2022

Fluid Mechanics

MAIN CONCEPTS AND IDEAS OF FLUID MECHANICS

MUHAMMAD WAQAR AHMAD KHAN

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCES AND TECHNOOGY | Islamabad

 FLUID MECHANICS

Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................................................... 2
DEFINITION OF FLUID ............................................................................................................................................................. 2
FLUID BODY AND FLUID PARTICLE: ........................................................................................................................................ 2
COMPRESSIBILITY: .................................................................................................................................................................. 2
VISCOSITY: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:........................................................................................................................................................... 3
TYPES OF FLUID ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
(i) COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS: ....................................................................................................... 4
(ii) INVISCID FLUID: ...................................................................................................................................................... 4
(iii) IDEAL FLUID: ........................................................................................................................................................... 4
(iv) REAL FLUID:............................................................................................................................................................. 4
TYPES OF FLOW ...................................................................................................................................................................... 4
(i) INCOMPRESSIBLE AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS ........................................................................................................ 4
(ii) IDEAL AND REAL FLOWS......................................................................................................................................... 4
(iii) UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW .................................................................................................................. 5
(iv) STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW.............................................................................................................................. 5
(v) LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW......................................................................................................................... 5
(vi) IRROTATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL FLOW.............................................................................................................. 5
(vii) INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FLOWS ......................................................................................................................... 6
(viii) ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS .................................................................................................. 6
(ix) AXIALLY SYMMETRIC FLOW ................................................................................................................................... 6
(x) BARATROPIC FLOW ................................................................................................................................................ 6
EULERIAN AND LANGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION ...................................................................................................................... 6
VEOCITY FIELD ........................................................................................................................................................................ 7
THE ACCELERATION FIELD OF A FLOW................................................................................................................................... 7
VOLUME AND MASS RATE OF FLOW ..................................................................................................................................... 8
SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
(i) CONTROL MASS SYSTEM .......................................................................................................................................... 10
(ii) CONTROL VOLUME SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................. 10
(iii) ISOLATED SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................................ 10
CONSERVATION OF MASS PRINCIPLE .................................................................................................................................. 10
CONTINUITY EQUATION:...................................................................................................................................................... 11

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SPECIAL CASES OD DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF EQUATION OF CONTINUITY ..................................................................... 12

FLUID MECHANICS

INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that deals with the behavior of fluids (liquids or gases) at rest (fluid
static) or in motion (fluid dynamics).
Fluid mechanics may be divided into three categories: fluid statics, fluid kinematics, and fluid dynamics.

 Fluid statics deals with the study of fluids at rest.

 Fluid kinematics is the study of fluids in motion without considering the forces which cause or accompany the
motion.
 Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids in motion considering the forces acting on the fluids.

DEFINITION OF FLUID
A fluid is a substance the deforms continuously when subjected to a shear stress (i.e. tangential force), no matter how small
that shear stress may be. In simple words, a fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing and which conforms to the
shape of containing vessel (White).

FLUID BODY AND FLUID PARTICLE:

The fluid matter bounded by some imagined closed surface 𝑆, which moves with the fluid, is said to constitute a fluid body.
The surface 𝑆 completely and permanently separates the fluid matter inside 𝑆 from that outside. A fluid body is said to move
with the fluid if the velocity at every point on the surface of the body is the same as the velocity of the fluid at that point.
We define a fluid particle as the fluid contained within an infinitesimal volume whose size is so small that it may be regarded
as a geometrical point. A fluid particle when isolated retains all the properties of the fluid in bulk. Thus, a fluid particle is
not a mathematical, but a physical point possessing volume, weight, mass, density etc.

COMPRESSIBILITY:
The compressibility of a fluid is a measure of the change of its volume (and thus the density) under the action of external
forces. If the volume (or the density) of a fluid changes when the pressure or temperature changes, its said to be compressible
otherwise incompressible.
NOTE:
(i) All fluids are to some extent compressible, but in ordinary circumstances the compressibility of most liquids is
so small than it can be neglected. Thus, the flows of liquids can be regarded as incompressible.
(ii) The bulk modulus of elasticity is used as a measure of the compressibility of liquids.

VISCOSITY:
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure if its resistance to deformation i.e. resistance to a shearing (or tangential) force when
the fluid is in motion.

