1.

Discuss THREE reasons why marine and wetland ecosystems are of the upmost
importance to the economies of many of the small island states of the Caribbean.
2. Name THREE greenhouse gases and explain the greenhouse effect.
3. An increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is leading to global warming and
global climate change. Outline FOUR consequences of global warming.
4. Outline FIVE different measures that should be taken to help conserve and restore our
environment.

Discuss THREE reasons why marine and wetland ecosystems are of the upmost
importance to the economies of many of the small island states of the Caribbean.
1. Tourism Revenue:
Marine and wetland ecosystems in the Caribbean are essential for the tourism industry,
which is a significant driver of the economy for many small island states in the region.
Pristine beaches, coral reefs, and lush wetlands attract tourists from around the world.
These ecosystems provide opportunities for activities such as snorkeling, scuba diving,
birdwatching, and eco-tourism. The revenue generated from tourism is a major source of
income, employment, and foreign exchange for these nations, making marine and wetland
conservation crucial for their economic stability.
2. Fisheries and Agriculture:
Marine ecosystems support thriving fisheries, which contribute to the food security and
economic well-being of many Caribbean countries. A variety of commercially valuable
fish, shellfish, and other seafood a re harvested from these waters. Additionally, wetland
ecosystems often act as nurseries for fish and provide a habitat for various species that are
integral to local fisheries. The loss of these ecosystems would have a significant negative
impact on both traditional and commercial fishing activities, affecting livelihoods and the
economy.
3. Storm Protection and Resilience:
Caribbean islands are vulnerable to tropical storms and hurricanes. Healthy marine and
wetland ecosystems, such as mangrove forests and coral reefs, act as natural barriers and
provide protection against storm surges and coastal erosion. By reducing the impact of
these natural disasters, these ecosystems help safeguard infrastructure and human
settlements, preventing significant economic losses associated with property damage and
the cost of recovery and rebuilding.
Three Greenhouse Gases and the Greenhouse Effect:
Three common greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water
vapor (H2O).
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs in the Earth's atmosphere. It
involves the following steps:
Solar radiation from the sun penetrates the Earth's atmosphere and reaches the surface.
 The Earth's surface absorbs this solar energy and warms up.
In response, the Earth emits heat energy in the form of infrared radiation.
Certain greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, absorb and
re-emit some of this infrared rad iation.
This re-emission of heat energy back toward the Earth's surface traps heat, leading to an
increase in temperature. This process is similar to how a greenhouse traps heat, hence the
term "greenhouse effect."
Four Consequences of Global Warming:
Rising Temperatures: Global warming leads to an increase in average temperatu res,
causing heatwaves and heat-related health issues, as well as altering weather patterns.
Melting Polar Ice and Glaciers: The warming climate causes ice sheets in polar regions
and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels and increased risk of coastal
flooding.
Ocean Acidification: Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are absorbed
by the oceans, causing them to become more acidic. This threatens marine ecosystems,
including coral reefs and shellfish populations.
Extreme Weather Events: Global warming is associated with more frequent and severe
weather events, such as hurricanes, droughts, and floods, which can have devastating
effects on agriculture, infrastructure, and human communities.

Five Measures to Conserve and Restore the Environment:

Renewable Energy Transition: Shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like
solar, wind, and hydropower to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate
change.
Biodiversity Conservation: Protect and restore natural habitats and implement
conservation measures to preserve biodiversity, including marine and wetland
ecosystems.
Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry: Promote sustainable farming practices and
reforestation efforts to reduce deforestation and land degradation while ensuring food
security.
Waste Reduction and Recycling: Implement waste reduction, recycling, and composting
programs to reduce the environmental impact of landfills and incineration.
Environmental Education and Policy: Educate the public on environmental issues and
advocate for policies that support sustainable practices, including regulations on
greenhouse gas emissions, pollution control, and habitat protection.
 The growth and survival of populations

The rate at which a population grows depends on four factors: the birth rate, the death rate, the rate
of movement of organisms into the population, i.e. immigration, and the rate of movement of
organisms out of the population, i.e. emigration. The growth of a population may be represented by
a sigmoid growth curve (see Figure 13.1, page 114).

When members of a species first colonise an area and start to reproduce, the birth rate exceeds the
death rate and the population increases in size until the area cannot support any more individuals.
This area is said to have reached its carrying capacity. At this point certain factors limit further
population growth:

• Food shortages start to occur.

• Overcrowding begins to occur which causes increased competition for space, a mate, food and

shelter in animals, and light, water and mineral salts in plants.

• Diseases start to spread more rapidly.

• Predators begin to increase in number. These limiting factors cause the death rate to increase and
the size of the population stabilises at a particular level, i.e. the stationary phase of growth is
reached, where the birth and death rates are equal. If the death rate exceeds the birth rate, the
population numbers decrease. Population sizes can also be considerably reduced by:

• Natural disasters such as hurricanes, storms, floods, droughts, earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic

eruptions.

• Invasive species, i.e. species that colonise ecosystems in which they, themselves, are non-natives.

• Pests. If environmental conditions become favourable again, surviving members of populations

begin to reproduce and population numbers increase once more.
Human population growth

The human population is currently in the phase of rapid growth. It is growing at about 1.2% per year
and has grown from 1 billion in 1804 to 7 billion in 2011.

The human population has grown exponentially since the mid-1800s because humans have:

• Developed modern medicine which has reduced the death rate from disease, improved infant

survival and increased life expectancy.

• Improved water supplies, sanitation and housing which have reduced the death rate from disease.

• Improved agricultural techniques which have increased food production.

• Developed a better nutritional understanding, which has improved health and increased life
expectancy
 Cells

In multicellular organisms, each cell has the same basic structure, but there are variations in the

design. Within a single organism, such as a human, there are great differences between the cells.

Each type of cell is specialised to, carry out a particular function well. For example, a muscle cell

is concerned with contraction of the muscle, while a nerve cell is specialised to transmit nerve

insulate the impulses (figure 8.6). nerve cell In a multicellular organism.

Specialised cells in animals and plants

This table gives some examples of specialised animal and plant
cell types and their function.
Animal
Specialised or plant Features of cell that allow it to perform
cell type cell? Function its function
Beta cell (in Releases hormone Uses its genetic instructions to assemble
pancreas) Animal insulin insulin
Contracts to allow
Skeletal movement of body Contains long protein filaments that can
muscle cell Animal parts slide past each other to shorten the cell
Transmits electrical
impulses from one Contain membrane proteins that carry out
Neuron part of body to active transport of sodium and potassium
(nerve cell) Animal another ions to help 'recharge' the cell
Carries oxygen to Contains the protein haemoglobin, which
Red blood body tissues that binds oxygen. Has no nucleus so there is
cell Animal require it more space available to carry oxygen
Has a tail to allow it to swim to egg cell
and contains many mitochondria to
Transfers genes from supply ATP for energy. Its head contains
male body to female enzymes that are released to help it break
gamete during sexual through the outer membrane of the egg
Sperm cell Animal reproduction cell
The building block of Cells have holes in their cell walls at each
the transport system end to allow sugars to move from one cell
Phloem cell Plant for sugars to the next
The building block of
the transport system Cells are strengthened with a hard
for water and mineral substance called lignin to withstand
Xylem cell Plant salts changes in pressure of water
Cell organisation
In multicellular animals and plants, groups of specialised cells work
together to create more complex structures:
  Groups of specialised cells that carry out particular functions
are called tissues.
 Organs are body parts that are made of several different types
of tissue and carry out one or more particular functions.
 Groups of organs can work together in organ systems such as
the circulatory system or the respiratory system.

The order in which cells are organised can be summarised as: