Renewable Power

Hydropower
Rodrigo López González

cl.linkedin.com/in/rodrigolopezgonzalez @t_rlopezg rodrigo.lopez@wolfson.cl

Content
Introduction 3

Where hydropower is generated? 4

Reservation 5

Mainstream technologies 6
Turbines 6
Action turbines 7
Pelton turbine 7
Reaction turbine 8
Francis turbines 8
Kaplan turbine 9
Mechanical transmission 10
Generator 11
Asynchronous machines 12
Synchronous machines 12
Auxiliary excitation 12
Self-excitement 12
Regulation and control subsystem 12
​Transformers 14
​Lines of transmission 14
Civil works 16
​Retention and storage element 17
​Weir 16
​Dams 17
​Spillways 19
​Fixed spillways 19
Hydraulic conduction 22
​Water intaked 22

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 ​Forced piping 22
​Equilibrium chimneys 23
​Cargo deposit 23
​Chanel 23
Plant 23

Operation of the plant 23

Installation of non-modifiable program 25
The joint operation of the plants 25

Impact and environmental management 26

During the filling of the reservoir 26
After damming 27

Advantages and disadvantages 28

At the operation level 28
At the environmental level 28

Bibliografía 29

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Introduction
Hydropower has been one of the first sources of energy used to reduce the workload of man and
animals. It is not known exactly when the water wheel was invented, but irrigation systems have
existed for at least 5,000 years and it seems likely that the first device that used hydraulic power
was the Ferris wheel, raising water from a river to a tank or a system of channels.

Originally, it was the irrigation and urban water supply, needs that drove the development of
techniques to capture and retain water in rivers and streams. Significant changes in what is now
called hydrotechnology, played their part from 1832, when the French engineer Benoit Fourneyron
(1802-1867) designed the first turbine, which operated with yields of around 80%.

Between 1860 and 1880, James B. Francis, engineer in the textile factories of Massachusetts,
USA, develops the centripetal turbine for falls of medium height and Lester A. Pelton developed the
wheel that bears his name. In 1895, Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse built the first electric
power transformation plant in Niagara Falls. In 1912, Victor Kaplan, Czech engineer, studied a
propeller with adjustable blades that adapt well to low-drop plants installed in stream rivers. In
1950, groups of submerged bulbs will be born from these machines.

Until about 1880, it was not possible to transport mechanical energy derived from hydraulic energy
beyond a few kilometers. This transmission was done by belt in the workshops, by metal cable or
by a water supply bypass channel to a water stream or tank to the mill or industries. Therefore,
until the development of electricity transmission, the hydraulic system had to be used instead.

The origin of the water resource may not be so obvious. It is necessary to remember that hydraulic
energy is the kinetic energy of the movement of water masses or the potential energy of water
available at a certain height. Like most other renewable energies, hydropower is a consequence of
solar radiation. The sun starts a hydrological cycle evaporating water from the surface of the Earth
(oceans, lakes, etc.) The water in the form of steam, is transported on the continents by
atmospheric circulation and by precipitation and its flow through the surface of the earth in the
form of streams and rivers is able to provide this energy.

Currently, hydraulic energy is mainly used to generate electricity. The current hydroelectric plants
are the result of 2,000 years of technological advances, from the wooden wheel, which converted
a low percentage of hydraulic energy into useful mechanical energy, to modern turbogenerators
that rotate at 1,500 revolutions per minute and produce electric power with very high yields Unlike
other renewable energies, hydroelectric power is a very well established technology.

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The hydroelectric power plants are in charge of taking advantage of this energy and transforming it
into electrical energy. The water in its fall between two levels is passed through a hydraulic turbine,
which transforms the hydraulic energy into mechanical energy of rotation, which by the action of an
alternator is converted into electrical energy. The hydroelectric potential is used in specific locations
that meet the technical, economical, environmental and social characteristics required for the
construction and operation of a hydroelectric plant.

Although there is a great diversity of hydraulic systems utilized in the use of this potential,
hydroelectric power plants can be classified into two main types: run-of-river power plants and
reservoir power plants. Associated to these last ones also exists the reversible hydraulic power
stations

Where hydropower is generated?

Hydropower is one of the most important renewable energies on the planet. If we talk about energy
potential, we refer to how much energy is capable of producing a certain amount of water at a
certain height. The potential energy of the water is transformed into kinetic energy and this is
turned into mechanical energy by means of hydraulic turbines placed at the base of the
corresponding regulatory reservoirs. The use of the captured energy, is almost entirely for the
production of electricity, since the hydraulic turbine is coupled to the rotor of an electric generator.

