SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V.

Dolor
INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL & SANITARY
CHEMISTRY - Germ theory
o Emerged in the second half of the 1800s
and gradually replaced miasma theory
CHEMISTRY FOR SANITARY ENGINEERING o Miasma theory’s existence was not
without its merits. By removing the
Sanitary Engineering causes of bad smells, reformers often
inadvertently removed bacteria, the real
- application of engineering methods to improve
cause of many diseases.
sanitation of human communities
- Providing the removal and disposal of human
ROLE OF SANITARY ENGINEERS
waste, and in addition to the supply of safe potable
water.
Environmental Pollution and Control
Sanitation
- Hygienic means of promoting health through - Understand pollution
prevention of human contract with the hazards - Understand the environment
of wastes as well as the treatment and proper - Provide controls. Prevention, corrective
disposal of sewage or wastewater measures

MIASMA THEORY / MIASMATIC THEORY

IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY

- Diseases were caused by the presence in the air

It is a branch of physical science that studies the
of a miasma
composition, structure, properties and change of matter.
▪ a poisonous vapor in which were
suspended particles of decaying matter
that was characterized by its foul smell. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
▪ Greek word: “pollution”
▪ Noxious form of “bad air” / night air Red Tide

- originated in the Middle Ages and endured for - caused by algal blooms
several centuries. ▪ increased population of algae
which caused the coastal water
- malaria to change color
→ mala (bad) ▪ may cause of reduction of
→ aria (air) Italian oxygen in water and toxins is
o Killer disease released that may cause illness
o Caused by plasmodium parasite in humans and animals.
o Type of protozoa
- How are red tides harmful?
- Medical theory that held diseases – cholera, o Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP)
chlamydia, or the Black Death – that were caused ▪ Disease
by miasma ▪ caused by production of
- In 19th-century England the miasma theory made saxitoxin by the Alexandrium
sense to the sanitary reformers. Rapid species.
industrialization and urbanization had created ▪ Symptoms – disruption of nerve
many poor, filthy and foul-smelling city function, paralysis, and death
neighborhoods that tended to be the focal points (for extreme cases; by
of disease and epidemics. By improving the asphyxiation paralysis)
housing, sanitation and general cleanliness of
these existing areas, levels of disease were seen
to fall, an observation that lent weight to the
theory
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
- How are red tides harmful? Environmental Matrices
o Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP)
- Surrounding substances in which elements or
▪ Disease
chemical compounds of interest originate, or are
▪ caused by Dinophysis species.
contained.
▪ Symptoms – diarrhea, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, & Point Source Pollution
cramps - Discharged from an identifiable point, including
▪ generally not lethal pipes, outfalls and municipal and industrial
o Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) treatment processes.
▪ Disease
▪ caused by domoic acid
✓ producing
planktonic and
benthic algae,
Pseudo-
nitzschia
pungens forma
▪ Symptoms – gastric and
neurological (dizziness,
disorientation & memory loss)
Acid Rain / Acid Deposition
- Any form of precipitation with acidic components
✓ Sulfuric acid
✓ Nitric acid
- Caused by sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX) emitted into the atmosphere and
reacted with water, oxygen and other chemicals
to form sulfuric and nitric acids. ECOSYSTEMS CONSIDERATIONS

1. Environment shows both biological (biotic) and

physical (abiotic) factors that affect living
organisms on earth.
2. Environment can be subdivided into functional
units termed ecosystems, where dynamic
interactions between plants, animals,
microorganisms, and abiotic factors (e.g. soil,
water, nutrients and light) exist.

Components of geosphere
o Biosphere,
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY o lithosphere,
o hydrosphere
o atmosphere
- A multidisciplinary study of chemical, biological,
Biome
and integrated processes of the environment.
- extensive area compromising many similar
- Natural environment
ecosystems and characterized by dominant
o Composed of air, water, soil and land
biological communities
o Also biota that could be found in those
- 8 major types:
compartments
o Freshwater
- Man-made environment
o Marine
o Represented by human settlements
o Desert
consisting of physical elements.
o Savannah
o Coniferous forests
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
o Deciduous forests • Classification of Matter Based on composition
o Tropical rainforests o Element
o Tundra - Substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler ones
3) Ecosystems are characterized by flow of energy → food by chemical changes
webs (production, and degradation of organic matter, o Compound
& transformation and cycling of nutrients) - Two or more elements
- Has chemical and physical
Food chain properties that are different
- Production of organic matter from those of the elements of
- Energy platform which it is composed
- Producers (autotrophs) actively convert solar o Mixture
energy into stored chemical energy

Photosynthesis
- Conversion of solar energy into chemical energy
- Solar energy absorbed by the chlorophyll

Respiration
- Process of obtaining energy from glucose and
oxygen

4) Sun is the source of energy. Energy and nutrients are

passed from producers to herbivores to carnivores
through the food chain. Decomposers remove the
last energy from the remains of organism, and
inorganic nutrients are cycled back to the producers.
Ultimately, the energy originally captures is
transformed and lost as heat. Thus, energy is not
recycled.
Pure chemical substance
BASIC CONCEPTS FROM GENERAL CHEMISTRY - Matter that has a fixed chemical composition and
characteristic properties
- Example: Oxygen is a pure chemical substance
Matter – anything with mass and volume that is colorless, odorless gas at 25 Celsius