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 FLUID MECHANICS

When a fluid is sheared, it begins to move at a strain rate inversely proportional to a property called its
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦  . The shear strain angle  will continue to grow with time as long as the shear stress  is
maintained, the upper surface moving at speed  u larger than the lower surface


 …. (1)
t
 l  u t
From the geometry of the figure, tan     …. (2)
y y

For small angle, tan     then above equation implies that

 u t   u
   
y t  y
In the limit of infinitesimal change

 u d du
lim  lim  
 t 0  t  t 0  y dt dy

 du du
Equation (1) in this scenario will be     = …. (3)
 t dt dy

Where  is the constant of proportionality, and this called the absolute ( or dynamic) viscosity , is proportional constant
between the shearing stress and the velocity gradient ( also called the rate of shearing strain or rate of angular deformation).
The law of fluid friction given by (3) is known as Newton’s law of viscosity or Newtonian relationship. From equation (3)
we can write

 shear stress
  …. (4)
du dy Velocity gradient

Equation (4) can be regarded as the definition of viscosity. The viscosity  is a property of the fluid and is a scalar quantity.
The viscosity depends on the nature of the fluid. It is small for thin fluids such as water or alcohol, but large in the case of
very viscous liquids, such as oil and glycerin.

NOTE:
(i) The viscosity of a fluid is a very important property in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion near a
solid boundary.
(ii) The fluids which obey the Newtonian relationship (3) are known as Newtonian fluids.

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY:
The ratio of the absolute viscosity  to the density  is called the kinematic viscosity of the fluid and is denoted by  .

Thus   .


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TYPES OF FLUID
(i) COMPRESSIBLE AND INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS:
It is usual to divide fluids into two groups: liquids and gases. All known liquids are slightly compressible and their density
(or volume) varies little with temperature and pressure. For most practical purposes, liquids are considered to be
incompressible.
Gases on the other hand, are highly compressible and their density changes readily with the changes in temperature and
pressure. However, gases also have a wide flow field over which the compressibility effects are negligible and may then be
regarded as incompressible.

(ii) INVISCID FLUID:

An inviscid (or non-viscous or frictionless) fluids is that fluid having zero viscosity. With zero viscosity the fluid offers no
internal resistance to a change in shape (i.e. deformation). Thus, an inviscid fluid, whether at rest or in motion, can exert
only a normal stress (i.e. pressure) on any surface with which it is contact. Consequently, the shear (tangential) stresses in
this case are zero.

NOTE:
(i) No natural fluid is inviscid i.e. all fluids possess a certain degree of viscosity, but in many cases, for example,
with water and air, the viscosity is very small and to a reasonable degree of accuracy be treated as inviscid.
Moreover, the discussion of fluid motion is generally simplified when the influence of viscosity is neglected.
(ii) An inviscid fluid may or may not be incompressible.

(iii) IDEAL FLUID:

A fluid which is both inviscid and incompressible is called an ideal (or a perfect) fluid.

NOTE: Actually, no fluid is ever really ideal, but many flow problems are simplified by assuming that the fluid is ideal.
Aside possibly from liquid helium at temperatures near absolute zero, such fluids do not exist in nature. Nevertheless, under
certain conditions the behavior of an actual fluid closely approaches that of a perfect fluid, and therefore the results of the
analysis of such a fluid may be of definite practical value. For instance, the flow of air over objects (aerodynamics) is
considered ideal flow except in a thin layer just next to the surface (called the boundary layer)

(iv) REAL FLUID:

A real (or viscous) fluid is one which has finite viscosity and thus can exert a tangential (or shearing) stress on a surface
with which it is in contact. The flow of real fluid is called a viscous flow. Real fluids can further be subdivided int
Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian fluids.

TYPES OF FLOW
(i) INCOMPRESSIBLE AND COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
The flow of an incompressible fluid (i.e. flow which the density remains constant throughout the fluid) is said to be an
incompressible flow. On the other hand, the flow of a compressible fluid i.e. for which the density is not constant is called
a compressible flow.

(ii) IDEAL AND REAL FLOWS

The flow of an ideal (i.e. inviscid and incompressible) fluid is said to be ideal flow, while the flow of a real (i.e. viscous)
fluid is called a real flow.

