CLIMATE FUNDAMENTALS
the warm ground is heated by
• Climate Definition
- From the Greek word “KLIMA” referring
to inclination of the sun.
- The average weather in terms of the
mean and its variability over a certain
timespan and a certain area.
- Climate varies from place to place,
depending on latitude, distance to the
sea, vegetation, presence or absence of
mountains or other geographical factors.
- Climate varies also in time; from season
to season, year to year, decade to
decade or on much longer time scales,
such as the Ice Ages.
- A region’s weather patterns, usually
tracked for at least 30 years, are
considered its climate.
- Climate is what you expect, weather is
what you get.
• Weather
- The fluctuating state of the atmosphere
around us, characterized by the
temperature, wind, precipitation, clouds,
and other weather elements.
- The results of rapidly developing and
decaying weather systems such as mid-
latitude low and high pressure systems
with their associated frontal zones,
showers, and tropical cyclones.
- Weather has only limited predictability.
CLIMATE ELEMENTS
- The climate of a given location is
depicted by climatic data: measured
values of climatic elements over a long
time (at least 10 years).
- Meteorologists measure a large number
of climatic variables.
- Designers concentrate on those that
affect human comfort, directly relevant to
building design.
A. AIR TEMPERATURE
➢ The rate of heating & cooling of the
earth’s surface is the main factor
determining the temperature of air.
➢ Since the air is transparent to all solar
radiation therefore it has only an
indirect effect on the air temperature.
➢ But the air layer, in direct contact with
conduction & this heat is transferred
to upper layers by means of
convection, turbulence, & eddies
currents.
➢ In winter: at nights, the earth is
usually cool on account of long wave
radiation to the sky and therefore the
heat exchange is reversed and the air
in contact with ground is cooled.
➢ Water bodies are affected at a low
rate than the land surface under
same condition of solar radiation. So
the land surface is warmer in summer
and colder in winter than the sea
surface on the same attitude.
➢ Change in attitude also alters the
temperature. On rising, the air moves
from a higher pressure to lower one
therefore it is cooled & vice versa.
This difference is 1°C per 100
meters.
B. HUMIDITY
➢ Atmospheric humidity refers to the
water vapor content of the
atmosphere.
➢ Water vapor enters the air by
evaporation, primarily from the
ocean’s surfaces.
➢ The vapor is carried & distributed
over the earth surface by the winds.
➢ The capacity of air for water vapor
increases with the temperature,
which results in uneven distribution of
the vapor over the earth’s surface.
➢ It is highest in the equatorial zone and
decreases towards the poles.
✓ ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
- A measure of the actual amount
of water vapor (moisture) in the
air, regardless of the air’s
temperature (g/cu. m).
✓ SPECIFIC HUMIDITY
- Describes the amount of water
vapor in the area as opposed to
how much water vapor could be
in the area.
✓ VAPOR PRESSURE
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 - Is the part of the whole
atmospheric pressure that is due
to the water vapor (mm. Hg)
✓ RELATIVE HUMIDITY
- The ratio of Actual Absolute
Humidity to the maximum
moisture capacity of the air at the
temperature or the ratio of water
vapor in the moisture to the water
vapor in the saturated air and is
expressed in percentage.
C. PRECIPITATION
- Large-scale cloud formation and
precipitation result from adiabatic cooling
of large air masses and are affected
greatly by the vertical stability of the air.
- A mass is raising air cools by expansion,
eventually reaching its dew point.
- Then the large scale condensation occur
forming clouds composed of
unnumerable tiny water droplets and
sometimes icy crystals.
- Heavier enough droplets begins to fall
and withstand the evaporative loss
during the descent, thus finally
precipitation occurs.
D. SOLAR RADIATION
- This is an electromagnetic radiation of
different wavelengths and is measured in
a unit called microns (=1/1000 of
millimeter).
- Solar energy is transmitted as:-
1. Ultraviolet (short waves) <0.40
micron
2. Infrared (long waves) >0.76 micron
- Most of the radiation is perceived as heat
& only an insignificant part as visible light
(visible to eye) 0.4 to 0.76 micron.
- As radiation penetrations the earth
atmosphere its intensity is reduced due
to:
➢ ABSORPTION
- Radiation is absorbed in the
atmosphere according to wavelength.
U.V. are absorbed by ozone I.R – by
water vapor & CO2.
➢ REFLECTION
- Takes place from water droplets.
Clouds also reflect back considerable
fraction of radiation to outer space &
the remaining reaches earth surface
in diffused form.
➢ SCATTERING
- When the light impinges on
molecules, similar or smaller than the
wavelength, radiation is reflected &
diffused in space.
E. LONG WAVE RADIATION TO THE SKY
- Long wave radiation is emitted by the
surface of the earth to the atmosphere &
outer space.
- The intensity depends on the difference
between the temperature of the earth
surface and of the absorbing.
- The long wave radiation is emitted in all
the directions by the gases in the
atmosphere & the downward component
of this absorbed by the earth.
- In the atmospheric gases, water vapor is
the principle long wave radiation
absorber along with CO2 which is less
important.
➢ Reflection factor of building
materials:
1. Light Concrete – 30 – 35%
2. Light Marble – 45%
3. Lime Stone – 50 – 65%
4. Rough grey Asphalt – 25%
5. Lawn – 20%
F. WIND
- The wind flow is caused due to high & low
air pressure areas.
- The main cause of the pressure belts is
the uneven distribution of solar radiation
over the earth and the resulting variation
in surface heating.
- Air flows from higher pressure to lower
pressure zones.
- The main regions generating such air
masses are:-
a. The polar regions (throughout the
year)
b. The cold land masses of Asia, North
Africa & North America (in winter)
c. The subtropical high pressure belts,
particularly over the ocean (in
summer)
- The character & distribution of winds over
a region are determined by several
factors. The main determinants are:
➢ Seasonal global distribution of air
pressure.
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 ➢ Rotation of earth.
➢ Daily variations in heating & cooling
of land and sea.
➢ Topography of the region and its
surroundings.
• TRADE WINDS
- Originates in the sub tropical high
pressure regions of the two hemisphere
and coverage at inter tropical front
forming the low pressure equatorial belt.
These winds have similar temperature,
humidity and flow to
➢ Southwest in North hemisphere &
➢ Northwest in South hemisphere
• WESTERLY WINDS
- Also have their origin in the subtropical
regions & flows towards sub arctic low-
pressure regions & converge at polar
fronts. Due to large difference of
temperature of westerly’s & polar winds,
the fronts are stormy.
• POLAR WINDS
- These winds are formed by the cold air
masses spreading out from the polar and
arctic high-pressure regions.
• MONSOON WINDS
- The difference between the annual mean
temperature patterns over land & sea
produces the winter land winds &
summer sea winds known as monsoon.
• LAND AND SEA BREEZES
- During the day the air over land is heated
more than that over sea surfaces on the
same latitude. The cold sea air replaces
the rising warmer air. At night, this
process is reversed. These winds are
known as breezes.
• MOUNTAIN AND VALLEY WINDS
- In mountain areas, local thermal
differences result in local wind patterns.
The winds are directed up the mountain
at day time & down at night. The air near
the mountain surface is heated mere
than the free atmosphere at the same
height & so rises up at day time & at night
the process is reversed.
G. CONDENSATION AND PRECIPITATION
- When air containing a given amount of
water vapor is cooled, its moisture
holding capacity is reduced, increasing
the R.H. until it becomes saturated.
- Cooling of the air may be affected by
three processes:-
1. Contact with cooler surfaces.
2. Mixing with cooler air.
3. Expansion association with rising air
currents.
• DEW
- Cooling by contact with colder surface is
limited to the lower air layers. When
condensations result, it takes the form of
dew on the cold surface.
• FOG
- A fog is formed when the air does not
come in direct contact with the cold
surface and it is cooled below the dew
point.
- The conditions promoting the formation
of fog are:-
➢ Cloudless sky, which promote long
wave radiation to outer space &
cooling of the ground & lower layers.
➢ A temperature inversion near the
ground, which prevents vertical
mixing of lower air layer with upper
layers.
➢ Absence of winds, which may also
prevent heating of the air layer by
vertical mixing.
✓ Different parts of the world have different
climates.
✓ Climate is determined by a region’s climate
system.
✓ A climate system has 5 major components:
1. Atmosphere
2. Hydrosphere
3. Cryosphere
4. Land surface
5. Biosphere
CLIMATE SYSTEMS
1. ATMOSPHERE
- The most unstable and rapidly changing
part of the system
- The Earth’s dry atmosphere is composed
mainly:
➢ Nitrogen (N2, 78.1% volume mixing
ratio)
➢ Oxygen (O2, 20.9% volume mixing
ratio)
➢ Argon (Ar, 0.93% volume mixing
ratio)
- However, there are a number of trace
gases, such as:
➢ Carbon dioxide (CO2)
➢ Methane (CH4)
➢ Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
➢ Ozone (O3)
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 - Which do absorb and emit
infrared radiation.
