Major 2022-23

Qu. 2(a) :- Short notes on :

(i). Damping :- All vibration systems offer resistance to motion due to

their own inherent properties. This resistance is called damping force and it
depends on the condition of vibration, material, and type of the system. If the force
of damping is constant, it is termed Coulomb damping. If the damping force is
proportional to the velocity, it is termed viscous damping. If the damping in a
system is free from its material property and is contributed by the geometry of the
system, it is called geometrical or radiation damping.

(ii). Degree of Freedom :- The number of independent co-ordinates which

are required to define the position of a system during vibration, is called degrees of
freedom.

(iii) Natural Frequency :- This is the property of the system and

corresponds to the number of free oscillations made by the system in unit time.

(iv) Resonance: A system having n degrees of freedom has n natural

frequencies. If the frequency of excitation coincides with anyone of the natural
frequencies of the system, the condition of resonance occurs. The amplitudes of
motion are very excessive at resonance.

(v) Harmonic Motion :- Harmonic motion is the simplest form of the

vibratory motion. It may be described mathematically by the following equation;
Z = A sin (t – )
Where;
Z = Displacement of the rotating mass at any time t
A = Displacement amplitude from the mean position sometimes referred as single
amplitude, the
distance 2 A represents the peak-to-peak displacement amplitude, sometimes
referred to as double
amplitude, and is the quality most often measured from vibration records.
Circular frequency in radians per unit time. Because the motion repeats itself
after 2 radians, the
 frequency of oscillation in terms of cycles per unit time will be It is denoted
by f.
Phase angle

Qu. 2(c) :- Advantage of flexible structures

Flexible structures in earthquake engineering offer several advantages,
primarily related to their ability to absorb and dissipate seismic energy. Here are some
key advantages:

1. Increased Seismic Performance:

 Flexible structures are better able to absorb and dissipate seismic energy,
reducing the forces transmitted to the structure during an earthquake.
 This flexibility allows the structure to undergo deformations and movement
without sustaining severe damage.
2. Improved Resilience:
 Flexible structures can undergo significant deformations without collapse, making
them more resilient to strong seismic events.
 Resilient structures can continue to function or provide shelter even after a
seismic event, minimizing downtime and facilitating recovery efforts.
3. Dissipation of Seismic Energy:
 The flexibility of structures allows for the dissipation of seismic energy through
inelastic deformations and damping mechanisms.
 This dissipation helps prevent the accumulation of excessive forces within the
structure.
4. Reduced Seismic Forces:
 Flexible structures tend to experience lower seismic forces compared to more
rigid structures. This is because flexible structures allow for greater lateral
movement and deformation during an earthquake.
5. Cost-Effectiveness:
 In some cases, flexible structures can be more cost-effective to design and
construct compared to rigid structures. The flexibility may reduce the need for
excessively robust and expensive materials.
6. Adaptability to Ground Motion:
 Flexible structures can better adapt to varying ground motions during an
earthquake. This adaptability is crucial in regions where seismic characteristics
can vary significantly.
7. Innovative Design Options:
  The flexibility in design that comes with flexible structures allows for innovative
engineering solutions. Engineers can explore a variety of materials and
construction techniques to optimize seismic performance.
8. Mitigation of Accelerations:
 Flexible structures can effectively mitigate accelerations experienced during an
earthquake, reducing the demand on structural elements and minimizing
potential damage.
9. Minimized Damage:
 Because flexible structures can absorb seismic energy and deform without
significant damage, they are less prone to complete structural failure. This can
result in lower repair costs and shorter recovery times.
10. Compatibility with Performance-Based Design:
 Flexible structures align well with performance-based design approaches,
allowing engineers to specify performance objectives and design structures to
meet those objectives under various seismic scenarios.

