INPSYC130
Biological Basis of Behavior
■ Every living organism has a set of inherited
codes that determine its biological
characteristics.
■ This set of codes is known as genotypes.
■ Formed once the gametes (egg and sperm cells)
are fused through the process of fertilization
■ Genetic codes are contained within
chromosomes, which are strands of genes.
■ Genes refer to the genetic code which carries
inheritance information.
■ There are 23 chromosomes in all human cells,
except for the egg and sperm cells.
■ Total chromosomes for humans: 46
chromosomes
■ Genetic codes duplicate whenever cell division
happens in a process called mitosis (cell division
into two identical cells)
■ Unlike other cells, gamete cells, which are
produced through meiosis, only have (23 in exact)
of the number of chromosomes.
■ Genes are hereditary units made up of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
■ DNA -is the complex molecule containing the
genetic code.
■ With the exception of monozygotic twins
(identical twins), no two organisms possess the
same set of genetic codes.
Mitosis 1 stage
Diploid = 46 chromosomes
2 identical daughter cells
Meiosis 2 stages
Haploid = 23 chromosomes
4 genetically different daughter cells
■ Some genes are found on the sex chromosome
■ Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while
males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome (XY).
■ Different versions of a gene are called alleles.
■ Alleles are described as either dominant or
recessive depending on their associated traits.
■ Dominant alleles show their effect even if the
individual only has one copy of the allele.
■ Recessive alleles only show their effect if the
individual has two copies of the allele.
Nature - Genes
Nurture - Environment
■ The genotype is the set of genes in our DNA
which is responsible for a particular trait. The
phenotype is the physical expression, or
characteristics, of that trait.
■ Environmental factors that may influence the
phenotype include nutrition, temperature,
humidity and stress.
Methods for Studying Behavior Genetics
■ Twin Studies are a good way to study how
much a genotype affects behavior. Comparing the
behavior of monozygotic twins, dizygotic twins,
and non-twin siblings reveals how much
difference in their behavior is due to genetic
predisposition, since they usually share similar
environments growing up.
■ Adoption studies provide an alternative way to
study the nature vs. nurture question.
■ Sometimes, twins are raised in different
environments because one or both of them are
raised by adoptive families.
■ Studies on genetic abnormalities provides
awareness of the complex relationship between
human genetics and various disease states.
■ A genetic disorder is a disease caused in whole
or in part by a change in the DNA sequence away
from the normal sequence.
Building Blocks of the Nervous Sytem
■ Our nervous system is composed of millions of
cells.
■ They differentiate into various shapes according
to functions they serve.
■ Some of them, called neurons, are
differentiated into a particular form for neuronal
transmission, and are abundant in the nervous
system.
■ Neurons are the basic unit of the nervous
system.
Parts of The Neuron
■ Cell body (soma) is composed of cell
constituents including the nucleus, which holds
the genetic information of the neuron.
■ ranches:
- Dendrites receive signals from other neurons
- Axons relay information away to other neurons.
■ Myelin sheath a layer of fat tissue that
insulates the axon from surroundings and speeds
up the transmission of the neural impulse within.
■ Terminal bulbs contains synaptic vesicles,
which in turn contain neurotransmitters. These
are used to communicate with other neurons.
■ Neuron a nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of
many different parts.
Cell body (the cell's life-support center)
Dendrites (receive messages from other cells)
Axon (passes messages away from the cell body
to other neurons, muscles, or glands)
Terminal branches of axon (form junctions with
other cells)
Neural impulse (electrical signal traveling down
the axon)
Myelin sheath (covers the axon of some neurons
and helps speed neural impulses)
Glial Cells
■ Glial cells are supporting cells differentiated for
various other functions.
■ The number of glial cells is roughly equal to the
number of neurons.
■ Astrocytes are star-shaped glials that hold
neurons and other cells in position. Also serve
other purposes such as circulating nutrients and
metabolic waste and removing debris from
intercellular spaces.
■ Oligodendrocytes (hemoglobin-carrying
oxygen) are found in the brain and spinal cord
and they produce the myelin sheath in the
central nervous system.
■ Schwann cells produce the myelin sheath in the
peripheral nervous system.
Transmitting Neuronal Signals
Electrochemical Impulses
■ The main responsibility of neurons is to
transmit signals within the nervous system and
communication with other organs.
■ Signals are transmitted in the form of
electrochemical impulses.The main responsibility
of neurons is to transmit signals within the
nervous system and communication with other
organs.
■ Resting Potential- An electrical potential
maintained by neurons. When a neuron is "at
rest," its axon membrane is maintained in resting
potential. When a neuron is not sending a signal,
it is "at rest."
■ An action potential occurs when a neuron
sends information down an axon, away from the
cell body.
■ There are no big or small action potentials in
one nerve cell - all action potentials are the same
size. Therefore, the neuron either does not reach
the threshold or a full action potential is fired - ■ Serotonin plays a role in mood, sleep, appetite,
this is the "ALL OR NONE" principle. and impulsive and aggressive behavior.