- These so called greenhouse
gases, with a total volume mixing
ratio in dry air of less than 0.1%
by volume, play an essential role
in the Earth’s energy budget.
2. HYDROPSHERE
- The component comprising all liquid
surface and subterranean water, both
fresh water, including rivers, lakes, and
aquifers, and saline water of the oceans
and seas.
- Fresh water runoff from the land returning
to the oceans in rivers influences the
ocean’s composition and circulation.
- The oceans cover approximately 70% of
the Earth’s surface. They store and
transport a large amount of energy and
dissolve and store great quantities of
carbon dioxide.
3. CRYOSPHERE
- The frozen part of the earth system
- Ice and snow on land are one part of the
cryosphere, including the ice sheets of
Greenland and Antarctica, continental
glaciers and snow fields, sea ice, and
permafrost.
- Other parts is ice found in water: frozen
parts of ocean, water surrounding
Antarctica and Arctic, frozen rivers and
lakes in polar areas.
- The components of the cryosphere
play an important role in the Earth’s
climate.
- Snow and ice reflect heat from the sun,
helping to regulate our planet’s
temperature.
4. LAND SURFACE
- Vegetation and soils at the land surface
control how energy received from the
Sun is returned to the atmosphere.
- Some is returned as long-wave (infrared)
radiation, heating the atmosphere as the
land surface warms.
- Some serves to evaporate water, either
in the soil or in the leaves of plants, bring
water back into the atmosphere.
- The texture of the land surface (its
roughness) influences the atmosphere
dynamically as winds blow over the
land’s surface.
- Roughness is determined by both
topography and vegetation.
5. BIOSPHERE
- Made up of the parts of Earth where life
exists.
- Extends from the deepest root systems
of trees to the dark environment of ocean
trenches, to lush rain forests and
mountaintops.
- Plays a central role in the carbon cycle,
as well as in the budgets of many other
gases, such as methane and nitrous
oxide.
- The influence of climate on the biosphere
is preserved as fossils, tree rings, pollen,
and other records, so that much of what
is known of past climates comes from
such biotic indicators.
CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION
- The most popular system of classifying climates
was proposed in 1900 by Russian-German
scientist Wladimir Koppen.
- Koppen observed that the type of vegetation in
a region depended largely on climate.
- Studying vegetation, temperature, and
precipitation data, he and other scientists
developed a system for naming climate regions.
- The categories were also influenced by a
region’s latitude – the imaginary lines used to
measure our Earth from north to south from the
equator.
- According to Koppen climate classification
system, there are five climate groups:
A. Tropical (RED)
B. Dry (YELLOW)
C. Temperate (GREEN)
D. Continental (PURPLE)
E. Polar (BLUE)
- These climate groups are further divided
into climate types.
A. TROPICAL
- In this hot and humid zone, the average
temperatures are greater than 64°F (18
° C) year-round.
- Annual precipitation is greater than 1500
mm.
- Tropical moist climates extends
northward and southward from the
equator to about 15 to 25°of latitude.
➢ Tropical Rainforest – No dry season
➢ Tropical Monsoon – Shorter dry or
heavier rainy season
➢ Tropical Savannah – Longer dry or
lighter rainy season
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• TROPICAL WET: RAINFORESTS
- These equatorial regions have the most
predictable weather on Earth, with warm
temperatures and regular rainfall. Annual
rainfall exceeds 150 cm (59 in), and the
temperature varies more during a day
than it does over a year. The coolest
temperature, about 20°to 23°C (68°-
73°Fahrenheit), occurs just before
dawn. Afternoon temperature usually
reach 30°to 33°C (86°-91°F).
Annual precipitation is greater than 1500
mm.
- Tropical wet climates exist in a band
extending about 10° of latitude on either
side of the Equator. This part of the globe
is always under the influence of the inter-
tropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
- The U.S. state of Hawaii; Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia; and Belem, Brazil, are
examples of areas with tropical wet
climates.
• TROPICAL MONSOON
- Most found in southern Asia and West
Africa.
- A monsoon is a wind system that
reverses its direction every six months.
Monsoons usually flow from sea to land
in the summer, and from the land to sea
in the winter.