Disadvantages of flexible structures

While flexible structures in earthquake engineering offer various advantages, they also
come with certain disadvantages that need to be carefully considered. Here are some of
the potential drawbacks associated with flexible structures:

1. Increased Displacement:
 Flexible structures tend to undergo larger displacements during an earthquake.
While this is a feature that helps absorb seismic energy, it can lead to issues such
as non-structural damage and potential interference with adjacent structures.
2. Sensitivity to Damping:
 The effectiveness of flexible structures in dissipating seismic energy relies heavily
on damping mechanisms. If damping is not adequately provided or maintained,
the structure's performance may be compromised.
3. Dynamic Amplification:
 In some cases, the flexibility of a structure can lead to dynamic amplification,
where the structure resonates with the ground motion, resulting in larger
deformations and forces than expected.
4. Risk of Pounding:
 In a multi-story building, the flexibility of each floor can lead to pounding effects
during an earthquake. Pounding occurs when adjacent floors collide due to
differential movement, potentially causing damage to structural elements.
5. Complex Analysis and Design:
  Designing flexible structures requires sophisticated analysis techniques to
account for the dynamic behavior and interaction with the ground motion. This
complexity can increase the challenges in design and construction.
6. Maintenance Requirements:
 The performance of flexible structures may be more reliant on proper
maintenance. Damping devices, joints, and other components need to be
regularly inspected and maintained to ensure their effectiveness over time.
7. Higher Initial Costs:
 Implementing flexible design solutions, such as base isolators or additional
damping systems, can result in higher initial construction costs compared to
more traditional, rigid designs.
8. Incompatibility with Certain Uses:
 Certain types of structures, such as those requiring very high precision or stability,
may not be well-suited for flexible designs. For example, laboratories or facilities
with sensitive equipment may require a more rigid structural response.
9. Social and Perception Issues:
 People may have concerns about the perceived safety of flexible structures,
particularly if they observe significant deformation during an earthquake. This can
affect public confidence and acceptance of such designs.
10. Code Compliance Challenges:
 Building codes and standards may not always provide clear guidelines for flexible
structures. This can present challenges in obtaining regulatory approval and
ensuring compliance with local construction regulations.

Advantages of stiff structures

Stiff structures in earthquake engineering offer several advantages, particularly in their
ability to resist seismic forces and maintain stability. Here are some of the key
advantages associated with stiff structures:

1. Reduced Displacement:
 Stiff structures typically undergo smaller displacements during an earthquake
compared to flexible structures. This can help minimize non-structural damage
and prevent interference with adjacent structures.
2. Controlled Response to Seismic Forces:
 Stiff structures are less prone to dynamic amplification and resonant behavior.
Their response to seismic forces is more controlled, reducing the risk of excessive
deformations and structural damage.
3. Simplicity in Design:
  The design of stiff structures is often more straightforward and may require less
sophisticated analysis compared to flexible structures. This simplicity can lead to
more cost-effective design and construction processes.
4. Lower Initial Costs:
 Stiff structures may have lower initial construction costs compared to flexible
structures. The materials used in their construction may be more conventional
and readily available.
5. Compatibility with Certain Uses:
 Stiff structures are well-suited for applications where precise stability and minimal
deformations are critical. For example, structures housing sensitive equipment,
laboratories, or facilities with strict stability requirements may benefit from a
more rigid design.
6. Reduced Maintenance Requirements:
 Stiff structures may require less maintenance compared to flexible structures. The
absence of complex damping systems and other dynamic elements can result in
lower ongoing maintenance costs.
7. Clear Design Guidelines:
 Building codes often provide clearer guidelines for the design and construction
of stiff structures. This can simplify the regulatory approval process and ensure
compliance with local construction standards.
8. Predictable Behavior:
 The behavior of stiff structures under seismic loading is often more predictable
and can be well-characterized through analytical methods. This predictability can
be advantageous in the design and assessment phases.
9. Reduced Risk of Pounding:
 Stiff structures are less susceptible to the pounding effect observed in flexible
structures during earthquakes. Pounding, where adjacent floors collide due to
differential movement, is less likely to occur in a stiffer building.
10. Adaptability to Low-Seismicity Regions:
 In regions with relatively low seismic activity, stiff structures may be more
economical and practical, providing sufficient seismic resistance without the need
for advanced damping systems or base isolators.

Disadvantages of stiff structures

While stiff structures in earthquake engineering have certain advantages, they also come
with potential disadvantages that need to be considered. Here are some of the
drawbacks associated with stiff structures:
1. Increased Seismic Forces:
 Stiff structures can experience higher seismic forces compared to flexible
structures. This is because the stiffness of the structure can lead to a more
significant transfer of forces to the building, increasing the demand on structural
elements.
2. Higher Probability of Structural Damage:
 The resistance of stiff structures to seismic forces may lead to concentrated
stresses on specific elements. This can result in a higher probability of localized
damage to structural components, particularly at connections and joints.
3. Brittle Failure:
 Stiff structures are more prone to brittle failure modes, where structural elements
may fail suddenly and without warning. This can result in a less ductile response,
making it challenging for the structure to absorb and dissipate energy through
controlled deformations.
4. Limited Energy Dissipation:
 Stiff structures may have limited capacity for energy dissipation during an
earthquake. Unlike flexible structures that can absorb seismic energy through
deformations, stiff structures may experience more abrupt force transmission,
potentially leading to more severe damage.
5. Vulnerability to Resonance:
 Stiff structures can be more susceptible to resonant vibrations, especially if the
natural frequency of the structure coincides with the frequency of the seismic
ground motion. Resonance can lead to amplified displacements and forces,
potentially causing damage.
6. Challenges in Retrofitting:
 Retrofitting stiff structures to improve their seismic performance can be
challenging. Introducing flexibility after construction is often more complex than
adding stiffness to a flexible structure.
7. Complexity in Foundation Design:
 The stiffness of a structure can influence foundation design, especially in regions
with variable soil conditions. Ensuring that the foundation can adequately
support the stiffness of the structure is crucial for overall stability.
8. Limited Resilience:
 Stiff structures may have limited resilience in terms of their ability to recover from
seismic events. The focus on rigidity may result in structures that are more
susceptible to irreversible damage.
9. Challenges in Occupant Comfort:
  Stiff structures may transmit ground motion more directly to occupants,
potentially causing discomfort during an earthquake. This can be a concern in
structures where occupant comfort is a priority.
10. Less Tolerant to Settlements:
 Stiff structures may be less tolerant to settlements or differential movements,
which can occur in regions with expansive or compressible soils. This may lead to
uneven loading on structural elements, increasing the risk of damage.

Qu. 2(b) :- Differtiate between pseudo velocity and pseudo

acceletation
In earthquake engineering, pseudo velocity and pseudo acceleration response spectra
are two commonly used measures to characterize the seismic response of structures.
Let's differentiate between them:

1. Pseudo Velocity Response Spectrum:

 Definition: The pseudo velocity response spectrum is a graphical representation
of the maximum velocity response of a structure subjected to a ground motion
with varying frequencies.
 Units: Pseudo velocity is measured in units of velocity (m/s or cm/s), and the
spectrum is typically plotted with velocity on the vertical axis and frequency on
the horizontal axis.
 Integration: It is obtained by numerically integrating the acceleration-time
history to obtain the velocity-time history and then calculating the maximum
values over a range of frequencies.
 Advantages: Pseudo velocity spectra are often used in seismic design because
they provide a convenient way to assess the dynamic response of structures.
2. Pseudo Acceleration Response Spectrum:
 Definition: The pseudo acceleration response spectrum is a graphical
representation of the maximum acceleration response of a structure subjected to
a ground motion with varying frequencies.
 Units: Pseudo acceleration is measured in units of acceleration (m/s² or g), and
the spectrum is typically plotted with acceleration on the vertical axis and
frequency on the horizontal axis.
 Calculation: It is obtained by numerically integrating the acceleration-time
history to obtain the velocity-time history and then further integrating to obtain
the displacement-time history. The maximum accelerations are then extracted for
various frequencies.
  Usage: Pseudo acceleration spectra are widely used in seismic analysis and
design to evaluate the structural response under different earthquake scenarios.

Qu. 3(a) :- Advantages of masonry structures

1. Mass and Stiffness:
 Masonry structures typically have greater mass compared to lighter structures.
This mass contributes to increased inertia, helping the structure resist
displacement during an earthquake. Additionally, masonry structures can have
inherent stiffness, which is beneficial for reducing sway and deformation.
2. Energy Dissipation:
 Masonry materials, such as brick or stone, can provide inherent energy
dissipation during seismic events. The material's ability to absorb and dissipate
energy helps reduce the impact of seismic forces on the structure.
3. Ductility and Redundancy:
 Properly designed and constructed masonry structures can exhibit ductile
behavior, allowing them to undergo controlled deformation without failure. The
redundancy in load paths within masonry walls can contribute to a structure's
ability to redistribute loads and resist damage.
4. Fire Resistance:
 Masonry is inherently fire-resistant, which can be an added benefit in
earthquake-prone areas. The ability to withstand fire is crucial for the overall
safety and integrity of a structure.
5. Local Availability of Materials:
 Masonry materials are often locally available, reducing transportation costs and
promoting sustainable construction practices. Using locally sourced materials can
also contribute to the economic well-being of the community.
6. Ease of Maintenance:
 Masonry structures are generally durable and require less maintenance compared
to some other construction methods. This durability can be advantageous in
regions where frequent seismic events may necessitate periodic inspections and
repairs.
7. Architectural Flexibility:
 Masonry construction allows for a wide range of architectural styles and design
flexibility. This flexibility can be advantageous in meeting both aesthetic and
functional requirements in earthquake-prone areas.

Disadvantages of masonry structures

1. Poor Ductility:
 Masonry materials, such as brick or stone, tend to be brittle and have limited
ductility. Ductility is the ability of a material to deform before rupture. In seismic
events, structures need to deform to dissipate energy, and brittle materials like
masonry may not provide sufficient ductility.
2. Heavy Mass:
 Masonry structures are often heavy, leading to higher inertia forces during
seismic events. This can result in larger seismic forces that the structure must
resist, potentially causing more severe damage.
3. Low Tensile Strength:
 Masonry materials generally have low tensile strength. Earthquakes induce both
tension and compression forces in structures, and masonry may not adequately
resist tensile forces, leading to cracking and failure.
4. Lack of Continuity:
 Masonry construction may have interruptions in load paths due to the presence
of openings (windows, doors). This lack of continuity can lead to concentration of
forces and localized failures during earthquakes.
5. Sensitivity to Settlement:
 Masonry structures can be sensitive to differential settlement, which may occur
during an earthquake. Uneven settlement can cause cracking and damage to the
structure.
6. Limited Flexibility:
 Masonry is less flexible compared to other materials like steel or reinforced
concrete. In seismic events, flexibility is crucial to absorb and dissipate seismic
energy, reducing the likelihood of structural damage.
7. Difficulty in Retrofitting:
 Retrofitting existing masonry structures for seismic resistance can be challenging
and costly. It may involve significant modifications to enhance ductility and
strength, making it less practical compared to retrofitting other types of
structures.
8. Material Variability:
 Masonry materials can have significant variability in strength and quality, leading
to uncertainties in the seismic performance of structures. This variability makes it
more challenging to predict and control the behavior of masonry structures
during earthquakes.
9. Vulnerability to Shear Forces:
 Masonry walls may be susceptible to shear forces during seismic events,
especially if they are not adequately reinforced. Shear failures can lead to partial
or complete collapse of the structure.
 Qu. 3(c) :- Page 170, Section 11.6.1
Qu. 4(b) :-
A damped system and an undamped system refer to different types of dynamic systems,
often encountered in physics and engineering. The distinction lies in the presence or
absence of damping, which is a mechanism that dissipates energy from the system over
time.