Current estimates of the technically exploitable hydroelectric potential in the world, suggest a
capacity of the order of 2-3 TW, this would imply an annual production of 10 PWh. By 2017, the
capacity of hydroelectric generation installed in the world was approximately 1 212 300 MW, of
which 144 500 MW were hydroelectric pumping stations, with an annual production of 3 969 115
GWh. That was, 25% of the exploitable technical potential (Figure 1).

In Chile, the hydroelectric potential is estimated at 20 GW, of which almost 6.6 GW are currently
used. Of this potential, approximately 60% are concentrated in the regions of Araucanía, Los
Lagos, Los Ríos and Aysén, and in particular in the last one, the Aysén region, that is in the
extreme south of the country, where the water resource is abundant. The current situation of
hydroelectric energy can be seen in Table 1, in which only 9 reservoir power stations appear and
the rest, 23, are small run-of-the-river power plants.

Ralco, the largest reservoir plant in Chile, of the company ENEL Generatión, is located 120 km east
of Los Angeles in the Bío-Bío region. It uses the waters of the river of the same name as the region.
It has a total reservoir volume of 1222 million cubic meters, has an installed power of 690 MW and
a generating capacity of 1918 GWh.

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 Fig. 1. Installed capacity and global hydroelectric generation 2016 - 2022.)

Reservation
Hydropower is a renewable energy. Therefore, the concept of reserve is not the same as in the
case of energy produced by coal, oil, gas or uranium. We must have the concept of existing energy
for a determined period of time, and that can be exploited in economical, social and environmental
conditions of a much larger total than the one that constitutes the global resources of the planet.

Broadly speaking, considering the annual average of rainfall levels in the world and the height
above ground level average, it can be estimated that the potential of hydraulic energy is equivalent
to almost twice the annual primary energy consumption in the world. However, it is clear that a
percentage of the estimated potential cannot be exploited, since one part of the water will always
be inaccessible and another part will evaporate before it can be used.

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 Table 1: Operating Hydroelectric Power Plants. Fuente (Vega de Kuyper, 2014)

Mainstream technologies

Turbines
The hydraulic turbine is the device responsible for converting the kinetic energy and water potential
into mechanical energy of rotation of tree, which is connected to the low shaft of a gearbox for the
purpose of raising the revolutions to the speed of rotation of an electric generator coupled to the

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tree top of said box. There are turbines that are used at high speeds like the Francis (375 to 1000
rpm) and the Pelton (1000 to 3000 rpm). There are also for lower speeds such as Kaplan,
propellers and bulbs (less than 100 rpm). In terms of operation, the turbines can be classified into
two groups: action turbines and reaction turbines.

Action turbines
The action turbines rotate by pushing effect, thanks to the force of the jet. They consist of an
injection device and a wheel, which has vanes on its periphery. The water from the forced pipe
enters the injector, which works like a nozzle in which the water accelerates like a pressurized jet.
An adjustable needle valve allows to modulate the flow of water that hits the blades, leading to the
rotation of the turbine controlled by a speed regulator. The most well-known and used of the action
turbines is the Pelton wheel.

Pelton turbine
The Pelton turbine is a widely used turbine. It consists of a wheel or impeller, which has in its
periphery a kind of spoons or vanes. The jet of water, directed and regulated by one or several
injectors, hits the spoons in a tangential direction to the impeller and perpendicular to its axis of
rotation, generally horizontal, causing the turning movement of the turbine. It is used for high
pressures and high water jumps; Due to its spoon shape the water deflects without crashing,
yielding all its kinetic energy.

Pelton turbines have a high availability and low maintenance cost, in addition, their performance is
quite high, over 90% under designed conditions. They present a fairly flat yield curve with a yield
greater than 80% for a flow rate of 20% of the nominal.

The possibilities offered by this type of machine, make it very appropriate to operate with partial
load, in addition to allowing variation of flow rates in its operation. The Pelton wheels rotate in the
air at atmospheric pressure under the impulse of the jet at very high speed directed on the blades
by the injectors. These vanes are in the form of double buckets.

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 Fig. 2. Conceptual diagram of a Pelton turbine.

Reaction turbines
In the reaction turbines, the rotation of the turbine results from a deviation of the fluid currents. The
water comes through a spiral pipe, the spiral chamber, and is injected around the periphery of the
turbine. In addition, they take advantage of the static pressure when working inside closed
compartments at higher than atmospheric pressure. There are several models.

Francis turbine
A characteristic of this turbine is the fact that the water changes direction in its passage through it.
The flow enters the turbine in a radial direction flowing towards its axis, but exits in the axial
direction, which is why it is said to be a turbine of the radio-axial type.