- Summer monsoons bring large amounts
of rainfall to tropical monsoon regions.
- People living in these regions depend on
the seasonal rains to bring water to their
crops.
- India and Bangladesh are famous for
their monsoon climate patterns.
• TROPICAL WET AND DRY (SAVANNA)
- Sit just outside the ITCZ, near the
Equator. They have three seasons. One
season is cool and dry – when the warm,
moist ITCZ is in the opposite
hemisphere. Another season is hot and
dry as the ITCZ approaches. The last
season is hot and wet as the ITCZ arrives
and the region experiences months as a
tropical wet climate.
- Savannas are grassland ecosystems.
Havana, Cuba; Kolkata, India; and
Africa’s vast Serengeti Plaina re in the
wet and try tropics.
B. DRY
- These climate zones are so dry because
moisture is rapidly evaporated from the
air and there is very little precipitation.
- These climates extend from 20°- 35°
North and South of the equator and in
large continental regions of the mid-
latitudes often surrounded by mountains.
C. TEMPERATE
- Regions with mild and continental
climates are also called temperate
regions.
- Both climate types have distinct cold
seasons. In these parts of the world,
climate is influenced mostly by latitude
and a region’s position on the continent.
- Its extent is from 30 to 50°of latitude
mainly on the eastern and western
borders of most continents.
• HUMID SUBTROPICAL
- Usually found on the eastern sides of
continents. In cities such as Savannah,
Georgia, in the U.S.; Shanghai, China;
and Sydney, Australia, summers are hot
and humid.
- Winter can be severely cold. Precipitation
is spread evenly through the year and
totals 76 to 165 cm (30-65 inches).
Hurricanes and other violent storms are
common in these regions.
• MEDITERRANEAN
- Have warm summers and short, mild,
rainy winters.
- Mediterranean climates are found on the
west coasts of continents between 30°
and 40°latitude, and along the shores of
the Mediterranean Sea.
- Mediterranean summers feature clear
skies, cool nights, and little rain.
• MARINE WEST COAST
- Weather on both sides of a continent
generally becomes cooler as latitude
increases.
- The marine west coast climate, at type of
mild climate typical of cities such as
Seattle, Washington, in the U.S. and
Wellington, New Zealand, has a longer,
cooler winter than the Mediterranean
climate.
- Drizzle falls about two-thirds of winter
days, and temperatures average about 5
°C (41°Fahrenheit).
D. CONTINENTAL
- Have colder winters, longer-lasting snow,
and shorter growing seasons.
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 - Transition zones between mild and polar
climates.
- Experience extreme seasonal changes.
- The average temperature of the warmest
month is greater than 10°C, while the
coldest month is less than -3°C.
- Winters are severe with snowstorms,
strong winds, and bitter cold from
Continental Polar or Arctic air masses.
• WARM SUMMER
- Warm summer climate regions often
have wet summer seasons, similar to
monsoon climates.
- For this reason, this climate type is also
called humid continental.
- Most of Eastern Europe, including
Romania and Georgia, has warm
summer climates.
• COOL SUMMER
- Have winters with low temperatures and
snow.
- Cold winds, sweeping in from the Arctic,
dominate winter weather.
- People living in these climates have
grown accustomed to the harsh weather,
but those unprepared for such cold may
suffer.
• SUBARCTIC
- North of regions with cool summer
climates are regions with subarctic
climates.
- These regions, including northern
Scandinavia and Siberia, experience
very long, cold winters with little
precipitation.
- Subarctic climates are also called boreal
climates or taiga.
E. POLAR
- Have year-round cold temperatures with
the warmest month less than 10°C.
- Found on the northern coastal areas of
North America, Europe, Asia, and on the
landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica.
• TUNDRA
- Summer are short, but plants and
animals are plentiful.
- Temperatures can average as high as 10
°C (50°F) in July.
- Wildflowers dot the landscape, and flocks
of migratory birds feed on insects and
fish.
- Whales feed on microscopic creatures in
the region’s cold, nutrient-rich waters.
- People have adapted to life on the tundra
for thousands of years.
• ICE CAP
- Few organisms survive in the ice cap
climates of the Arctic and Antarctic.
- Temperatures rarely rise above freezing,
even in summer.
- The ever-present ice helps keep the
weather cold by reflecting most of the
Sun’s energy back into the atmosphere.
- Skies are mostly clear and precipitation is
low.