1. Undamped System:
 An undamped system is one in which there is no energy dissipation or damping
force acting on the system.
 Without damping, the system tends to oscillate indefinitely, conserving energy.
 The classic example of an undamped system is a simple pendulum with no
external friction or air resistance. Once set in motion, an undamped pendulum
would oscillate back and forth indefinitely.
2. Damped System:
 A damped system is one in which there is damping present, which gradually
reduces the amplitude of oscillation over time.
 Damping arises from various sources such as friction, air resistance, or material
properties.
 In a damped system, the amplitude of oscillation decreases over time until the
system comes to rest at its equilibrium position.
 Examples of damped systems include a car suspension system (where friction and
damping elements absorb energy), or a swinging door (where air resistance and
friction cause the door to eventually come to a stop).

Characteristics of various damped systems:

1. Underdamped:
 In an underdamped system, damping is present, but the damping force is not
strong enough to prevent oscillation.
 The system oscillates about its equilibrium position, with the amplitude gradually
decreasing over time.
 It exhibits damped harmonic motion with a decay in amplitude and a frequency
of oscillation.
 The time taken for the oscillations to decrease to 1/e (about 36.8%) of their
original amplitude is called the "damped natural period."
2. Critically Damped:
  A critically damped system experiences the fastest possible approach to
equilibrium without oscillating.
 The damping force is precisely balanced with the restoring force, causing the
system to return to equilibrium position in the shortest time possible without
overshooting.
 Critically damped systems exhibit rapid convergence to equilibrium without
oscillation.
3. Overdamped:
 In an overdamped system, damping is sufficiently strong that it prevents any
oscillation from occurring.
 The system returns to its equilibrium position slowly without any oscillation.
 Overdamped systems take longer to reach equilibrium compared to critically
damped systems.

In summary, the presence and strength of damping in a system significantly affect its
behavior, leading to different types of damped motion with distinct characteristics such
as oscillation, convergence rate, and absence of oscillation.

Qu. 5(a) :- Page 348, Section 20.7

Qu. 5(b) :- Ductility is a crucial property in seismic design for structures because it
allows them to withstand the dynamic and often unpredictable forces generated during
earthquakes. Here's why ductility is important:

1. Energy Dissipation: During an earthquake, structures undergo significant dynamic

loading, causing them to deform and move. Ductile materials have the ability to deform
plastically, absorbing a large amount of energy in the process. This energy dissipation
helps to reduce the intensity of forces transmitted to the structure, thereby preventing
catastrophic failure.
2. Reduction of Brittle Fracture: Brittle materials lack ductility and tend to fail suddenly
without warning when subjected to intense loading. In seismic events, sudden brittle
failure can lead to collapse, endangering lives and causing extensive damage. By
contrast, ductile materials can undergo significant deformation before failure, providing
warning signs and allowing occupants to evacuate safely.
3. Redundancy and Robustness: Ductile structures can redistribute loads and stresses
more effectively than brittle structures. This redundancy and robustness are critical for
ensuring that localized damage does not propagate catastrophically throughout the
entire structure during an earthquake. Ductile materials allow for a more graceful and
controlled response to seismic forces.
4. Post-Earthquake Performance: Even if a structure sustains damage during an
earthquake, ductility allows it to retain a degree of structural integrity and functionality.
This is important for critical infrastructure such as hospitals, emergency shelters, and
essential transportation networks, which need to remain operational even after a seismic
event.
5. Seismic Retrofitting: Existing structures, especially older ones designed before modern
seismic codes, can be retrofitted to enhance their ductility. Retrofitting techniques such
as adding steel braces, strengthening concrete elements, or applying fiber-reinforced
polymers (FRPs) can improve the ductile behavior of a building, increasing its resilience
to seismic forces.
6. Code Compliance: Many building codes and seismic design standards incorporate
requirements for ductility to ensure the safety and resilience of structures in earthquake-
prone regions. Compliance with these codes helps to mitigate the risk of collapse and
minimize the potential for loss of life and property damage during seismic events.

In essence, ductility plays a vital role in seismic design by providing structures with the
ability to deform and absorb energy during earthquakes, thereby reducing the risk of
catastrophic failure and enhancing overall safety and resilience.