ARPLAN 3

PLANNING 3 : INTRODUCTION TO URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING

MODULE 2a: CONCEPTS & THEORIES

- EKISTICS

PREPARED BY: AR./ENP. RACHELLE S. MORALES

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

C.A. DOXIADIS
• Constantinos Apostolos Doxiadis
• Born to Greek parents in 1913 in Bulgaria
• His father was a Minister of Social Affairs during the time of the Asia Minor crisis in 1922
• Spent most of his life in Athens
• He graduated from the Technical University of Athens as Architect-Engineer in 1935
• He received his Doctorate Degree from the Berlin-Charlottenburg University in 1936
• He was awarded Honorary Degrees by 12 universities for his work and contributions in
ekistics
• Swarthmore College
• University of Pittsburgh
• University of Michigan
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

C.A. DOXIADIS
• He served as Undersecretary and Director General of the Ministry for Housing and
Reconstruction for Greece between 1945 and 1948
• He also served as Minister Coordinator of the Greek Recovery Program and
Undersecretary, Ministry of Coordination from 1948 to 1951
• He founded Doxiadis Associates, an international consulting firm for architecture,
planning and development, headquartered in Athens, Greece
• He founded the Athens Technological Organization (originally
• the Athens Technological Institute) in 1958
• consisted of distinguished members of Athenian and Greek society.
• to help Greece to proceed from a developing country to a more advanced level
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

C.A. DOXIADIS
• His doctoral thesis Raumordnung im Griechischen Staedtebau was published as a
book in 1937, later translated into English as Architectural Space in Ancient Greece,
1972.
• Architecture in Transition (1963), he addresses the role of the architect in a world of
confusion and rapid change.
• Ekistics in 1968
• Anthropopolis in 1974 (summary of a symposium on the City for Human Development)
• Ecumenopolis in 1975
• Building Entopia in 1975
• Action for Human Settlements in 1976, published after his death
• He died in June 28, 1975
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

“Human settlements are no longer satisfactory

for their inhabitants. This is true everywhere in the
world, in underdeveloped as well as in developed
countries. It holds true both for the way of living of
their inhabitants and for the forms we give to the
shells of the settlements trying to satisfy their
needs. And it is true whatever our aspect of the
problem.”
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTICS
• the science of human settlements
• derived from the Greek verb oikõ,
meaning “settling down,”
• denotes the existence of an
overall science of human
settlements conditioned by man
and influenced by economic,
social, political administrative,
and technical sciences as well as
the disciplines related to the arts
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTICS
• Critical conditions common to all cities:
• There is an unprecedented increase in population due to improved living conditions,
accompanied by a migration to urban settlements. The result is growth of urban
settlements at a tremendous scale.
• We experience multiple impacts of machines in our lives. These impacts lead to higher
productivity and new possibilities, but also bring unprecedented problems to the structure
of cities and society, of resource use and environmental degradation.
• There is a gradual socialization in the patterns of living, which allows the whole population
to participate more and more in the city, its facilities and resources.
• In the modern city, growth and change over time is a dominant feature, which must take
precedence in all planning considerations
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

CONCEPTUAL MODELS OF EKISTICS

• The five elements of human settlements or ekistic elements
• The ekistic logarithmic scale (ELS) and the ekistic units
• The ekistic grid
• The model of satisfaction
• The anthropocosmos model
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTIC ELEMENTS
• Anthropos – the individual human being
• Society – deals with people and their interaction with population trends, group
behavior, social customs, occupation, income, and government
• Nature – represents the ecosystem within which man and society operate and
cities and settlements are placed (carrying capacity)
• Shells –the generic term for all buildings and
structures
• Networks for transportation, communication
and utilities support the settlements and tie
them together with their organization and
structure
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTIC UNITS
Doxiadis proposed 15 levels of settlement
size or 15 ekistic units

• Anthropos – 1 • Small metropolis – 500,000

• Room – 2 • Metropolis – 4,000,000
• House – 5 • Small megalopolis – 25,000,000
• Housegroup – 40 • Megalopolis – 150,000,000
• Small neighborhood – 250 • Small eperopolis – 1,000 M
• Neighborhood – 1500 • Eperopolis – 7,500 M
• Small polis – 10,000 • Ecumenopolis – 50,000 M
• Polis – 75,000
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTIC UNITS
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

EKISTIC GRID
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

GOALS & MODEL OF SATISFACTION

The goal of ekistics is to achieve a balance between the elements of
human settlements in order to guarantee happiness and safety of man.