Physical change – the substance’s chemical identity did

not change Mixtures
Chemical change – the chemical bonds are broken and - Combinations of two or more pure substances in
formed a new one variable proportions
- Individual substances retain their identity

o Homogeneous → Solutions
- all portions of the materials are in the same
state
- no visible boundaries
o Hoterogeneous
- not completely uniform
Distillation
- Use of differences in volatility
- A measure of how easily a substance is converted
to gas
- Separating a mixture of substances
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
- The most volatile component boils first and is
condensed back to a liquid in the water cooled
condenser, from which it flows into the receiving
flask.
3 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF CHEMISTRY
V. Dolor
GLOBAL WATER AND ELEMENT CYCLES
Anthropogenic Activities
- caused by human activities such as agriculture,
forestry and other land uses, urbanization and
industrially-related processes.

1) Law of Conservation of Mass WATER CYCLE / HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

- Mass in an isolated system
- Neither created nor destroyed by
chemical reactions or physical
transformations.
- Must start and end with the same
amount
- Mass of the products in a chemical
reaction = mass of the reactants.
- Useful for a number of calculations
- Can be used to solve for unknown
masses (amount of
consumed/produced during reaction)
- cycle that involves the continuous circulation of
water in the Earth-atmosphere system.
- Evaporation (water-gas), transpiration (from
plants: water-gas), condensation (rain, hail),
precipitation (evaporate back to atmosphere or
move down to the ground surface) and runoff
(becomes stream flow).
- Amount of water = constant
gas

2) Law of Definite Composition

- Proposed by Joseph Proust based on
his observations on the composition of
chemical compounds.
- Compounds contain elements in the
same proportions by mass.
- Supported by Dalton’s atomic theory

3) Law of Definite Composition - Aspects of hydrolic cycle:

- Combination of same two elements to o Transportation of water
form more than one compound o Temporary storage
- Ratios can be expressed as small o Change of state.
numbers.
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
Water Budget Equation / Hydrologic equation
- Quantities of water going through various parts
of hydrological cycle in a given system
LECTURE 3: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARCTERISTICS
OF WATER
- Water quality is identified by physical,
Taste and Odor
chemical and microbiological properties of
water.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
- Determined by senses ( touch, sight, smell and
taste)
o Temperature (by touch)
o Color, floating debris, turbidity,
suspended solids (by sight)
o Taste
o Odor (by smell)
Temperature
- Affects the following:
o Thermal capacity
o Density
o Specific weight
o Viscosity
o Surface tension
o Specific conductivity
o Salinity
o Solubility of dissolved gases
Temperature
- Chemical and biological reaction rates increase
in 10 °C
- Water in streams and rivers → 0 to 35 °C
Color
- For aesthetic reason
- Gives an impression whether the water is good
for drinking.
- Shows the presence of organic substances
(algae or humic compounds)
- Quantative assessment of the presence of
hazardous or toxic organic materials in water
- Tested by comparing water samples to the
standard with concentrations of potassium
chloraplatinate and cabaltinous chloride.
Turbidity
- Measure of light-transmitting properties of
water
V. Dolor
- Comprised of suspended and colloidal material,
microscopic algae, bacteria dissolved organic
substances, etc. (invisible to the naked eye)
- “cloudiness” or “muddiness”
- It is important for health and aesthetic reasons
- Units of Measure
o Jackson Turbidity units (JTU)
o Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)
- Human perceptions of water quality
- Taste:
o Sour – hydrochloric acid
Simple compounds
o Salty – sodium chloride
o Sweet – sucrose Complex organic
o Bitter – caffeine compounds
- Organic materials discharged directly to water
are sources of tastes and odor-producing
componds related during biodegredation
- Patroleum, gasoline, turoentine, fuel or
solvent odors→ dangerous to use water
- Mertallic taste
o Iron, copper
o May leach into the water from the
pipes
o Zinc, manganese (less common)
- Chlorine, chemical or medical taste/odors
o Adding chlorine to water with a build-
up of organic matter in the pluming
system may cause the taste / odor to
be strong
o Not an immediate health threat
- Sulfur / rotten egg odor
o Bacteria growing in the sink drain
o Or hot water hear
o Hydrogen sulfide in the water supply
may may cause the odor
- Moldy, musty, earthy, grassy, / fishy odor
o Bacteria growing in the sink drain
o From organic matter that are present
in lakes and reservoirs
- Salty taste
o High level of naturally sodium,
magnesium or potassium
o If you live in coastal area, seawater
may be seeping into the fresh water
supply.
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WATER
- Reflection of the soils and the rocks which the
water has been in contact
- Agricultural & urban runoff and municipal &
industrial treated wasteater impact the
waterquality
- Microbial and chemical transformation →
affect the chemical characteristics of water
Calcium
- Naturallu occurs
- Seawater (400 ppm)
- Determinant of water hardness
- Dietary requirement for all organisms except
from some insects and bacteria
Magnesium
- Washed from rocks
- Dietary mineral exect for insects
- Central atom of chlorophyll molecule
- Requirement for plant photosynthesis
- Human body (25g Mg)
o 60% → bones
o 40% → muscles & other tissue
Water Hardness
- Undersirable
- May lead to greater soap consumption, scaling
boilers, causing corrosion & incrustation of
pipes, making food tasteless
- Temporary Hardness / Carbonate hardness
o Caused by bicarbonates and
carbonates of Ca and Mg
o boiling or adding lime to water could
remove the hardness
o Carbonate hardness = total hardness
or Alkalinity which ever is less
- Permanent Hardness / Non-carbonate
hardness
o Caused by sulphates, chlorides and
nitrates of Ca or Mg
o Cannot be removed by boiling
o Requires special treatment for
softening
o Non-carbonate hardness = total
hardness in excess of the alkalinity
- If equal or greater than the total hardness →
no non-carbonante hardness
- 1 French degree = 10mg/l of CaCO3
- 1 British degree = 14.25 mg/l
V. Dolor
- Water = 75 ppm → soft
- Water = above 200 ppm → hard
- Water = between 75 ppm & 200 ppm →
moderately hard
- Underground waters > surface waters
- Public water supplies = 75 to 115 ppm
Iron
- Present in two forms:
o Soluble ferrous iron
o Insoluble ferric iron
- w/ ferrous iron
→ clear, colorless because iron is
completely dissolved
→ when exposed to air : water turns cloudy
and reddish brown substance begins to
form
✓ ferric form of Iron
✓ will not be dissolved in
water
→ gives an unapleasant metallic taste
- when combined w/ tea coffee and other
beverages → inky, black appearance and
harsh, unacceptable taste
- 0.3 mg/L → reddish brown stains on fixtures,
tablewares (hard to remove)
- Can be removed by two methods:
o Water conditioner 9softener)
▪ Can be used on almost any
level of iron
o Oxidation
▪ Two-step process
▪ Use of oxygen, chlorine or
potassium permanganate
▪ Cause ferrous iron to form
ferric iron
▪ Ferric iron will be removed by
filtration
Manganese
- One of the most abundant metal in Earth
- Essential to proper functioning of humans and
animals
- Present in the attmosphere as suspended
particulates fom industrial emissions, soil
erosion, volcanic emissiions and burning MMT-
containing petrol
pH
- Caused by the presences of bicarbonate of Ca
& Mg
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
- Or by the carbonates of hydroxids of Na, K, Ca ▪ Essential human dietary
and Mg element
- Acidic ▪ Human body contains 0.03
o pH decreases when H+ concentration ppm of Cr
increases ▪ High concentration → DNA
o pH < 7 damage
- Alkaline ▪ As nutritional supplement to
o pH increases when H+ concentration treat type 2 diabetes and
decreases promote weight loss
o pH > 7 ▪ Dietary supplements: Cr(lll)
picolinate and polymicotinate
o Hexavalent chromium (Cr-6)
▪ Exist in alkalie, strongly
oxidizing environments,
- Measured by pH meter and indicators readily soluble in water
- Responsible Industry
o used on a large scale in metallurgical
and chemical industries.
o Metallurgical industry
▪ Production of stainless steels,
alloy cast iron and non-ferrous
alloys, plating steels
o Chemical industries pigments and
HEAVY METALS dyes, metal finishing and
electroplanting, wood preservatives
and leather tanning and glass
- Any metallic chemical element that has
manufacturing
relatively high density
- Chromium (IV)
- Toxic at low concentrations
o Xenotoxic carcinogenic
- Natural components of earth
o Respiratory tract is the major target
- Most pollutant heavy metal
organ for Cr(IV) toxicity, for acute and
o Lead
chronic inhalation property.
o Cadmium
o Kidney damage, liver failure, blood cell
o Mercury
damage happen due to its oxidation
Cadmium (Cd)
property.
- Derives its toxicological properties from
o Pneumonia, asthma, ulcerations of the
chemical similarity to zinc (essential
skin and bronchitis
micronutrient for living organisms)
- Environmental impact:
- Humans with long-term exposure on Cd:
o Dissolved Cr also lost through
o Renal disfunction
adsorption onto sediment particles
o Lung cancer
o High organic matter supports a
o Bone defects
reductive and complexing
- 0.15µg = Avareage intake of Cd for humans