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(iii) UNIFORM AND NON-UNIFORM FLOW

A flow is said to be uniform when the velocity vector as well as other fluid properties do not change from point to point in
the fluid. Thus

V  p
0,    0 etc.
t t t
i.e. partial derivative w.r.t ‘distance’ of any quantity vanishes.
A flow is said to be non-uniform when the velocity, density, pressure, etc. change from point to point in the fluid flow i.e
V
 0 etc.
s
For example, a liquid flow through a long straight pipe of constant diameter is a uniform flow. On the other hand, a liquid
flow through a pipe of reducing section or through a curved pipe is a non-uniform flow.

(iv) STEADY AND UNSTEADY FLOW

A flow is said to be steady (i.e. stationary) when the velocity vector and other fluid properties at every point in a fluid do
not change with time so that the flow pattern remains unchanged i.e

V  p
0,    0 etc.
t t t
i.e. partial derivative w.r.t time of any quantity vanishes. Thus, the velocity is constant w.r.t time but it may vary from point
to point. Hence the steady flow may be uniform or non-uniform

V
A flow is said to be unsteady when the fluid properties and conditions at any point in a fluid change with time i.e 0
t
etc.
For example, water being pumped through a fixed pipe at a constant rate is an example of steady flow, whereas water
pumped through a fixed pipe at an increasing rate is an example of unsteady flow.

(v) LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW

A flow is said to be laminar if the fluid particles along straight parallel paths in layers or laminar. Thus, in this flow, the
curves traced out by any two different fluid particles do not intersect.
On the other hand, a flow is said to be turbulent if the particles of the fluid move in a haphazard (irregular) fashion in all
directions. It is impossible to trace the motion of an individual particle in a turbulent flow.

(vi) IRROTATIONAL AND ROTATIONAL FLOW

A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles do not rotate about their own axes during the flow. Thus, if V   u , v, w 
is the velocity vector, then the condition for an irrotational flow is

w v u w v u
 V  0 or  ,  , 
y z z x x y

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On the other hand, a flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles go on rotating about their own axes during the flow,
i.e the particles have some angular velocity. Thus, the condition for a rotational flow is

w v u w v u
 V  0 or  ,  , 
y z z x x y

(vii) INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FLOWS

Fluid flows can be subdivided into two categories: internal flows and external flows.
Internal flows are those where fluid flows through confined spaces such as pipes, open channels, and fluid machines. The
internal flow of liquids in which the channel does not flow full is called an open channel flow. For example, flow in rivers
and irrigation canals.
External flows occur over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid, such as atmosphere through which airplanes, missiles,
and space vehicles travel, or the ocean water through which submarines and torpedoes move.
Both internal and externals flows may be laminar, turbulent, compressible or incompressible.

(viii) ONE-, TWO-, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

A flow is classified as one-, two-, and three-dimensional depending on the number of space coordinates required to specify
the velocity field and other fluid properties. Generally, a fluid flow is three-dimensional and complex in nature. For example,
the flow of air past an airplane wing and the flow approaching a circular hole located in the bottom side of a tank are the
examples of three-dimensional flow. In many situations, however it is possible to make simplifying assumptions without
loosing required accuracy. One of these simplifications involves approximating a real flow as a simple two- or one-
dimensional flow.
Two-dimensional flow is characterized by the fact that with a suitable choice of cartesian axes, every physical variable is
independent of one coordinate, say 𝑧. In such a case it is sufficient to study motion in the 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒. For example, the
flow between two non-parallel plates is an example of two-dimensional flow.
In one-dimensional flow, every physical variable depends only on one coordinate, say 𝑥. For example, the flow in pipes and
artificial channels is assumed to be one-dimensional.

(ix) AXIALLY SYMMETRIC FLOW

An axially symmetric flow is a three-dimensional flow such that with a suitable choice of cylindrical polar coordinates
𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧 every physical variable is independent of the angle 𝜃, or with a suitable choice of spherical polar coordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙
every physical variable is independent of the angle 𝜙.

(x) BARATROPIC FLOW

A flow is said to be baratropic when the pressure is a function of density alone.

EULERIAN AND LANGRANGIAN DESCRIPTION

These are two different viewpoints in analyzing problems in mechanics.

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The first view appropriate to fluid mechanics is concerned with the field of flow and is called 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑 of
description. In Eulerian method we compute the pressure field p  x, y, z, t  of the flow pattern not the pressure changes
p  t  which a particle experiences as it moves through an individual particle.

The second method, which follows an individual particle moving through the flow is called, 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑.

VEOCITY FIELD
For most among the properties of a flow is the velocity field V  x, y, z , t  . In fact, determining the velocity is often
tantamount to solving a flow problem, since other properties follow directly from the velocity

V  x, y, z , t   u  x, y, z , t  iˆ  v  x, y , z , t  ˆj  w  x, y , z , t  kˆ

THE ACCELERATION FIELD OF A FLOW

The cartesian vector form of a velocity field which varies in space and time:

V  u  x, y, z , t  iˆ  v  x, y , z , t  ˆj  w  x, y , z , t  kˆ

Thus, we compute the total time derivative of the velocity vector:

dV du ˆ dv ˆ dw ˆ
a  i j k
dt dt dt dt

Since each scalar component  u, v, w is a function of the four variables  x, y, z , t  , we use the chain rule to obtain each
scalar time derivative. For example,

du  x, y, z, t  u u dx u dy u dz
   
dt t x dt y dt z dt

dx dy dz
But by the definition, is the local velocity component u , and  v , and  w . The total derivative of 𝑢 may thus
dt dt dt
be written in the compact form

du u u u u
 u v  w
dt t x y z

 ˆ  ˆ  ˆ
As, we know that V  uiˆ  vjˆ  wkˆ and   i j  k we can write the above equation
x y z

du u  ˆ ˆ 
 
  ui  vj  wkˆ
dt t 
 . x iˆ  y ˆj  z kˆ   u  ut  V .  u

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dv dw
Exactly similar expressions, with 𝑢 replaced by 𝑣 or 𝑤, hold for or . Summing theses into a vector, we obtain the
dt dt
total acceleration

dV du ˆ dv ˆ dw ˆ  u   v   w 
a
dt

dt
i
dt
j
dt  t

  t
 
k    V . u  iˆ    V . v  ˆj  
  t

 V . w  kˆ

 

a 
 ˆ ˆ
t
  
ui  vj  wkˆ  V . uiˆ  vjˆ  wkˆ 
V
a
dV
dt

t

 V . V 
V
The term is called the 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, which vanishes if the flow is steady, i.e. independent of time. The term in
t
 
parenthesis V . V are called the 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, which arises when the particle moves through regions of
spatially varying velocity. Flows which are nominally “steady” may have large accelerations due to the convective terms.

D
The total time derivative sometimes called the 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 or 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 and is denoted by concept
Dt
may be applied to any variable e.g. the pressure

Dp p p p p p

Dt t
u v  w 
x y z t
 V . p  

VOLUME AND MASS RATE OF FLOW

 The volume of fluid passing any normal cross – section in unit time is called the volumetric flow rate or
discharge. It is denoted by Q and its unit is 𝑚3 /𝑠.
 The mass of the fluid passing any normal cross – section in unit time is called the mass flow rate. It is denoted by
m and its unit is 𝑘𝑔/𝑠.
Suppose the surface 𝑆 in the figure (a) is a sort of wire mesh through which fluid passes without
resistance. How much volume of fluid passes through 𝑆 in unit time? If 𝑽 varies with position we must
integrate over the elemental surface dA in 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑎). Also, typically 𝑽 may pass through dA at an
angle off the normal. Let 𝒏 be defined as the unit vector normal to dA . Then the amount of fluid swept
through dA in time dt is the volume of the slanted parallelepiped in figure (b)

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The incremental volume swept through 𝑑𝐴 is equals to

 V cosθ dt dA=Vcosθ dA dt
 
 dV = Vcosθ dA dt = V.nˆ dA dt

Volume of fluid swept through 𝑑𝐴 in unit time:

dV
dt

= V.nˆ dA 
dV
The integral of is the total volume rate of flow Q through the surface 𝑆
dt

Q   (V.n)dA
ˆ
S

Is the volume of fluid swept through 𝑆 in unit time.

The dot product V.n allows Q to have sign to distinguish between inflow and outflow. Therefore V.n denotes outflow if
it positive and inflow if negative.

 
If V.n gives the volume flow per unit area per unit time then ρ V.n is the mass flux (i.e. mass per unit area per unit
time).