Man’s principles in shaping his settlements and quest for happiness

• maximization of man's potential contacts with the elements of nature, with other
people, and with the works of man
• minimization of the effort required for the achievement of man's actual and potential
contacts
• optimization of man's protective space, which means the selection of such a distance
from other persons, animals, or objects that he can keep his contacts with them
without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

GOALS & MODEL OF SATISFACTION

The goal of ekistics is to achieve a balance between the elements of
human settlements in order to guarantee happiness and safety of man.

Man’s principles in shaping his settlements and quest for happiness

• optimization of the quality of man's relationship with his environment, which consists
of nature, society, shells, and networks
• attempt to achieve an optimum synthesis of the other four principles, and this
optimization is dependent on time and space, on actual conditions, and on man's
ability to create a synthesis
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

GOALS & MODEL OF

SATISFACTION
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ANTHROPOCOSMOS
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

CONCEPTS OF EKISTICS
• Dynapolis is a term meaning dynamic city or dynamic polis, recognizing
the fact that contemporary city is a dynamic and not a static entity
• Ecumenopolis is a key concept of ekistics. As the largest unit of the ekistic
logarithmic scale it is the inevitable city of the future, which will cover the
entire earth as a continuous system forming a universal settlement
• The human community is the settlement unit designed at a human scale,
providing a stable spatial and functional unit to satisfy the needs and
aspirations of our daily life
• The functional classification of space postulates the complete allocation of
land for human settlements consisting of the area of urban settlement, of
cultivated areas and natural areas.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

IDEAL SOLUTIONS
• We have to guide our cities.
• We must define how much land we shall allocate for everything in its
place.
• We must immediately designate common corridors
• We must create human communities
• We must get rid of towers
• We must create new administrative systems
 ARPLAN 3
PLANNING 3 : INTRODUCTION TO URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING

MODULE 2b: CONCEPTS & THEORIES

- MODELS OF URBAN GROWTH & LOCATION THEORIES

PREPARED BY: AR./ENP. RACHELLE S. MORALES

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

MODELS OF URBAN GROWTH

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

MODELS OF URBAN GROWTH

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

MODELS OF URBAN GROWTH

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
• Land Use Theory
• By J. H. von Thunen and William Alonso
• Objectives:
• Thunen: Optimal agricultural land uses based on transport costs to market
• Alonso: Optimal distances of residential and commercial land uses from CBD
• Assumptions:
• Thunen: Central market with given prices, given production methods + costs
for any crop independent of location (uniform technologies + no scale
economies) Linear transport cost/distance functions
• Alonso: Mono-centric city
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
• Land Use Theory
• Supply and Demand: Dispersed
and Localized
• Major Analytical Tools:
• Rent functions
• Margin of cultivation
• Alonso: Bid rent (price)
function
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
• Industrial Location Theory
• By Weber, Smith, Isard and Moses
• Objectives:
• Weber: Transport-cost minimizing location
• Smith: Profit maximization
• Moses: Optimal combination of inputs & optimal level of production at optimal
location (allowing for scale (dis-)economies and substitutability at any one
level of production)
• Assumptions:
• Weber: Given linear production function (no substitution & no economies of scale)
prices at markets are given
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
• Industrial Location Theory
• Supply and Demand: Localized and
Localized
• Major Analytical Tools:
• Weber: Material Index (MI),
"isotims" (Spatial isocost lines)
Isodapane surfaces, Critical
isodapane
• Smith: Space cost curves, Space
revenue curves, "Spatial margins
of profitability“
• Predoehl/Moses: Principle of
substitution, Isoquants & spatial
isocost/outlay lines
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
• Central Place Theory
• By Walter Christaller and Lösch
• Objective: Optimal market areas
• Assumptions:
• Christaller: Uniform spatial distribution of households
• Households have homogeneous demand functions
• Transport costs can be allocated to individual goods (i.e.no multi-function trips)
• Supply and Demand: Localized and Dispersed
• Major Analytical Tools:
• Hierarchical principles
• Threshold range (=spatial break-even point)
• Range of a good
• Spatial demand curve ("cone")
•
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

LOCATION THEORIES
 ARPLAN 3
PLANNING 3 : INTRODUCTION TO URBAN & REGIONAL PLANNING

MODULE 2c: CONCEPTS & THEORIES

- PLANNING THEORIES

PREPARED BY: AR./ENP. RACHELLE S. MORALES

CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

• Demographic Theories
• Laws of Migration
• Migration in Developing Countries
• Demographic Transition & Urbanization Model