■ Neurons are not directly connected to one ■ GABA (Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid) inhibits
other but are connected via synapses. In order to excitation and anxiety. Too little GABA is
transmit the signal across this synaptic cleft, associated with anxiety and anxiety disorders.
chemicals called neurotransmitters are used. Some antianxiety medication increases GABA at
the receptor sites.
■ Synapses -tiny junctions between two neurons,
where the axon of one neuron meets the ■ Endorphins -involved in pain relief and feelings
dendrites of cell body of another neuron of pleasure and contentedness
Neurotransmitters
■ Neurotransmitters -are chemicals that convey
signals within the nervous system. They can
either be excitatory or inhibitory.
■ Excitatory neurotransmitters have excitatory
effects on the neuron. This means they increase
the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action
potential.
■ Inhibitory neurotransmitters have inhibitory
effects on the neuron. This means they decrease
the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action.
Neurotransmitters which play a significant role
in our mental health
■ Acetylcholine - involved in voluntary
movement, learning, memory, and sleep. Too
much acetylcholine is associated with depression,
and too little in the hippocampus has been
associated with dementia.
■ Dopamine correlated with movement,
attention, and learning. Too much dopamine has
been associated with schizophrenia, and too little
is associated with some forms of depression as
well as the muscular rigidity and tremors found in
Parkinson's disease.
■ Norepinephrine associated with eating,
alertness. Too little norepinephrine has been
associated with depression, while an excess has
been associated with schizophrenia.
■ Epinephrine involved in energy, and glucose
metabolism. Too little epinephrine has been
associated with depression.
■ To regulate the lengths of different categories
of signals and responses, our endocrine system
is crucial as it directs the communication
between organs by releasing and receiving
different kinds of hormones.
■ Endocrine glands have a rich blood supply
through which hormones travel to reach their
target organs.
■ Hormones travel through ducts - are tubes
leading from a gland to its target organ.
■ Ductless Glands -endocrine glands that do not
have a duct system.
■ Exocrine Glands -contain ducts such as the
skin.
■ Activities of hormones maintain our bodies
according to several set of points. Homeostasis
an internal regulation to maintain bodily
variable.
■ Areas 0f control integration:
- Responses to stress and injury,
- Growth and development,
- Absorption of nutrients,
- Energy metabolism,
- Water and electrolyte imbalance,
- Reproduction,
- Birth, and Lactation
Pituitary Gland
■ "Master gland"
Two divisions of Pituitary Gland:
- Adenohypophysis (Anterior lobe)
- Neurohypophysis (Posterior lobe)
■ Adenohypophysis
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) -
Stimulates secretion of glucocorticoids.
- Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) –
Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones
- Growth Hormone (GH) or Somatotropin -
Promotes protein synthesis and growth,
lipolysis, and increased blood glucose.
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) –
Promotes gamete production and estrogen
production in females.
■ Adenohypophysis
- Prolactin (PRL) - Promotes milk production in
lactating females
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH) - Stimulates sex
hormone secretion; ovulation and corpus
luteum formation in females; testosterone
secretion in males.
- Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) -
Contributes to darkening of the skin
Thyroid Gland
■ Has two lobes connected by an isthmus (small
connecting stalks) and is in the lower part of the
neck just below the larynx
■ Produces 3 hormones:
- Thyroxine (T4)
- Triiodothyronine (T3)
- Calcitonin
Parathyroid Glands
■ Four glands imbedded in the thyroid gland.
■ Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
- Also called parathormone or parathyrin, is a
hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands
that regulates the serum calcium through its
effects on bone, kidney, and intestine.
■ Too much PTH inhibits nervous activity and
leads to lethargy (sluggishness, sleepiness,
fatigue)
■ Too little of it may lead to tetany (involuntary
muscle contraction)
Adrenal Glands
■ Location: On top of each kidney
■ Each gland has a cortex (outer region) and a
medulla (inner region)
■ Cortex, the outer part of the gland-produces
hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol
(which helps regulate metabolism and helps
your body respond to stress) and aldosterone
(which helps control blood pressure).
■ The adrenal medulla-the inner part of the
gland-produces hormones such as:
- Epinephrine: Most people know epinephrine
by its other name-adrenaline. This hormone
rapidly responds to stress by increasing your
heart rate and rushing blood to the muscles and
brain.
- Norepinephrine: Also known as noradrenaline,
this hormone works with epinephrine in
responding to stress. However, it can cause
vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood
vessels). This results in high blood pressure.
Gonads (Ovaries & Testes)
■ Puberty glands which produce sperm and egg
cells for reproduction.
■ The ovary is the site of estrogen (required to
form the ovum) and prepares the uterus for
implanting a fertilized egg.
■ Progesterone prepares the breasts for
lactation during pregnancy and works with
estrogen to regulate menstrual cycle.
■ The testes produce the hormone
testosterone which is required for sperm
formation, the development of male external
genitalia, and secondary sexual traits such as
beard growth, chest hair, and enlarged thyroid
cartilage.
Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
■ Regulates level of sugar in the blood by
secreting two hormones that have opposing
actions.
- Glucagon - causes the liver to convert its
stored sugar into blood sugar and to dump it
into the bloodstream.
- Insulin - reduces the amount of sugar by
helping the body's cells absorb sugar in the form
of fat.
Pineal Gland
■ Located between the cerebral hemispheres,
attached to the top of the Thalamus
■ The pineal gland produces melatonin, a
serotonin-derived hormone which modulates
sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal
cycles.
The Nervous System
■ Body's electrochemical communication
circuitry.
■ Serves as the body control center and
communications and electrical-chemical wiring
network.
■ Neuroscience - field that studies the nervous
system
■ The nervous system detects, interprets, and
responds to changes in internal and external
conditions.
■ Two main parts of the Nervous System
- Central Nervous System (CNS)
■ Includes the brain and the spinal cord
■ Peripheral Nervous System
- The connecting nerve processes to effectors
and receptors
- Nerves carry all messages exchanged between
the CNS and the rest of the body.
The Brain
■ Made up of more than 100 billion nerves that
communicate in trillions of connections called
synapses.
■ Divisions:
Cerebrum Cerebellum
Diencephalon Brain Stem
Cerebrum (or Cortex)
■ Large rounded area that divides into left and
right hemisphere.
■ The left and right hemispheres are connected
by bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum.
■ The cerebral hemispheres consist of an inner
core of myelinated nerve fibers, the white
matter, and an outer cortex of gray matter
Divisions of the Cerebral Hemisphere:
- Frontal lobe - bodily movements
- Parietal lobe - skin sensation
- Occipital lobe - vision
- Temporal lobe - hearing
Lateralization of Function
■ The term brain lateralization,
or lateralization of brain function, means that
the different halves do things differently.
■ Both hemispheres work together to do most
things. However, for certain tasks, one
hemisphere may be more "dominant" than the
other.
Cerebellum
■ "Little brain"
■ The cerebellum is located behind the top part
of the brain stem (where the spinal cord meets
the brain) and is made of two hemispheres
(halves).
■ Voluntary movements such as posture,
balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in
smooth and balanced muscular activity.
■ Vermis - (central constricted area) connects
the hemispheres
Diencephalon
■ Forms the central part of the brain.
■ The diencephalon relays sensory information
between brain regions and controls many
autonomic functions of the peripheral nervous
system.
■ Hypothalamus - serves as the control center
for many autonomic functions through the
release of hormones.
■ Thalamus - assists in sensory perception,
regulation of motor functions, and control of
sleep and wake cycles.
■ Epithalamus - Located in the rear or bottom
area of the diencephalon that includes the
pineal gland, the epithalamus aids in sense of
smell and helps to regulate sleep and wake
cycles.
Brain Stem
■ Connects the cerebrum and cerebellum to the
spinal cord.
■ Parts:
■ Midbrain - center for visual and auditory
reflexes
■ Pons - bridges the cerebellum hemispheres
and higher brain centers with the spinal cord.
■ Medulla oblongata - contains the control ■ The SNS includes both afferent (sensory)
centers for swallowing, breathing, digestion, nerves that transmit various types of
and heartbeat. information (e.g., smells, pressure and pain) to
the the brain for processing and efferent
Spinal Cord (motor) nerves that direct the muscles under
■ Continuation of the brain stem. your control, such as those in your legs and
arms, to execute certain movements, such as
■ Long, cylindrical, and passes through a tunnel throwing or running.
in the vertebrae called vertebral canal.
■ Two main parts:
■ Carries messages between the CNS and the
rest of the body and mediates numerous spinal ■ Autonomic Nervous System
reflexes. ■ Involuntary
Protections of the Brain and the Spinal Cord ■ Maintains homeostasis
■ Meninges ■ Efferent portion is divided into two:
- Dura mater - prevents excessive brain Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems
movement. ■ The sympathetic nervous system is the part of
- Arachnoid mater - middle layer forms a loose the autonomic nervous system that prepares
covering beneath the dura mater. the body to react to stresses such as threat or
injury. It causes muscles to contract and heart
- Pia mater - clings to the brain and spinal cord; rate to increase.
contains blood vessels that supply the brain &
spinal cord ■ The parasympathetic nervous system is the
part of the autonomic nervous system that
■ Cerebrospinal fluid controls functions of the body at rest. It helps
- Protects the brain against crushing under its maintain homeostasis in the body. It causes
own weight & cushions against shocks from muscles to relax and heart rate to decrease.
walking, jumping, and running.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
■ Includes sensory receptors, sensory neurons,
and motor neurons.
■ Sensory receptors are activated by a stimulus.
Stimulus is then converted to an electronic
signal and transmitted to a sensory neuron.
■ Sensory neurons connect sensory receptors to
CNS.
■ Two main parts:
- Somatic Nervous System
donut share sa iban nga section hehe thanks :))
■ Voluntary
■ Includes 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs
cranial nerves