This turbine is the most used in hydroelectric power plants. In the Francis turbine, which can have
a variety of shapes, water is impelled to the blades of the impeller perpendicular to the axis of
rotation, generally vertical, and expelled axially in a direction parallel to said axis thanks to the
twisting of the blades. To guide the water to the impeller, there is a distributor of fixed or mobile
vanes, and to achieve the radial component of the water flow at the inlet of the impeller there is a
chamber, which can be opened or closed, with a spiral shape.

Francis turbines adapt very well to all types of jumps and flows, and have a very large range of use.
The performance of Francis turbines is greater than 90% under optimum operating conditions.
They allow variations in flow rates between 40% and 105% of the design flow, and in jump
between 60% and 125% of the nominal flow.

In a Francis turbine, the wheel is composed of fixed blades. Between the spiral chamber and the
wheel, movable vanes are used to adjust the flow rate and to direct the water, so that it flows
towards the center of the wheel. This type of turbine is used for falls of more than 40 meters.

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These turbines rotate submerged in the water that enters under pressure to the periphery of the
wheel and that is evacuated by the shaft of the turbine. The water at the exit of the impeller does
not leave the atmosphere either, but penetrates into a tube called diffuser tube or suction tube,
generating a depression, whose fundamental mission is to increase the hydraulic energy absorbed
by the impeller.

Fig. 3. Conceptual sketch of a Francis turbine.

Kaplan turbine

The Kaplan turbine, invented by the Austrian engineer Viktor Kaplan (1876-1934), can be of two
types: double regulation (true Kaplan) and simple or semi-Kaplan regulation.

It has basically the same components as the Francis turbine, however, the turbine impeller Kaplan,
unlike the Francis turbine, is composed of a propeller whose blades are adjustable, which gives a
greater range of operation with higher yields.

Similar to the propellers of ships, the propeller turbines have fixed blades to their core, and the
Kaplan turbines have movable blades with adjustable inclination, depending on the flow and height,
which allows to improve the performance. This type of turbine is specially designed for low and
very low falls.

The double regulation Kaplan turbines have an acceptable performance from 20% of the nominal
flow. The Semi Kaplan only works effectively from 40% of the nominal flow.

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 Fig. 4 Outline of a Kaplan turbine.

Mechanical transmissions
If a turbine rotates at the operating speed of the electric generator, the trees of both can be
connected directly by using a coupling, generally of flexible type. However, low-load turbines tend
to turn at speeds (125-400 rpm) lower than those required by standard generators to operate
(1,000-1,500 rpm), therefore, it is necessary to install a speed multiplier between the trees of both
machines to be able to operate. The use of a speed multiplier implies decreasing the overall
performance between 2% and 5%.

An alternative solution to the use of a speed multiplier, consists in using an electric generator with a
high number of pole pairs, with which its synchronism speed decreases. This alternative has the
advantage that the losses of the multiplier are avoided. But some disadvantages are: the greater
dimensions and the cost of said non-standard generator.

Generally, the speed multiplier is constituted by a gearbox, although belt transmissions have also
been used to perform this task.

The gear boxes used can be of parallel trees or trees whose axes are cut. To transmit the power
and angular movement between parallel shafts, cylindrical gears with external helical teeth are
usually used. Although epicyclic gear trains are also used.

When it is desired to transmit power and angular movement between trees that are cut (normally
they form 90 ° to each other), conical gears of helical teeth are usually used. Among the
disadvantages of the use of gearboxes is the increase in the noise level of the building of the plant.

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 Fig 5: Schematic of Kaplan Turbine with Generator and Multiplier

Generator
The generators provide a current whose frequency is proportional to its speed of rotation, which in
turn is induced by that of the turbine. They consist of a fixed part, the stator and a rotating part, the
rotor. The rotation of the rotor, driven by the turbine, generates an alternating current in the
windings of the stator. To obtain electricity of stable frequency, this speed must be constant. For
the frequency of 50 Hz, the speed of the turbine-generator unit is determined by the number of
pole pairs of the alternator rotor. Number whose magnitude will be much greater as the rotation
speed is lower: a pair of poles for 3000 rpm, three for 1000 rpm, four for 750 rpm, eight for 375
rpm, etc.

To transform the mechanical energy of rotation of the turbine into electrical energy are used
alternators that are composed, as we know, by two fundamental parts: the rotor or mobile
inductor, responsible for generating a variable magnetic field when spinning dragged by the
turbine, and the stator or fixed armature, in which the electric current is generated.

The electric generators of alternating current typically used, are classified in synchronous machines
and asynchronous induction machines. The biggest disadvantage of synchronous generators is
that they need a capacitor bank connected to the output, which compensates for the generated
reactive energy. Synchronous generators need to be excited with a continuous current, which can

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be generated internally-self-excitation-or with an auxiliary dynamo. For the creation of the magnetic
field the asynchronous generator must be connected to the network and take the current from it.

Asynchronous machines
The biggest disadvantage of asynchronous generators is that they need a battery of capacitors
connected to the output to compensate the reactive power generated. For the creation of the
magnetic field, the induction generator must be connected to the network and take the necessary
reactive current from it. When the hydraulic turbine increases the power, there is an increase in the
slip. Since the electric network is the one that fixes the frequency, it is not necessary that the
turbine has a speed regulator. To start this type of generators is acted on the admission of water in
the turbine, so that it is accelerating until the generator approaches its synchronous speed (without
reaching this), at which time the switch is closed Automatic line.

Synchronous machines
In synchronous or synchronous generators it is necessary to feed the winding of the rotor with
direct current, which originates a rotating magnetic field inside the generator that, in turn, produces
a three-phase system of voltages in the windings of the stator. Because the rotor of the generator
is rotating, it is necessary to use special mechanisms to carry out the supply of the excitation direct
current. Basically, the direct current can be by three excitation mechanisms:

Auxiliary excitation

It consists in feeding the winding of the inductor through the direct current generated by an
auxiliary dynamo regulated by a rheostat and mounted on the shaft of the synchronous generator.

Self-excitement

It consists of taking the current from the terminals of the generator, transforming it by means of an
excitation transformer, rectifying it by means of a static electronic system and injecting it into the
inductor winding by means of a device of brushes and slip rings that surround the machine shaft,
but at the same time isolated of this.

Regulation and control subsystem

Hydroelectric power plants have various regulation, control and protection devices appropriate to
the type of technology used and the expected operation. Fundamentally, they control the turbine
(flow used by the turbines, power regulation of isolated power plants, etc.) and the generator
(regulation of the voltage of synchronous generators, capacitor banks of asynchronous groups,

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etc.). The protections, which can be mechanical and electrical, of the different subsystems act
when there is an anomaly in their operation.

In the case of hydroelectric power plants that supply energy by synchronous generators, it is
necessary to control the speed of rotation, which is normally carried out by regulating the inlet flow
to the turbine and regulating the voltage of the alternator, in order to maintain the voltage inside the
generator a certain

range. If the energy demand decreases, the turbine tends to accelerate, so an rpm sensor
(mechanical, electronic, etc.) detects the increase in speed and sends a signal so that a servo
motor (usually a hydraulic cylinder) regulates the speed. degree of opening of the distributor vanes
(in the case of Francis turbines), or the degree of opening of the vanes of the distributor and the
impeller (in the case of Kaplan turbines), or the degree of opening of the needle valves of the
injectors (in the case of Pelton turbines) and feed with lower flow of water to the turbines. If the
energy demand is increased, the rpm sensors will provide information to the servomotor so that
there is an increase in the flow of water that feeds the turbines.

Fig 6: Regulation scheme without feedback.

The figure 6 shows that if the load decreases, the group accelerates and then, due to the
centrifugal forces, the tachymeter balls separate (since the tachymeter rotates at the same speed
as the turbine or at a multiple of said speed ). Said separation causes the tachymeter sleeve to rise,
lever A to rotate with respect to the point of support B and point C to descend causing the lever D
to act on the distributor, which is a hydraulic pressure amplifying valve. That is, the small force that
causes the descent of point C results in a much greater force acting on the rod of the servo motor.

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When the lever D is lowered, the pressure oil leaves the lower left part of the distributor and enters
through the lower part of the servomotor, while the oil located in the upper part of the servomotor
enters through the upper left part of the distributor and goes towards the oil tank. As the
servomotor piston moves upwards, the turbine distributor closes.

If the load increases, the reverse process occurs, resulting in the servomotor piston opening the
turbine distributor and the greater water flow in it.

In the case of hydroelectric plants that supply power via asynchronous strong networks
generators, as already noted, it is not required to act on the flow controllers turbines to control the
rotation speed thereof as the rotational speed it is imposed by the frequency of the network.
Generator control is achieved through the control, by means of thyristors, of a battery of static
capacitors.

Here flow regulation is required only in situations of impalement ( load drop) to close the water
supply to the turbine at such a rate that water hammer is not generated and the turbine is not
packed.

The starting time of the turbine depends on the inertia of the mechanisms involved (turbine,
multiplier, generator, flywheel) and the nominal speed of the turbine and the rated power. While the
starting time of the water column is a function of the jump, the length of the water column and the
velocity of the components of the water column.

To be able to carry out an adequate regulation, the turbine start time must be greater than four
times the starting time of the water column.