environment
- 20 cigarettes = 2-4 µg of Cd
o In anoxic lakes, both concentrations
and speciation with depth and season
Chromium (Cr)
Zinc (Zn)
- Odorless and tasteles metallic element
- Naturally present in water
- Found in rocks, plants, soil, volcanic dust 7
- 0.6 – 5 ppb = average zinc concentration in
animals
seawater
- Common forms of Cr:
- 5-10 ppb = rivers
o Trivalent chromium (Cr-3)
- 20-700 ppm = algae
- 3-25 ppm = sea fish & shells
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
- 100-900 ppm = oysters
- 7-5 ppm = lobsters
- Biological Role:
o Dietary mineral for humans and
animals (skeletal muscle ~57%)
o Overdose
▪ negatively influence human
and animal health
▪ may be toxic w/ ingestion of
greater than 225 mg
- Environmental Impact:
o Introduce by erosion of minerals from
rocks
o Zinc ores – slightly soluble
o Industry – galvanizing, paint and
agriculture
o Not considered a hazard to water but
conserns elementary zinc
o Zinc arsenate and zinc cyanide may be
extremely hazardous
Lead (Pb)
- Soft gray metal element that occurs naturally
on earth
- Has low melting point and can be easily
aerosolized by heating.
- Can be formed into organic compounds by
some organisms, and some organic
compounds such as leaded gasoline have
industrial uses.
- Biological Role of Zinc:
o Stored for long periods in mineralizing
tissue such as teeth and bones
o Can be released agin into the
bloodstream from these sources
during times of bodily stress such as:
▪ Pregnancy
▪ Breastfeeding
▪ Calcium defiency
▪ Osteoporosis
o Human body = 120 mg (10-20%
absorbed by the intestines)
o Effects of lead posoning are
neurological or teratogenic
o Women are generally more
susceptible to lead poisoning than
men
- Environmental impact:
o Toxic pollutants
o Pb(lll) salts and organic lead
compounds are the most harmful
ecotoxicologically
V. Dolor
o Pb salts are attributed to water hazard
class 2 and consequently are harmful.
o Accumulates in organisms, sediments
and sludge.
o In wastewater mostly stems from
streets and roofs.
Copper (Cu)
- Stable in its metallic state, transition metal
- Metallic Cu → malleable, ductile and good
thermal and electrical conductor
- Versatile
- For eectrical wiring, pipes, valves, fittings,
coins, cooking utensils and building materials
- Biological Role:
o Have diverse roles in biological
electron transport and oxygen
transportation, processes that exploit
the easy iterconversion of Cu(I) and
Cu(II)
o Competent of other proteins
associated with the processing of
oxygen
o Essential trace element in plants and
animals, but not some microorganisms
o Exclusing hair and nails, the highest
concentrations of Cu under normal
conditions are found in the liver, brain,
heart, and kidney with moderate
concentrations found in the intestine,
lung and spleen.
o Overexposure – nausea, voiting and
liver failure.
- Environmental Impact:
o Found in surface water, groundwater,
seawater and drinking-water
o Primarily present in complexes or as
particulate matter
o Dissolve Cu can sometimes impart a
light blue / blu-green color and an
unpleasant metallic,bitter taste to
drinking water
o 50% concentration could detect the
taste of Cu as the sulfate/ chloride salt
in tap or demineralized water ranged
from 2.4 – 2.6 mg/L
Sulfates
- One of the major dissolved components of rain
- High concentration in drinking water with Ca &
Mg → laxative effect
- Bacteria : attact and reduce sulfates, form
hydrogen sulfide gas (H2S)
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
- Minerals that contain sulfate are sodium ▪ Not fully oxidized organic
sulfate (Glauber’s salt), magnesium matter in water
sulfate(Epsom salt), calcium sulfate (gypsum) ▪ Highly dangerous
- Biological Role: ▪ Permissible amount of nitrites
o Animals are also sensitive to high in water should be nil
levels of sulfate o Nitrates:
o Young animals – highlevels may cause ▪ Indicates fully oxidized organic
severe, chronic diarrhea and some matter in water
cases, death. ▪ Not harmful
o Gives bitter / medical taste
o High concentration → 250 mg/l ▪ Too much of nitrates in water
o Drinking high level of sulfate may may cause
experience dehydration and diarrhea Methemoglobinemia
- Industrial Resource: ✓ Blue baby
o Sulfates and sulfuric acid products disease
▪ Used in production of ✓ Adversely
fertilizers, cheicals, dyes, glass, affect the
paper, soaps, textile. health of
Fungicides, insecticides, infants
astringents and emetics. o Ammonia nitrogen + organic nitrogen
o Aluminum sulfate = kjeldahl nitrogen
▪ Used as a sedimentation agent - Eutrophication:
in the teatment of drinking o An enrichment of water by nutrient
water salts that causes structural changes to
- Environmental Impact: the ecosystem
o Sulfate > 0.5 mg/L → algal growth will o Increase production of algae & aquatic
not occur plants, depletion of fish species,
o Not toxic to living things at normal general deterioration of water quality
concentrations and other effects that reduce and
o 500-750 mg/L concentration to in preclude use
humans → temporary laxative effect - Hypoxia:
o Low oxygen
Nitrogen Content
o Aquatic ecosystems
- Naturally occuring ions that are part of the
▪ Low oxygen means
nitrogen cycle
concentration of less than 2-3
- Nitrate ion (NO-3) – stable form of combined
mm/l
nitrogen for oxygenated systems
o Anoxia – lack of oxygen (0 mg/L)
- Chemically unreactive
o Dead zones – area without oxygen
- Can be reduced by microbial action
o Problem in estuaries and coastal
- The presence of Ni in water may occur in one
waters that can be also a problem in
or more of the ff reasons:
freahwater lakes.
o Free ammonia:
Phosphates
▪ first stage of decomposition of
- Chemical compound containing phosphorus
organic matter.
- Phosphorus:
▪ Should not exeed 0.15 mg/l
o Non-metallic element
o Albuminous / Organic Matter:
o Necessary for life
▪ Quality of Ni present in water
o Found in rock as inorganic phosphates
before the decomposition of
- As water runs over and through rocks it carries
organic molten has started
off small amounts of minerals such as calcium,
▪ Should not exceed 0.3 mg/l
magnesium and phosphates.
o Nitrites:
- Can lead to eutrophication of natural water
systems. Artifcial sources:
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
o Sewage - Germ theory:
o Laundry, cleaning fluids o John Snow
o Synthetic fertilizers ▪ Physician
- Health Effects: ▪ Collected evidence during the
o Part of DNA molecules – carry genetic outbreak in London
information ▪ Suggests that the source of
o Part of ATP and ADP that store outbreak was the public water
chemical energy for use by organisms system not from the foul air.
in cellular respiration - Public health
Flouride o Prevention from water-borne illness
- Salts that form when the element flourine, caused by microorganisms →
combines with minerals in soil or rocks. considering potential health problems
- Uses: related to anthropogenic water
o added in drinking water pollution and the impact of water
o water flouridation treatment on public health
▪ controlled addition of flouride - Increase of population resulting to increasing
to public water supply to needs for drinking water, the awareness of a
reduce tooth decay. correlation between diseases and the
o Flouridated water consumption of untreated water, and climate
▪ Has fluoride at a level that is change effects such as seawater infiltration
effective for preventing due to increase in sea level, droughts and
cavities; this can occur various natural disasters have resulted in
naturally or by adding fluoride. increase awareness of fresh water scarcity.