- In fact, Antarctica, covered by an ice cap
1-6 km (one-mile) thick, is one of the
largest, driest deserts on Earth.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WORLD
CLIMATIC REGIONS
1. ELEVATION OR ALTITUDE
- Normally, climatic conditions become
colder as altitude increases. “Life zones”
on a high mountain reflect the changes,
plants at the base are the same as those
in surrounding countryside, but no trees
at all can grow above the timberline.
Snow crowns the highest elevations.
• Higher elevation = THINNER LESS air,
therefore less air to hold heat makes it
colder.
• RULE! The higher the elevation, the colder
the temperatures.
2. PREVAILING GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS
- There are 3 major wind patterns found in
the Northern Hemisphere and also 3 in
the Southern Hemisphere. These are
average conditions and do not essentially
reveal conditions on a particular day. As
season change, the wind patterns shift
north or south.
3. TOPOGRAPHY
- Topography are the natural and artificial
physical features of an area. For
example, the mountain ranges are
capable of blocking air movements like a
natural barrier. Winds from the Pacific
ocean can carry moisture into a coast in
places like California.
4. EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHY
- The position of a town, city, or a place
and its distance from mountains and
substantial areas of water helps
determine its prevailing wind patterns
and what types of air masses affect it.
Coastal areas may enjoy refreshing
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 breezes in summer, when cooler ocean
air moves ashore.
5. SURFACE OF THE EARTH
- The amount of sunlight that is absorbed
or reflected by the surface determines
how much atmospheric heating occurs.
Darker areas, such as heavily vegetated
regions, tend to be good absorbers;
lighter areas, such as snow and ice-
covered regions, tend to be good
reflectors. The ocean absorbs and loses
heat more slowly than land.
6. OCEAN CURRENTS
- Earth’s rotation affects the ocean in a
similar manner, setting up currents that
flow within the ocean basins. Ocean
currents are driven by surface winds,
Earth’s rotation, and differences in
salinity.
7. GLOBAL CLIMATE
- The combination of oceanic and
atmospheric circulation drives global
climate by redistributing heat and
moisture. Global climate patterns are
dynamic: They are continually changing
in response to solar radiation,
atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations, and other climate forcing
factors.
8. BIOGEOGRAOHY
- The current distribution of plants and
animals reflects historical changes in
both global climatic conditions and the
location of land masses. Today, we
recognize six biogeographic realms –
Nearctic, Palearctic, Neotropical,
Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian – in
which animals exhibit features distinctive
to that region.
9. ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
- The sunray’s provide both light and heat
to Earth, and regions that receive greater
exposure warm to a greater extent. This
is particularly true of the tropics, which
experience less seasonal variation in
incident sunlight.
• HIGHER ELEVATION = Thinner less air,
therefore less air to hold heat makes it colder.
• RULE! The higher the elevation, the colder
the temperatures.
✓ The enormous variety of life on Earth is
largely due to the variety of climates that exist
and the climate changes that have occurred
in the past.
✓ Climate has influenced the development of
cultures and civilizations.
✓ People everywhere have adapted in various
ways to the climates in which they live.
❖ CLOTHING
- Indigenous Arctic cultures of Europe,
Asia, and North America developed
warm, durable, fur, and animal-skin
clothing. This combats both the frigid
temperatures and precipitation found in
polar climates.
- Lightweight, papery tapa cloth is part of
many cultures in the warm, humid
climates of Polynesia, in the South
pacific. Tapa cloth was traditionally made
from dried leaves, coconut fibers, and
breadfruit bark.
❖ SHELTER
- The ancient Anasazi people of southern
North America built apartments into tall
cliffs. The sheltered, shady area kept
residents cool in the hit, dry desert
climate.
- The yurt is a part of the identity of many
cultures across the windy, semi-arid
steppe of Central Asia. Yurts are type of
original “mobile home,” a portable,
circular dwelling made of lattice of flexible
poles and covered in felt or other fabric.
❖ AGRICULTURE
- Ancient agricultural civilizations, such as
those in Mesopotamia and India,
flourished where the climate was mild.
- The mild, Mediterranean climate in which
the Roman Empire developed, for
instance, allowed farmers to cultivate
crops, such as wheat, olives, grapes,
barley, and figs.
- The chief domesticated trees in the
Amazon were mostly harvested for food
and medicine.
- Today, farmers are still in tune with the
climate. They plant certain crops
according to the expected amount of
rainfall and the length of the growing
season.
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