Auxiliary electrical subsystem

Within the electrical equipment of a hydroelectric power station it is necessary to emphasize the
voltage transformer, whose function is to raise the voltage to reduce the losses during the transport
of energy.Normally, in small power plants the low-medium or medium-high transformer is installed
inside the central building, however, sometimes these devices are located outdoors (Figure 7),
generating visual impact.

Another element to be highlighted is the electric transport line to the distribution network or to
isolated consumption.

Transformers
The transformer is a static machine that allows to increase or decrease the voltage and intensity of
an alternating current in such a way that its product remains constant since, ideally, the power that

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is delivered to the input of a transformer has to be equal to the one that It is obtained at the exit,
maintaining the frequency. The ease with which alternating current can be transformed is the great
advantage that this type has compared to direct current, so its use is almost universal.

The transformers are based on the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and are constituted,
in its simplest form, by two coils wound on a closed core of magnetic iron. These coils or windings
are called primary or secondary, as they correspond to inputs or outputs of the system. When an
alternate electromotive force is applied to the primary winding, an alternating current will flow
through it, which in turn will create a variable magnetic field. This magnetic field will originate, by
electromagnetic induction, the appearance of an electromotive force in the secondary winding.

The relationship between the magnetomotive forces is known as transformation ratio. This is
defined by the "ratio between the number of turns of the primary winding and those of the
secondary winding", therefore, it is directly proportional to the quotient of the respective voltages
and inversely proportional to the quotient of the respective intensities. This will indicate the increase
or decrease experienced by the value of the voltage at the input with respect to the output voltage.

The transformers can be industrial or domestic; both operate at the frequency of the electric
network. The industrialists are large machines that are used for the transmission and distribution of
electrical energy through conductors, that is, transport lines that must conduct the electric current
at high voltages to reduce their intensity and, in effect, the heat losses produced by Joule effect.
Therefore, for high-voltage electrical transmission, high voltages are used with low current
intensities. Transformers that reduces voltage, usually at 220 V, are adapted to the domestic or
industrial needs that require high intensity at the target sites of electric power.

Fig. 7 Outdoor transformer station

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Lines of transmission
Electricity cannot be stored: it must be produced and transported at the same time it is consumed.
Its transport flows through the conductive lines and other facilities.

There is a close interdependence between the different transport routes, so that any disturbance in
a line or transport equipment causes significant and immediate side effects in the other alternative
roads.

Electricity is "injected" into the network or "extracted" from the network at multiple points. The
great capacity of interconnection of the transport network allows that generators located in any
node of the network can compete with each other to supply electricity in any other node of the
network.

The lines are aluminum cables that rest on support towers; They can also be underground. The
section of the cables marks the limit of the intensity that can be transported.

The generated electric power leaves the plant and is distributed to the consumption centers by
high voltage lines. To do this, the voltage levels that are produced in the generator must be
transformed (3-36 KV) to the appropriate levels for transmission (220 and 500 KV). This high
voltage allows low losses in transport over long distances. In the vicinity of the consumption
centers, some receiving stations transform the high voltage to a lower one, but it is still high voltage
(33, 66, 154 KV). Under these conditions, they reach the cities or industrial areas through
distribution stations, where the voltage is again reduced to 6.6, 13.8 or 20 KV, which is delivered
for distribution, after transformation to 380 or 220 V. Values ​usual for the industry are 380 V and for
houses, 220 or 110 V.

Civil works
The civil work consists of a general form of the retention and storage elements (dams and / or
dams), destined to retain the channel of a river, and the security elements for the evacuation of
flows, integrated by spillways and gates. Likewise, hydraulic pipes (water intake, forced piping,
etc.), the discharge channel and the plant are part of the civil work.

Retention and storage element

Many reservoirs are destined to the supply of drinking water, to irrigation or to the regulation of
water courses. Hydroelectric dams are classified as fixed and mobile storage and retention
elements.

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Weir

A dam consists of a small obstacle located transversely to the course of the water, and whose task
is to fill the water in order to derive the desired flow under favorable conditions.

The material and form of construction depends on several factors, among which is the type of soil
where they have to be supported, probability of seismic phenomena, climate, etc. Therefore, the
materials of the weirs vary from land to concrete, passing through inflatable devices or tubular
inflatable devices that are filled with pressurized air or water, which are deformed to allow the
passage of water over them when the level reaches a certain height, and that can be emptied or
filled by the actuation of valves when the water level is high or when it is desired that they recover
their normal form of operation, respectively.

Fig. 8 Ground dam with anchorage

Fig. 9 Concrete dam.

Dams

The dams provoke a remarkable elevation of the level of a river and create a reservoir.Due to their
high investment cost, dams are not usually used in small plants. However, in certain specific cases

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the construction of a small dam can be justified that allows to regulate the generated electric power
and adapt it to the demand or to the rush hour. It should be noted that a dam is considered small if
its height, measured from the base to the coronation, is less than 15 m, the length at the
coronation is less than or equal to 500 m and the water reservoir is less than one million cubic
meters .

