TRANSISTORS

The transistor is our most important example of an “active” component, a device that can
amplify, producing an output signal with more power in it than the input signal

There are two major species of transistors

• Bipolar Junction Transistors(BJTs)

• “Field-Effect” Transistors (FETs)

Common emitter amplifier - is one of three basic single-stage (BJT) amplifier topologies,
typically used as the voltage amplifier.

Common collector amplifier - used as a voltage buffer (current amplifier)

Common base amplifier - typically used as a current buffer or voltage amplifier (both voltage
and current amplification)

Common-emitter amplifier with voltage-divider bias

Matched biasing transistor
•Matched transistor pairs are used to stabilize base voltage for the required collector current

• Ensures automatic temperature compensation - Adding an emitter resistor will avoid

temperature effects.

Current Mirror - The current mirror circuit copies or mirrors the current flowing in one active
device in another, keeping the output current constant regardless of loading (Can use FET)

Wilson Mirror - Another variation of the basic current mirror within the circuit, a third
transistor is introduced.
Full Wilson Mirror - Adding a fourth transistor to the simple Wilson current mirror , we can have
the modified or improved Wilson mirror.

Darlington Connection
• It is primarily used because it offers a particularly high current gain, and this also reflects into a
high input impedance for the overall Darlington circuit when compared to a single transistor.
Disadvantages - Higher overall base-emitter voltage = 2 x Vbe , Slow switching speed, Limited
bandwidth.

Sziklai Connection
The two transistors in the pair are different types, one PNP and the other NPN so it is sometimes
also called the "complementary Darlington"

Sziklai Connection Features

• Only a single base emitter drops between the overall base and emitter of the compound
transistor.
• Very slightly lower gain than a Darlington.
• Higher saturation voltage than a Darlington.
• The Sziklai pair is known to provide a better level of linearity than the Darlington pair which
can be advantageous especially in audio applications. used as one half of a push pull amplifier.

Differential Amplifiers
• Differential Amplifier is a dc-coupled amplifier that amplifies the difference between two input
signals.

 important feature of differential amplifier is that it tends to reject or nullify the part of
input signals which is common to both inputs.
Advantages
• Large input resistance
• High gain
• Differential input
• Good bias stability
• Excellent device parameter tracking in IC implementation
Input Modes
•Normal-mode input: differential changes in the input signals
•Common-mode input: both inputs change levels together
Common Mode Rejection Ratio:
Ratio of response for normal-mode signal to response for common mode signal of the same
amplitude

 Bootstrapping is a technique used in the design of transistor amplifier circuits to increase

the input impedance this improves the amplification of the input signal.
 Amplifier Feedback Circuit The concept of feeding the output signal back to its input
circuit
Integrating Circuit - Ramp generator

In square wave, voltage levels change from Low to High or high to low, output will be a
triangular wave or saw tooth wave. which makes the capacitor gets charged or discharged.

Differentiating Circuit

Comparator Circuits
 frequency response should be infinite, it will amplify all frequencies equally.
Slew Rate
• The Slew Rate of an op amp describes how fast the output voltage can change in response
to an immediate change in voltage at the input. The higher value is Slew Rate more easily it
can reproduce high frequency signals.
Instrumentation Amplifier
Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier
An instrumentation amplifier is a differential op-amp circuit providing high input
impedances with ease of gain adjustment through the variation of a single resistor.
Good Instrumentation Amplifier Requirement;
• Finite, Accurate and Stable Gain
• Easier Gain Adjustment
• High Input Impedance
• Low Output Impedance
• High CMRR
• High Slew Rate

Instrumentation Amplifier Applications

 Measurement Applications
One of the applications these circuits are used for is taking measurements from sensors and
transducers. Instrumentation amps excel at extracting very weak signals from noisy
environments.
 Biomedical Applications
Most biomedical sensors are very high impedance and generate tiny signals. (blood pressure
sensors, ultrasound transducers, polarized and non-polarized electrodes, and radiation
thermometry transducers)
 Industrial Applications
Instrumentation amps also find usage in industrial automation, where many systems use
current flow to relay measurements and control remote installations.