table
V = Vs (1/Fat) (Gf ) Vs
Averaging Time
Yamaguchi, Solomon, and Ishihara (2012)
Update in Wind Speed Map for Philippines
1. Return Period
is not
indicated
2. Contour
interval of
wind speed
(zoning) is
large
3. Averaging
time is not
mentioned
13
19/06/2020
Caution: use the Solomon Map with Three

Update in Wind Speed Map for Philippines Hour (3-hr) average then translated to
desired averaging time or gust period
NSCP 2010 NSCP 2015
Solomon et al., 2015

M.B. Solomon, R.A.D. Doloiras, K.C.B. Loyola, E.D. Matias, T.J.T. Chong, and D.E.C. Umali:
Estimation of Extreme Wind Speed based on Typhoon Simulation for the Philippines.
17th ASEP International Convention, Manila, Philippines, 2015
Example
Determine using the typhoon wind model the gradient and surface
wind speed at point in Cebu City when the typhoon landed at Samar?
2 1/2
1 −𝑐 sin 𝜃 −𝑓𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑃
𝑢𝐺 = −𝑐 sin 𝜃 −𝑓𝑟 + +
2 2 𝜌 𝜕𝑟
Cebu City: 10.250 N, 123.750 E
Guiuan, Eastern Samar: 110 N, 125.750 E
1 degree = 111 kms.
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66666 1330 033 0036 1330 0 6 HAIYAN 20131218

13110306 002 2 058 1572 1004 000
Example 13110312 002 2 061 1555 1008

13110318 002 2 061 1533 1004
000
000
13110400 002 3 061 1522 1002 035 00000 0000 90060 0060
13110406 002 3 062 1504 1000 035 00000 0000 90060 0060
13110412 002 3 063 1488 998 040 00000 0000 90100 0100
13110418 002 3 065 1472 992 045 00000 0000 90120 0120
13110500 002 4 065 1459 985 055 90030 0030 90120 0120
13110506 002 4 065 1446 980 060 90040 0040 90120 0120
13110512 002 5 069 1429 975 065 90050 0050 90150 0150
13110518 002 5 071 1413 965 075 90060 0060 90150 0150
13110600 002 5 073 1397 950 085 90060 0060 10180 0150
13110606 002 5 076 1380 930 095 90060 0060 10180 0150
13110612 002 5 079 1362 920 105 90070 0070 10200 0150
13110618 002 5 082 1344 905 115 90070 0070 10200 0150
13110700 002 5 087 1328 905 115 90070 0070 10200 0150
13110706 002 5 093 1311 905 115 90070 0070 10230 0150
13110712 002 5 102 1291 895 125 90080 0080 80250 0180
13110718 002 5 106 1269 895 125 90080 0080 80250 0180
13110800 002 5 110 1248 910 110 90070 0070 80250 0180
13110806 002 5 114 1225 940 090 90070 0070 80270 0180
13110812 002 5 119 1205 940 090 90070 0070 10270 0180
13110818 002 5 122 1180 940 090 90080 0080 10270 0180
13110900 002 5 123 1166 940 090 90080 0080 10240 0180
13110906 002 5 135 1148 940 090 90080 0080 10240 0180
13110912 002 5 144 1131 945 085 90080 0080 10240 0180
13110918 002 5 154 1114 950 080 90080 0080 10240 0180
13111000 002 5 165 1103 955 075 90080 0080 10240 0180
13111006 002 5 179 1090 960 070 90080 0080 10240 0180
13111012 002 5 194 1080 965 065 90080 0080 10200 0150
13111018 002 4 204 1075 975 060 90050 0050 90150 0150
13111100 002 3 215 1071 990 040 00000 0000 90120 0120
13111106 002 2 224 1077 1004 000
References


C.D. Ahrens and R. Henson (2009): Meteorology Today:

An Introduction to Weather, Climate and the Environment
– 9th Edition, Brooks/Cole Publishing, London



15

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19/06/2020

Watersheds and Focus for

1. Planning and design of engineering projects for the

2. Design and operation of hydraulic structures for the

3. Data collection (measuring the quantities of water in

4. Frequency analysis (deal with the interrelations between

graupel (soft) sleet (soft)

Liquid Precipitation: Drizzle and Rain

Mixed Precipitation: Virga

Virga is like a tangent line…

A. Addition of Water Vapor – humidity increase

3. Evaporative – warm air rises in convection

Cooling of Air – General Process

Frontal Orographic Convectional

Warm air rises Warm moist air Warm air rises,

Foehn – or rainshadow area (dry air)

Types of Frontal System

Types of Frontal System

Stationary Front Occluded Front

How to make Thiessen Polygons

Estimate the Island’s Areal Precipitation Scale:

At a point surrounded by rainfall stations

Distance between station and location Weight per station

V.T. Chow, D.R. Maidment, and L.W. Mays (1988):

P.J.M. de Laat and H.H.G. Savenije (2002):

W. Viessman and G.L. Lewis (2003): Solutions

Chong-yu Xu (2002): Textbook of Hydrologic

V.T. Chow (1959): Open Channel Hydraulics, University

USDA - NRCS (1986): Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds

Areal Precipitation: Example Determine the average areal annual

A=2800mm Note: each square

Duration (min, hours, days)

Areal extent (m2, ha) area of distribution

Frequency: once in 25, 50 or 100 years

No Flood since Drainage is Adequate

ground surface inlet

Vector Results Economic Losses

There is Flood since Drainage is Not Adequate

ground surface inlet

N = time period of interest

Return Period is the average

Pnon −exceedance = 1 − Pexceedance Pexceedance = 1 − Pnon −exceedance

Exceedance and Non-exceedance

Pexceedance = 1 − Pnon −exceedance = 1 − 1 −  1 

Exceedance and Non-exceedance

1.If the probability of exceedance is 0.5%,

2.If the Return Period is 50 years, the

3.The probability that a 50 year return period

Example: Probability of Rainfall

The probability of a 50 year return period to   1 

occur within the next 30 years is? Pexceedance = 1 − 1 −  

Example: Probability of Rainfall

The probability of a 100 year return period N

• Once a distribution has been selected and its

• Chow proposed using: xT = x + KT s

xT = Estimated event magnitude

Generalized extreme value family

Exponential/Pearson type family

• For each distribution, estimate of rainfall event follows this form

• In this course: examples are xT = x + KT s

xT = Estimated event magnitude fX(x)

s = Sample standard deviation xT x

Sample Data: Quezon City