The dams are classified as: gravity dams, vault dams and multiple vault dams.

A gravity dam resists water pressure by its own weight. That is, the tipping torque exerted by the
push of the water on the dam is balanced with the torque that exerts the reaction of the soil, which
depends on the weight of the dam.

Fig. 10 Scheme of gravity dam

The vault dams are convex, with the convexity directed towards the reservoir, and resist the push
of the water resting on the banks, which have been resistant or reinforced to make it so. This type
of enclosures requires a smaller volume of them than gravity dams, although the formwork required
for their construction.

Fig. 11 The dam of Soria, on the island of Gran Canaria, is of the dome type

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The multiple vault dams are small vaults made of reinforced concrete, with buttresses on which
they rest, but which are not applied in mini-power stations.

Spillways

To evacuate water from the reservoir, without the need to turbinate it, when extraordinary floods
occur and thus protect the place and prevent the dam from being damaged, the spillways are
constructed, which can be fixed or mobile, the latter being called gates.

Fixed spillways

Fixed spillways can be of various types. Among them we can point out the landfills in coronation,
which use the coronation of the dam, which is designed so that it is rounded and has a steep
slope on the face downstream; the landfills in the lateral zone of the dam; and the syphonic
spillways.

Fig. 12 Operation of syphonic spillway

In essence, a syphonic spillway is a closed conduit that communicates the level of upstream of the
dam with the level of downstream. When the level of the water exceeds the siphon elbow, water
begins to flow, in the same way as a spillway at the top, however, when the siphon is primed, the
evacuated flow increases markedly.

Mobile spillways or gates

The gates used in the hydroelectric uses can be of very different types. Among them we can point
out the segment gates, the sector gates, the sliding gates, etc.

A segment gate, also called taintor gate or tainter gates, is a radial gate that is constituted by a
segment of cylindrical surface that is in contact with water and that allows to regulate the level of a
dam as it can rotate around a joint by means of radial arms fixed to it. As the gate moves upward,
the flow of water that pours below it increases.

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 Fig. 13 Segment gate

A sector gate differs mainly from the taintor gate in which the discharge is made above it, as the
gate moves downward. Due to the sense of its movement, the dam must have a shelter for the
gate.

Fig. 14 Sector floodgate

The vertical slide gate can be of different types. Normally, it is composed of a steel structure that
reinforces a sheet that faces the current and that rises vertically, mechanically, electrically or
hydraulically, to allow water to pass underneath.

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 Fig. 15 Vertical sliding gate

In situations in which a reservoir needs to be emptied, it is necessary to use the bottom or

half-bottom drains. These elements consist of a duct located at a low level, with a gate valve at the
inlet, or a conical valve at the outlet.

In cases where it is estimated that the drainage flow can be supercritical, it will be necessary to
provide an energy dissipater. The non-derived flow passes over the weir.

Among them we can point out the landfills in coronation, which use the coronation of the dam,
which is designed so that it is rounded and has a steep slope on the face downstream; the landfills
in the lateral zone of the dam; and the syphonic spillways.

​ peration of syphonic spillway

Fig. 16​ O

In essence, a syphonic spillway is a closed conduit that communicates the level of upstream of the
dam with the level of downstream. When the level of the water exceeds the siphon elbow, water

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begins to flow, in the same way as a spillway in coronation, however, when the siphon is primed,
the evacuated flow increases markedly.

Hydraulic conduction
The hydraulic pipes are constituted, among other devices, by the water intake, the loading chamber and the forced pipe.

Water intaked

The water intake is the element that takes the water retained by the dam or dam and, through a bypass channel, which
can be open or buried, leads to the cargo chamber. There is a wide variety of types of shots, which generally have grid
elements to prevent the entry of solid elements and fish, as well as gates to close the water intake when needed.

Forced piping

The forced pipe is the element responsible for driving the water from the loading chamber to the turbine. This pipe can
be installed buried or on the ground, depending on the orography of the land and environmental issues.

Fig. 17 Forced turbine of the Corchado hydroelectric power plant (Malaga).

The materials used in the manufacture of the forced pipes are very diverse, depending on your
choice of the jump and diameter. Among the materials used are welded steel pipes, stretched steel
pipes, concrete pipes, polyethylene pipes, polyvinyl chloride pipes, fiberglass reinforced pipes,
polyethylene pipes, etc.