FACTS ABOUT WATER

LECTURE 4: CHEMISTRY OF WATER TREATMENT

An average family of 4 uses 90, 000 gallons of

water a year
50 gallon water heater holds 400 lbs of water
INTRODUCTION
Human blood = 83%
- ¾ of the earth’s surface is water Human bones = 25%
Human skin = 70%
An average person can survive nearly 2 months
w/o food, but only 5-7 days w/o water
saltwater = 97%
freshwater (mostly are frozen in glaciers) = 3%
available drinking water = 1%

WATER PURIFICATION

- major contaminants in water purification

applications, as applied to drinking water
sources, derived from ground water:
- Prior to industrialization, the polution of rivers o heavy metals
and streams was not such a significant problem o turbidity
and dilution in receiving streams was often o organic compounds
considered as a solution to pollution. o pathogens
- Contaminants is diluted because the small
quantities of waste products were realeased
into large receiving waters
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
WATER QUALITY
General Aspects of Water Quality
- Hydrological cycle
o Comprising of rainfall, runoff,
infiltration, impounding, use and
evaporation
o It comes into into contact with many
different substances that may be
dissolved by the water to a greater or
lesser extent or that may be
suspended in the water
- The types of contaminants or substances of
concern that may occur in water sources vary
over a wide spectrum and include inorganic
salts, micro-organism, clay particles and
organic material
Dissolved Substances
- Gasses: oxygen, carbon dioxide, ammonia
- inorganic compounds: sodium chloride (NaCl),
calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
- organic compounds: humic acids,
carbohydrates
- more difficult to remove from water than
suspended substances, since they must either
be converted into solid form (precipitation), or
to the gas form (oxidation) so that the gas can
escape from water
Suspended and colloidal substances
- Some substances may not dissolve in water but
remain in suspension as very small suspended
or colloidal particles.
- Suspended solids are defined as solids that are
relatively large and settle easily under
quiescent conditions. Suspended solids are
normally determined by filtering the
suspended solids from a water sample of
known mass, and determining the mass of the
dried solids.
- Colloidal particles on the other hand are too
small to settle and they also carry an electrical
charge that prevents them from settling.
Chemical Water Quality
- Toxic = chromium, arsenic
- Water hardness = calcium carbonate
- Taste and odor = sodium chloride, geosmin
- Chemical compounds that can be present I
water:
V. Dolor
o Sodium chloride
o NaCl and calcium sulphate
o CaSO4 in the form of respective ions:
Na+, Ca2+, Cl- and SO42+
- A very large variety of organic substances can
be present in water it can either be natural
substances such as decaying plant material,
algal or bacterial byproducts and
carbohydrates, or synthetic compounds such
as pesticides, herbicides and solvents as well
as products formed during water treatment
such as chloroform and other chlorinated
products.
- An indication of the general organic quality of
the water can be obtained by means of the
determination of cumulative parameters such
as:
o Total Organic Carbon (TOC)
o Dissolved organic carbon (DOC)
o Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
o Biological oxygen demand (BOD)
Other Chemical water quality parameters
Alkalinity
- measure of its acid-neutralising capacity
Alkalinity plays an important role to buffer
water and prevent changes in pH due to
addition of acid or acid producing chemicals
such as ferric chloride.
- Determined by concentration of carbonate,
bicarbonate and hydroxide species in water
and by pH.
- Different forms of alkalinity are distinguished
by titrating the water to different specific end
points.
- Total alkalinity (also known as the Carbonic
Acid Alkalinity) is determined by titrating with
a strong acid to a pH end point of 4,5.
- Phenolphtalein alkalinity (also known as
bicarbonate alkalinity) is determined by
titrating a water sample to the
phenolphthalein end point of pH 7.8.
Hardness
- determined by the concentration of
divalent cations in the water, mostly
calcium and magnesium and is expressed
as mg/l CaCO3.
- Different forms of hardness can be
distinguished all expressed as mg/l CaCO3:
o Carbonate (Temporary Hardness)
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
▪ caused by calcium and
magnesium associated with
bicarbonate in the water
o Non-carbonate (Permanent
Hardness)
▪ caused by calcium and
magnesium associated with
ions other than bicarbonate
such as chloride and sulphate
o Calcium Hardness
▪ caused by all calcium ions in
solution
o Magnesium Hardness
▪ caused by all the magnesium
ions in solution
o Total Hardness
▪ Sum of calcium and
magnesium hardness
V. Dolor
- pH
o measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions
o expressed as a logarithmic value
o an indication of how acidic or basic the
water
- Color
o either true colour caused by dissolved
substances
o or apparent color caused by colloidal
substances.
- Taste and Odor
WATER SUPPLY FUNDAMENTALS
Classifications of sources of supply according to the
position on the earth:

Chemical Stability 1. Meteoric Waters (Sources above ground

- water is essential because it determines surface)
whether water will be chemically stable, 2. Surface Water (Sources on the ground
aggressive-corrosive or scale forming surface)
3. Ground waters (Sources below ground
Residual Chlorine surface)
- Chlorine is the most generally used agent to
disinfect water. PROPERTIES OF WATER
- Stringent control of the amount of chlorine Surface Tension
dosed and the residual chlorine concentration - Ability to stick to itself and pull itself together
after a certain contact time is necessary to - Water has an extremely high surface tension
ensure microbiologically safe water.
Capillarity
- Chlorine gas (Cl2) dissolves in water to
- Ability to climb upon a srface against the pull
form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid
of gravity
- Hypochlorous acid
o Disinfecting agent Pure Water
o Dissociates to form the - Water that is colorless and odorless and not
-
hypochlorite ion, OCl found in nature as purified water ( a product
of water purification)
Physical Water Quality Natural Water
- Electric Conductivity - Readily found in nature
o Measure of the ability to conduct an - Impounded from precipitation
electric currect. - Contains impurities (physical, chemical,
o Since the electric current is conducted bacteriological or radiological)
through the movement of ions in
Fresh Water
solution, EC also gives an indication of
- Having a salt concentration below 0.01%
the concentration of the ions or total
- lakes, rivers, groundwater and other bodies of
dissolved solids (TDS) in the water.
water that have a through flow of water from
- Turbidity
rainfall.
o gives an indication of the
concentration of colloidal particles in
water.
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
Black Water
- Water plus human waste that is flushed out of
toilets and urinals
Strom Water
- Rain, surface-runoff. (rainwater drained from
roof gutters and downspouts.

