BIOLOGY
CELLS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT
THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
• Cytology – study of the cell
• Stem cells – cells that have ability to divide
indefinitely; can be made to differentiate into
many cell types of the body
CELL THEORY
1. All living things are made up of cells
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of life
3. Cells come from the division of preexisting
cells
• Robert Hooke – coined the term “cell”
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek – discovered bacteria,
microscopic organisms
• Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani –
disproved the Theory of Spontaneous Generation
• Robert Brown – nucleus
• Felix Dujardin – sarcode (= protoplasm =
cytoplasm + nucleolus), a thick jelly fluid
• Matthias Schleiden – plant cells
• Theodor Schwann – animal cells
• Johannes Purkinje – coined the term
“protoplasm,” the living matter of the cell
• Louis Pasteur-supplied proof for Virchow’s
CELL STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
TWO TYPES OF CELLS
• Prokaryotic cell – lacks nuclear membrane;
nuclear materials located in the nucleoid region
• Eukaryotic cell – true nucleus; nuclear material
passage for entry/exit of substances in cell
enclosed by a nuclear membrane•
CELL’S FUNDAMENTAL PARTS
• Cytoplasm – region where main metabolic life
activities take place; contains life-sustaining
components
o Cytosol – thick semifluid aggregates of
chemical compounds
o Cytomembrane – internal membrane
• Cell membrane – protectively surrounds
cytoplasm; consist double layer of fats or lipids
(phospholipid or glycolipid) with scattered
proteins
o Differentially permeable – some materials
can pass through, other cannot
GRADE 12
PREPARED BY:
JERAMEL S. LAYMA, LPT
FUNCTION
a. separates cell contents from external
environment
b. regulates passage of materials; in and out
c. allows communication
• Nucleus – control center; houses genetic
material
o Nuclear membrane – double membrane;
each is phospholipid bilayer and has
nuclear pores
o Nuclear pores – pathway for exchange of
materials between nucleus and cytoplasm
o Nucleoplasm – consists of nucleoproteins,
granules, and fibrils
o Nucleolus – composed of RNA and protein;
site where ribosomes are formed
o Chromatin – composed of DNA and protein;
becomes chromosomes during cell
division
o Genes – bearers of hereditary traits; made
up of DNA found in the chromosome
ORGANELLES IN THE CYTOPLASM
• Mitochondria – powerhouse of eukaryotic cells;
site of cellular respiration
▪ ATP – adenosine triphosphate; energy in
cells
▪ Cristae – inner membrane in folds;
provide more surface area for greater
cellular respiratory productivity
▪ Matrix – inner cavity; contain enzymes
that breaks down carbohydrate
products
▪ Intermembrane space – narrow region
between niner and outer membranes
• Ribosomes – sites of protein synthesis
▪ Bound ribosomes – in RER; makes
secretory protein
▪ Free ribosomes – in cytosol; makes
localized proteins in cytosol
• Cytomembrane system – endomembrane
system; pathways where materials flow;
passage for entry/exit of substances in cell
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – transport
lipids and membrane proteins
▪ Rough ER – engaged in protein
synthesis
▪ Smooth ER – site for fat metabolism;
forms vesicle for transport
 BIOLOGY
CELLS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT
▪ Golgi apparatus – modify, sort, package
macromolecules for secretion, delivery
▪ Rounded vesicles – carriers of the
materials
▪ Lysosomes – produced by Golgi body;
digestive sac, suicide bag
▪ Peroxisomes – have oxidative enzymes
forms hydrogen peroxide
▪ Vacuole – large storage sac for water or
food; in plant cells it occupies 90% of
cell volume
▪ vesicles – smaller sacs
▪ contractile vacuoles – in protists; rid
the cell of excess water
SPECIAL ORGANELLES
• Centrioles – (animals, protists) forms spindle
fibers for movement of chromosomes during
cell division
▪ Centrosome – consists tow rod-shaped
centrioles; organize microtubules
• Cytoskeleton – network of interconnected
protein filaments extends throughout the
cytoplasm; for support, motility, regulation
▪ Actin filaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules – three types of
cytoskeleton components; cell structural
support, shape, and motility
• Plastids – (plants) store pigments and starch;
may change from one type to another (for fruit
development and ripening)
▪ chloroplast – green pigment (chlorophyll);
site of photosynthesis
▪ chromoplast – synthesize and store
carotenoid pigments (red, orange, yellow)
▪ anthocyanins – (red and violet) not in
plastids but dissolved in cell sap of
vacuoles
▪ carotenoids and anthocyanins –
responsible for nongreen
multicolored appearance
▪ leucoplast – colorless plastids; store food
▪ amyloplast – store starch
• Unicellular – composed of only one cell
• Multicellular – composed of many cells
• Colonial – composed of colony of unicellular
organisms such assome protists
▪ Volvox globator – colonial protozoan which
exhibits specialization in functions;
(1) reproductive cells; (2) vegetative cells
GRADE 12
PREPARED BY:
JERAMEL S. LAYMA, LPT
which perform life activities
• Rudolf Virchow – cells come from preexisting
cells (in cell theory)
THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
• Prebiotic evolution – chemical evolution before
life existed on earth
• Inorganic compound - rarely contains carbon
▪ Four main types: acids, bases, salts, and
water -most abundant
• Organic compound – always contains carbon
▪ Hydrocarbon bond – bond that directly attach
hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms
• Urea – first organic compound synthesized in
lab
THE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
• Carbohydrates – CnH2nOn
▪ Monosaccharides – simple sugars
o Isomers – same molecular formula but have
different in structure
o Hexoses – most common simple sugar; 6C;
glucose, fructose, and galactose
o Fructose – fruit sugar; sweetest
o Pentoses – 5-carbon sugars; deoxyribose
and ribose
▪ Disaccharides – double sugar
o Dehydration synthesis – a process that
bonds two molecules through the release of
water molecule
o Maltose – glucose + glucose (in beer)
o Sucrose – glucose + fructose (table sugar)
o Lactose – glucose + galactose (milk)
▪ Polysaccharides – long chain of simple sugars
o Starch – stored food in plants
o Glycogen – animal starch
o Cellulose – in cell wall
▪ FUNCTIONS
1. supply one-half of total energy requirements
2. cellulose in plant; chitin in exoskeletons
• Lipids – C,H,O; insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol
o ▪ Triglycerides – glycerol + 3 fatty acids
o ▪ Phospholipid – (in cell membrane) glycerol
+ 2 fatty acids + phosphate
o ▪ Cholesterol – necessary to form certain
steroid hormones such as sex hormones
 BIOLOGY
CELLS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT
o ▪ Saturated fat – animal fats; solid under
room temperature
o ▪ Unsaturated fat – fats of plants and fishes;
liquid under room temperature
• FUNCTIONS
1. Cell membrane; nuclear membrane; cutin
(waxy
material in leaves and stem); suberin (waxy
substance in cork cells)
2.A gram of fat has twice energy than a gram of
starch
3.Metabolic regulators; testosterone; estradiol
• Proteins – C,H,O,N, consists of amino acids
▪ Nonessential amino acids – (11) can be
synthesized by the cells
▪ Essential amino acids – (9) cannot be
synthesized by the body; supplied by diet (Try
This VIP MeLL)
▪ Proteins are characterized by number, kinds,
and sequence of the amino acids and its
structural orientation (folding and coiling)
• FUNCTIONS
1. Main structural component; most abundant
organic constituent of the living material
2. Main metabolic regulators; enzyme, insulin,
antibodies, and transport materials
3. Final source of energy (last resort)
• Nucleic Acids – C,H,O,N, and P consists nucleotides
o ▪ Nucleotide – 5-carbon sugar + nitrogenous
base + phosphate group
o ▪ Purine – adenine and guanine; double ring of
carbon and nitrogen atoms
o ▪ Pyrimidine – thymine, cytosine, and uracil;
single ring of C and N atoms
o ▪ Nucleoside – 5-C sugar + nitrogenous base
• TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID AND
FUNCTIONS
1. DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid; double helix;
ATGC; genetic material; control protein
synthesis
2.RNA – ribonucleic acid; single chain; AUGC;
has important role in protein synthesis
THE LIFE OF A CELL
GRADE 12
PREPARED BY:
JERAMEL S. LAYMA, LPT
REQUIREMENTS OF A CELL
1. Genetic material
2.Metabolic machinery
3.Cell membrane
• Viruses - not a cell; have genetic material but
do not have the metabolic life-sustaining
machinery; highly dependent on the living host
• Capsid - protein coat surrounding the nucleic
acid
(DNA or RNA) of a virus
• Metabolism – sum total of all chemical reactions
▪ Anabolism – constructive phase; formation;
energy-storing or endergonic reactions;
photosynthesis
▪ Catabolism – destructive phase; breakdown;
energy releasing or exergonic reactions;
cellular respiration
ENTRY AND EXIT OF MATERIALS IN CELLS
• Passive Transport – follows the concentration
gradient; high to low; does not require energy
▪ Diffusion – spontaneous random movement of
molecules from more to less concentrated
region; by gases and soluble substances
o Concentration gradient – difference in
concentration between two regions
o Net diffusion – direction of greater
movement of molecules; stops at
equilibrium
o Permeable membrane – allows both
solvent and solute to pass
▪ Osmosis – diffusion of solvent molecules
(water) through semi-permeable membrane
o Hypotonic solution – swell; turgor
pressure
o Hypertonic solution – shrink; plasmolysis
o Isotonic solution – neither swell nor
shrink
▪ Facilitated diffusion – passage of molecules
aided by certain carrier proteins; aka carrier
assisted transport; change shape and facilitate
passage
• The cellulose cell wall is permeable while the
cutinized and suberized cell walls are
impermeable
• Active Transport – move against concentration
gradient; low to high; requires energy (ATP)
▪ Endocytosis – entry of very large materials
o Phagocytosis – engulfs solid particles like
amoeba and white blood cells
 BIOLOGY GRADE 12

CELLS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT PREPARED BY:

JERAMEL S. LAYMA, LPT

› phagocytes – cells
› phagosome - vacuole
o Pinocytosis – cell drinking; take fluids
› pinocytic vesicle – invagination
› pinosome – vacuole
▪ Exocytosis – expel of large molecules like
proteins and polysaccharides