Whatever the material selected, the pipe must withstand the pressure of the water column and the
overpressures that result from the water hammer when there is a sudden stop of the turbine

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Equilibrium chimneys
When a gallery and a long-long cargo pipe carries the water from the reservoir to the plant located downstream (or case
of slope change in the gallery), a balance chimney must be installed in the junction of the two works . It is a well that
dampens flow variations and water hammer in the tunnel when the valves close due to turbine suspension.

In fact, at the closing of the valves, the turbine stop produces in the upstream direction of the duct a brutal suppression
wave whose successive reflections can damage the gallery, the duct and the closing elements. The equilibrium chimney
is a well open to the air that allows to cushion these "water hammers". Obviously it must extend well above the maximum
level of the upper tank that feeds the gallery or the pipe.

Cargo deposit
In some cases a small dam is built in the water intake to raise the plane of the latter and facilitate its entry into the
channel or bypass pipe. The diverted water is conducted to the cargo tank, from where the forced pipe passes through
which the water that drives the turbine passes at the lowest point of the plant. The adduction channel must have a small
slope (0.5%), so that it is gaining height with respect to the river. The load tank at the end of the adduction channel has
the function of desander and splice of the pressure pipe, maintaining a constant level.

Channels
In run-of-river power plants, a channel with horizontal flanks and an open sky carries the water accumulated in a tank to
the generating station. This channel is called the power channel.

Once the water has passed through the turbine it has to be returned to the river by using a channel. This channel is
called the discharge channel, which must be protected so that the erosion that can produce water at the exit of the
turbine does not damage the engine room, and must be designed so that the water level in the same is correct (do not
reach the impeller of the turbine in periods of flood and do not cause cavitation of the reaction turbines).

Plant
Very close or far from the dam, the plant can be on the surface or underground. It contains the components that allow
the generation of electricity and control systems. The remote control allows the remote operation of the production, for
example from a central station that can control all the facilities of a valley. It also contains repair and maintenance
workshops.

Operation of the plant

The hydraulic power stations give the system operator several possibilities of intervention.A
run-of-river plant, or flowing water, is one in which there is no appreciable accumulation of water
above the turbines, which must accept the available flow of the river with its variations from season
to season or, if it is excessive , they simply lose it.

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In the use per pass the water is diverted, by means of a dam or weir, in a determined point of the
river and it is conducted by means of a channel or tunnel with a small slope so that the water can
circulate. At the end of the channel, a cargo tank is installed, which serves as a start to the forced
pipe. This pipe carries the water, following the side of the river, to the power house, where the
turbine (s) is (are) hydraulic (s). After passing through these, the water is restored to the riverbed. In
this type of use, the installed power is a direct function of the flow that passes through the river.

Fig. 18 Outline of a passing exchange.

So that the losses of load are small and to be able to maintain the hydraulic height, the conduits
through which the diverted water circulates are built with small slope, causing that the speed of
circulation of the water is low, since the loss of load is proportional to the square of the speed. This
implies that in some cases, depending on the orography, the best solution is to choose to build a
tunnel, shortening the horizontal route​.

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 Fig. 19 Outline hydroelectric power scheme

Installation of non-modifiable programs

This category includes the large power plants and the majority and most of the lock plants with a
significant energy potential. Operating on water, or with low reserves that do not exceed two hours
of operation, can let the water turbinate or in the conditions where it occurs. The system
administrator does not control the production, but can configure the day ahead, a program taking
into account the weather forecast and the availability of the plants. They will follow this program
registered the day before and produce at the base.

The joint operation of the plants

The remote control allows the coordinated and integral management of a set of facilities from a
single control center: a zonal station or the centralized control station. Depending on the system,
every hour or every half hour, or even every 15 minutes, the operator of the electrical system
establishes the power instructions to the installations, within the limits of performance and imposed
restrictions. Thus, knowing that he has decided on a "release" of water in an upstream plant, we
can anticipate the arrival of the corresponding wave to the downstream power plants and program
the best use of their reserves.

The different types of facilities

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 ● ​Central high fall: The fall or high column power plants, sometimes installed in passing,
have differences of over 200 meters between the reservoir and the turbines. The water is
transported by galleries or forced pipes, and the flow can be very low.
● Central of medium fall and unit at the foot of dam .The average height of fall of the
installations of average fall is between 30 and 200 meters.
● ​Low drop power station: In a plant of low fall, the plant is located in the same structure.

The remote control allows the coordinated and integral management of a set of facilities from a
single control center: a zonal station or the centralized control station. Depending on the system,
every hour or every half hour, or even every 15 minutes, the operator of the electrical system
establishes the power instructions to the installations, within the limits of performance and imposed
restrictions. Thus, knowing that he has decided on a "release" of water in an upstream plant, we
can anticipate the arrival of the corresponding wave to the downstream power plants and program
the best use of their reserves​.