WATER SOURCES

Groundwater
- rainwater which has percolated into the earth
to form aquifers
o underground deposits
Salt Water o water-bearing soil formations
- contains atleast 3% of salt
- 30 parts salt per 1000 parts water Surface Runoff
- include river, lakes, ponds and impounding
Purified Water reservoirs.
- Undergoes treatment
- physical, biological or chemical means to Water wells
improve water quality - water that flows into wells is called
groundwater.
Contaminated Water o comes from rain that is absorbed into
- with any materials or substance that affects the ground
the quality of water o then slowly filtered through the
- affects the health of an individual different layers of the ground and into
Polluted Water the ground-water reservoir
- with the presence of any foreign substance o The top of this zone is known as the
(organic, inorganic, radiological, biological) water table,
- tends to degrade its quaity ▪ the level at which water
- constitute health hazard stands in a well that is not
- impair the potability of water being pumped.
- water that contains one or more impurities Wells
that make the water unsuitable for a desire - holes in the earth from which a fluid may be
use. withdrawn using manual or mechanical means
Hard Water such as draw bucket, pump, etc.
- with elements that causes hardness (Ca, Mg, - It is a hole which has been dug, bored, driven
Fe and Al) or drilled beneath the ground for the purpose
- chracterized by difficulty of producing lather of extracting groundwater.
from detergents and the presence of scale Two Zone:
deposits in pipes and heaters or bailers - Unsaturated Zone
Soft Water o which is immediately beneath the
- w/o Ca and Mg ground surface
- easiness of producing lather detergents and o contains both water and air in the
absence of scale formation in boilers, heaters voids and pores.
and pipes. - Saturated Zone
o where voids are all filled with water.
Grey Water
o Ground water - water in the saturated
- from laudries, wash basins, sinks, shower,
zone
bathtubs
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
Water Table
- boundary between the unsaturated zone and
the saturated zone.
TWO TYPES OF AQUIFER
Unconfined Aquifer
- whose upper limit is the water table, are often
shallow and the hydraulic pressure at its
surface water level or water table is equal to
the atmospheric pressure.
Confined Aquifer
- Where an aquifer is sandwiched between an
upper impermeable layer and a lower
impermeable layer.
HYDRAULIC PRESSURE OR ARTESIAN
Pressure
- will cause the groundwater in a well to rise
above the confining layer or even above the
ground surface.
TYPES OF WELLS BASED ON AQUIFER TAPPED
Types of Wells based on Aquifer Tapped:
Shallow Well
- < 20m deep
Deep Well
- > 20m deep
- Tap the deeper unconfined aquifer
- aquifer is not confined by an overlying
impermeable layer
- characterized by the presence of a water
table.
V. Dolor
Artesian Well
- the deep wells except that the water extracted
is from a confined aquifer.
TYPES OF WELLS BASED ON DESIGN AND
CONSTRUCTION METHODS
Dug Well
- can be constructed with hand tools and power
tools.
- can be dug to a depth of about 15 meters
(50ft) deep
- with a diameter usually from 1 m to 1.5m
- can have the greatest diameter that a space
may allow.
Driven Well
- the simplest and usually the least expensive
- like dug wells, in the sense that they tap the
shallow portion of the unconfined aquifers
- steel drive-well point
o fitted on one end of the pipe section
and driven into the earth.
o The drive point is usually is 1 ¼” to 2”
(32mm to 51mm) in diameter.
o The point may be driven into the
ground to a depth of up to 15m (50 ft).
Bored Wells
- dug with hand or power augers
- into soft cohesive or noncaving formations
that contain enough clay to support the
boreholes and are usually less than 30m (100ft)
deep.
- used when the earth to be bored is boulder
free and will not cave in.
- diameter ranges from 2 to 30 inches.
- lined with metal, vitrified tile or concrete
Drilled Wells
- require more elaborate equipment of
several types, depending on the geology
of the site
- measure up to 300 m (984ft)
 SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor
IMPURITIES IN WATER
WATER SERVICE LEVELS ARE CLASSIFIED IN
Physical Impurities
THE PHILIPPINES UNDER 3 TYPES:
- plastics silt / stone / rocks / leaves / tree branch
Level 1 (Point Source)
/ styroform
- protected well or a developed spring .
Chemical Impurities - without a distribution system.
- dissolved or colloidal constituents of water - normally serves an average of 15 households.
which account mostly for the color and - Within radius of 250 m
palatability of water
Level II (Communal Faucet System or Stand posts)
Bacteriological Impurities - source, a reservoir, a piped distribution
- Cocci / Bacilli / Spirilla / Vibrios / Pirochaetes network, and communal faucets.
- Can be treated using chlorine - serves four to six households (4-6 households)
- radius of 25 m
- suited for rural and urban fringe areas
Level III (Waterworks system or
Individual House Connections)
- source, a reservoir, a piped distribution
network, and areas where the population can
afford individual connections.
- suited for densely populated urban areas .

Design Population
- the targeted number of people that the project
Radiological Impurities will serve.
- the radionuclides that are present in water as Water Consumptions
a result of nuclear weapons testing and - served by small water utilities are commonly
discharge of radioisotopes classified into domestic use, commercial use,
- nuclear waste institutional use or industrial use.
- RA 6969