• Environmental Transition Theories

• Urban Environmental Transition
• Land Use & Transportation Model
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Laws of Migration by Ernst Georg Ravenstein (1885)
Theory:
• Birth, mortality rates and population movement are major
• determinants of settlement patterns
Findings:
• Economic factors are the main cause of migration.
• Natives of towns are less migratory than those from rural areas.
• Migration occurs in stages. Migrants tend not to go straight to their ultimate
destinations.
• Most migrants move only a short distance.
• Long-distance migrants go to one of the great centers of commerce and industry.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Laws of Migration by Ernst Georg Ravenstein (1885)
Findings:
• Females are more migratory than males.
• Each migration flow produces a compensating counter-flow.
• Large towns and cities grow more by migration than natural increase.
• Migration increases in volume as industries and commerce develop and
transportation improves.
• There is a process of absorption, whereby people immediately surrounding a
rapidly growing town move into it and the gaps they leave are filled by migrants
from more distant areas, and so on until the attractive force [pull factors] is spent.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Migration in Developing Countries by Michael Todaro (1980)
Theory:
Rural dwellers migrate because they believe that there is a higher expected income in
urban areas
Findings:
• Migration is stimulated primarily by economic considerations of costs and benefits
from financial and psychological points of view.
• The decision to migrate depends on expected rather than actual urban-rural real
wage differentials.
• The probability of obtaining an urban job is inversely related to the urban
unemployment rate.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Demographic Transition Model by Warren
Thompson (1919)

Stage 1: high birth and death rates (prior to

industrialization)
Stage 2: still higher but slower birth rates, dropping
death rates because of improved health and
sanitation, increasing lifespan (developing
economies)
Stage 3: falling birth rates, improved women’s
status, urbanization spreads, changing values
(improvements in developing economies)
Stage 4: leveling of birth and death rates, shrinking
and sometimes aging population, population
increase due to in-migration (highly urbanized
countries)
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Demographic Transition Model by Warren Thompson (1919)

Implications:
• More services are needed, hence, more structures providing these services should
be built.
• May result to informal settlements and employment.
• Environmental concerns.
Theory:
A relationship exists between a country’s wealth and it’s urban
environment

Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) is the graphical representation of Simon

Kuznets' hypothesis that as a country develops, there is a natural cycle of
economic inequality driven by market forces which at first increases inequality, and
then decreases it after a certain average income is attained.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Environmental Transition Theory by G. McGranahan (2009)
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

URBAN TRANSITION THEORIES

Urban Environmental Transition by P. Marcotullio (2001)
Hypothesis:
Transportation and land uses will change such that development will become car-
based and cities will become less dense due to the rising living standards in Asia.
Findings:

Bus cities Transit cities

(1960’s) (1990’s)

Multi-modal transportation system: Hongkong, Tokyo, Seoul, Singapore

Motorized transportation: Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Bangkok
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
• Modernization Theory
• Stages of Economic Growth
• World Economic System
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Modernization Theory by M. Weber et. al. (1900 to 1980)
• a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies
• looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that, with assistance,
"traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more
developed countries have
• attempts to identify the social variables which contribute to social progress and
development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution.
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)

Traditional society
• characterized by subsistence agriculture or hunting & gathering; almost wholly
a "primary" sector economy
• limited technology;
• A static or 'rigid' society: lack of class or individual economic mobility, with
stability prioritized and change seen negatively
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)

Pre-conditions to "take-off"
• external demand for raw materials initiates economic change;
• development of more productive, commercial agriculture & cash crops not
consumed by producers and/or largely exported
• widespread and enhanced investment in changes to the physical environment
to expand production (i.e. irrigation, canals, ports)
• increasing spread of technology & advances in existing technologies
• changing social structure, with previous social equilibrium now in flux
• individual social mobility begins
• development of national identity and shared economic interests
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)

Take off
• manufacturing begins to rationalize and scale increases in a few leading industries,
as goods are made both for export and domestic consumption
• the "secondary" (goods-producing) sector expands and ratio of secondary vs.
primary sectors in the economy shifts quickly towards secondary
• textiles & apparel are usually the first "take-off" industry, as happened in Great
Britain's classic "Industrial Revolution"
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)

Drive to maturity
• diversification of the industrial base; multiple industries expand & new ones take
root quickly
• manufacturing shifts from investment-driven (capital goods) towards consumer
durables & domestic consumption
• rapid development of transportation infrastructure
• large-scale investment in social infrastructure (schools, universities, hospitals, etc.)
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
Stages of Growth Development Model by Walt Rostow (1960)

Age of mass consumption

• the industrial base dominates the economy; the primary sector is of greatly
diminished weight in economy & society
• widespread and normative consumption of high-value consumer goods (e.g.
automobiles)
• consumers typically (if not universally), have disposable income, beyond all basic
needs, for additional goods
CONCEPTS & THEORIES

ECONOMIC THEORIES
World Economic System Model by Immanuel Wallerstein (1974)