Impact and environmental management

The impact that the facilities of hydroelectric exploitation can have on the environment must be
analyzed from two aspects:

● from the point of view of the benefits of producing electrical energy by decreasing the
consumption of fossil fuels and, therefore, reducing the negative effects of these on the
environment (emission of CO2 and NOx, acid rain, toxic waste, etc.);
● from the point of view of the impact on the environment.

Among the possible alterations of the physical environment that the hydroelectric installations can
generate during the construction stage and the exploitation stage are:

● The flooding of large areas, with the consequent environmental impact.

● Losses of agricultural, livestock or forestry land due to erosion and flooding.

● Cuts of communication routes.

● Adjustments of water currents and the associated effects on the quality and quantity of water
and aquatic fauna.

● Reduction of biological diversity.

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● Barrier effect of the prey on wildlife transit.

● Acoustic impact caused by turbines and generators.

● Disappearance of animal species due to degradation or destruction of their habitat.

● Subtraction of usable water flows for other uses.

● Local bioclimatic alterations.

● Visual impact of the structures.

The construction process itself may cause general alterations, and although the building period
may last only a few years, the effect on a fragile environment may be longer. Even the dam itself
can be a concern, both because of its visual impact and because of the possibility of its
catastrophic failure.

During the filling of the reservoir

In tropical regions or forest areas, the reservoir of dams drowns one or more valleys covered by a
particularly dense biomass. Submerged, this biomass decomposes and, for several years,
consumes the oxygen contained in the reservoir water. Oxygen depletion kills aquatic fauna in the
dam and, if the reserve flow is not sufficient, some of the flora and fauna downstream can be
destroyed.

It is likely that damming will drown the animal species that live in the land to be submerged, as well
as the plant species, some of which are at risk of extinction. Therefore, a rescue of fauna and flora
should be organized.

After damming
Upstream of the reservoir, the abundance of fish and the balance between species are modified by
the impediment that constitutes the dam for the movements of migratory species.

In the pond, the body of water undergoes thermal stratification and the colder and still layers
gradually lose their oxygen. The sediment is deposited in banks and pollutants, including runoff,
accumulate in the dams. There may be eutrophication, whose most visible sign is the coloring of
the water in green, red or black.

In the dam, the migratory fish face the barrier that is the wall, in its ascent to the spawning areas,
or in its descent downstream once the reproduction is completed.

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The installation of crossing devices is necessary: ​stairs for fish that create a flow in cascade, locks
Borlant similar to the locks for boats, slide of descent. Fish lifts are cubes open on two sides, like
elevators without doors that slide at regular intervals into a vertical chimney that connects the
upstream and downstream levels.

Downstream of a dam, a minimum flow must be reserved in the short-circuited section. The
exploitation regime will have to limit the inconveniences of the discharges of water that can disturb
the tourist locations and that can produce accidents​.

Advantages and disadvantages

At the operational level
● Hydroelectric energy is a renewable energy produced in the national territory, therefore it has an energy independence
factor, besides that once investments are made, operating costs are very low and there is no dependence on fuel.

● A problem that has the step plants is that if the flow is lower than a certain value called technical minimum flow, the
plant stops producing, which is better handled by the reservoir plants that have a certain reserve.

● The hydraulic production park is the preferred tool for adjusting the balance of the electrical system.

● In terms of supply stability, hydroelectric power plants have a point in favor, since these power plants can be required
almost instantaneously and respond in a matter of minutes to sudden calls of energy; they are able to modulate their
production with precision and contribute to the adjustment of the production to the variations of the daily load curves
without significant loss of performance.

At the environmental level

● Hydroelectric production does not pollute the atmosphere, which in the current context, where the greenhouse effect
and gas emission pollution arouse growing concern, seems to promise a strong development of hydroelectric power. On
the other hand, everywhere you are sensitive to the immersion of the land by the reservoirs.

● Due to the limitations of the flooding of large areas to dam water, the high construction costs of the reservoir power
plants and the environmental impacts of these power plants, the run-of-the-river power plants have taken a larger place
to take advantage of hydraulic energy existing in many areas.

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Bibliography
Vega de Kuyper, J.C. & Ramírez Morales, S. (2014). Fuentes de energía, renovables y no renovables. Aplicaciones.
México D.F. (México): Alfaomega.

Carta González, J.A., Calero Pérez,R., Colmenar Santos, A. & Castro Gil, M.A. (2009). Centrales de energías
renovables: generación eléctrica con energías renovables. Madrid (España): Pearson.

Bastard, P., Fargue, D., Laurier, P., Mathieu, B., Nicolas, M. & Roos, P. (2000). Électricité, voyage au coeur du
système. Paris (France): Eyrolles.

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