Unit Consumptions
Biological Impurities
- for domestic water demand is expressed in per
- Includes microscopic plants and animal life
capita consumption per day. The commonly
other than bacteria present in water
used unit is liters per capita per day (lpcd).
Rate of Consumption:
WATER DEMAND
▪ Level I – at least 20 lpcd
▪ Level II – 50 lpcd to 60 lpcd (each public
Influenced by the following factors:
faucet should serve 4-6 household)
➢ Service levels to be implemented
▪ Level III – 80 -100 lpcd
➢ Size of the Community
➢ Standard of living of the populace
➢ Quantity and Quality of water available in the TREATMENT PROCESSES
area
➢ Water tariffs that need to be shouldered by the
consumers. Coagulation and Flocculation
➢ Climatological conditions - ∙ As far as water treatment is concerned, two
➢ Habits and manners of water usage by the broadly different types of water, one
people. containing predominately suspended particles,
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
visible and/or colloidal, and the other,
dissolved materials, brown in colour.
- In all cases, the object is to:
1. Destabilize this foreign colloidal
matter so as to incorporate it in
the form of a floc. This is known as
the coagulation or rapid mixing
stage.
2. Allow the floc, so formed, to grow
in size by stirring slowly so that it
may settle out. This is the
flocculation stage.
- Clay and silica particles carry electrical charges,
these result in unbalanced charges at their
surfaces.
- Destabilization of clay and silica by metal salts
o when dosed into alkaline or slightly
acid water, metals salts such as
aluminum sulphate, ferric chloride and
sulphate, combine with hydroxide ions
from the water, giving rise to a series
of charged ions, containing several
metal ions, all of the same metal
- Destabilization of Clay and Silica Particles by
Polymeric Compounds
o Polymeric compounds are large
organic molecules containing multiple
charged groups.
o The charged groups attach themselves
to the surfaces of particles thereby
holding them together and causing
them to coagulate.
- Floc formation in both types of water
o once destabilization has occurred, floc
formation has commenced. It may be
speeded up by stirring.
o Rapid stirring is usually employed at
first, followed by more a gentler
approach.
o The overall process is termed tapered
flocculation. Some 10 to 30 minutes
are required for the floc to develop to
near the full extent.
- Treatment of Chemicals
o chemicals used in flocculation are
acidic, alkaline (basic) or
approximately neutral
o the water that is being treated may
also be acidic, alkaline or neutral.
o Acids and alkalis neutralize each other
V. Dolor
o Therefore, various combinations of
chemicals are used, in order to achieve
the desired coagulation pH.
1) Aluminum Sulphate (Alum)
- Usually dosed in the form of a
solution
- Then forms under appropriate
conditions white or brown floc,
depending on the impurity being
removed
tr
2) Ferric Sulphate
- usually dosed in the form of a
solution, and then forms, under
appropriate conditions, a brown
floc
3) Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)
- usually dosed in the form of a
solution, and then forms, under
appropriate conditions, a yellow
brown floc.
- very corrosive, dissolving stainless
steel in a matter of hours, but can
be handled by the use of plastic
materials
4) Sodium Aluminate
- usually dosed in the form of a
solution, under appropriate
conditions, a white or brown floc,
depending on the impurity being
removed
- has the advantage of being one of
the few alkaline flocculants and can
be combined with acidic alum and
possibly some lime to give the
desired pH
5) Quick Lime and Slaked (hydrated) Lime
- Limestone, CaCO3, when heated in
a kiln to drive off carbon dioxide,
gives rise to quick lime, CaO, which
in the form of pebbles or lumps,
combines with water to produce
slaked lime, Ca(OH)2, in the course
of which it swells and disintegrates
into a fine powder.
- resultant slaked lime is sometimes
used directly or, when dried and
cleaned up by blowing a current of
air through it to remove
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry
incorporated sand, may be dosed as
a powder.
- Slaked lime has two main uses:
o Firstly, as an alkali for pH
control in conjunction
with a flocculant
o Secondly, as a means of
rendering soft waters
non-aggressive to cement
and concrete.
6) Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash or Washing
Soda)
- very soluble alkali that is
sometimes used at smaller
treatment plants and, usually, at
municipal swimming pools for pH
control
7) Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda)
- an alkali that is seldom used in
water treatment, because of it’s
cost and the hazard associated
with its use
JAR TEST
Sedimentation and Flotation
- Floc aggregates that are formed during
coagulation-flocculation in conventional water
treatment are typically removed from the
water by means of sedimentation (or
flotation) and sand filtration.
o Sedimentation is the process in which
the flocs are allowed to settle from the
water and collect at the bottom of the
sedimentation tank as sludge from
where the sludge is regularly removed.
- Floc aggregates can also be removed by
flotation and sand filtration.
o Flotation is the process in which the
flocs attach to minute air bubbles
introduced into the water and rise to
the surface from where the float
containing the floc is regularly
removed.
o Clean water is abstracted from the
bottom of the flotation unit.
Sand Filtration
- While coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation
and flotation play important roles and will
remove the bulk of the particles from the raw
V. Dolor
water, they alone will not meet the strict
quality standards that are required of drinking
water.
o Filtration is the only process that is
capable of removing very small
particles down to the level required.
- Filtration is best understood if the process is
visualised at a micro-level where a single
particle is followed through a media bed.
o Such a typical particle may be
imagined to be about 20 μm in
diameter, the size where individual
particles within water become visible
to the human eye.
o The media grains, typically, will have a
diameter of about 1 mm. On a linear
scale, a media grain is thus about 50
times larger than a particle; the same
ratio that differentiates a grain of rice
from a soccer ball.
Disinfection
- The objective of water treatment is to produce
a final product that is microbiologically and
chemically safe for consumption as well as
aesthetically acceptable.
- Depending on the source and the nature of the
raw water, one or combination of these
processes is used to prepare the water
physically and chemically for the essential final
stage of disinfection.
- Final disinfection is the most important stage
of water treatment and is a process specifically
designed for the reduction of the number of
pathogenic organisms present.
o As disinfection is the final safeguard
against water-borne microbial
disease, the application of
disinfectants is of utmost importance
as it also is the last point at which the
water quality can be affected.
SE 402 – Environmental and Sanitary Chemistry V. Dolor

INTRODUCTION TO WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

- ¾ of the earth’s surface is water

o < 1% for human consumption in the
form of surface waters
o 97% are oceans etc.
o 2% are ice-caps and glaciers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WASTEWATER