  V.n   mass per unit time through dA

m    V.n dA  
S

REMARK: If the density is constant, it comes out of the integral then


m    V.n dA =  Q 
S

SYSTEM
A system is defined as a quantity of matter in space upon which attention is paid in the
analysis of a problem. Everything external to the system is called the surroundings. The
system is separated from the surroundings by the system boundary as shown in figure which
may be a real solid boundary or an imaginary one, may be fixed or moving depending upon
the investigator’s choice based on the need of the problem concerned. There are three types
of systems as follow:

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(i) CONTROL MASS SYSTEM

This is a system as shown in figure of fixed mass with fixed identity. This
means that there is no mass transfer across the system boundary. There may be
energy transfer into or out of the system. The type of system is usually referred to as
“closed system”

(ii) CONTROL VOLUME SYSTEM

This is a system as shown in figure in which matter crosses the system boundary
which remains fixed without any change in the volume of the system. The type of system
is usually referred to as an “open system” or more popularly “control volume”. In other
words, a control volume may be defined as a fixed region in space upon which the
attention is paid. Identification of the region depends much on the need of the problem
the boundary of a control volume is called the control surface across which the transfer
of both mass and energy takes place. The mass of a control volume (open system) may
or may not be fixed depending upon whether the net efflux (or influx) of mass across the
control surface (the system boundary) equals to zero or not. However, the identity of
mass in a control volume always changes unlike the case for a control mass system
(closed system).

(iii) ISOLATED SYSTEM

An isolated system is on as shown figure in which there is neither interaction of mass nor energy between the system
and the surroundings. Therefore, it is of fixed mass with same identity and fixed energy.

CONSERVATION OF MASS PRINCIPLE

The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created
nor be destroyed. Conservation of mass is inherent to the definition of
a closed system and can be written mathematically as

m
 0 , where 𝑚 is the mass of the system.
t
For a control volume (CV) the principle of conservation of mass can
be stated as

The net mass transfer to or from a control volume (small volume used to study flow situation) during a time interval t is
equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass with control volume (CV) during t .

 Total mass entering the   Total mass leaving the 

    Net change in the mass within CV during time t
 CV during time t   CV during the time t 
The above statement can be expressed analytically in terms of velocity and density field of a flow and the resulting
expression is known as the 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 or the 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

min m out m cv
 min  m out  m cv   
t t t

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When applying limit t approaches to 0, then

dmin dm out dm CV dm CV
    m in -m out =
dt dt dt dt

CONTINUITY EQUATION:
Suppose that at an infinitesimal surface element dA , the fluid is crossing the
surface of V with velocity V , then the local volume rate of flow across dA is

 V.nˆ  dA dV
dt

= V.nˆ dA
 
If the flow is outward then V.nˆ is positive whereas if the flow is inward then

 V.nˆ  is negative.
 
Then the local mass rate of flow is ρ V.nˆ dA (also it will be positive for outward flow and negative for inward flow).

According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of fluid within V will increase only because of a net influx
of fluid across the boundary surface 𝑆.

dm CV
min - m out =  
dt
dmCV d
mCV =  ρdV , =  ρdV 1
V
dt dt V

 
min - m out = - ρ V.nˆ dA  2
S

*  -  ρ  V.nˆ  dA=  ρdV

d
 3
S
dt V

 Rate of addition   Rate of increase of 

  
 of mass across S   mass of fluid within V 

Using the divergence theorem:   A.nˆ  dS   .A dV

S V

We can convert the surface integral into the volume integral

  ρV.nˆ  dA =  .  ρV  dV
S V
4

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 FLUID MECHANICS

from  3 ,
d
dt V
 
ρdV = -  . ρV dV 5
V

d
dt V
 
ρdV +  . ρV dV  0 6
V

the equation may be rearranged by bringing the time derivation inside the integral. This is permissible
(allowable) since the volume is fixed.

d   In case of constant 

dt V
 dV   dV
V
t

 limit integration 



 6   dV +  .  V  dV  0
t
V V

  
   t  . V  dV  0
V
7

Since the control volume is arbitrary,


 .  V   0 8
t
The above equation (8) is the differential form of law conservation of mass.

SPECIAL CASES OD DIFFERENTIAL FORM OF EQUATION OF CONTINUITY


 If the flow is steady (but compressible),  0 then equation (8) becomes
t
.  V   0
 If case of incompressible flow,   constant then equation (8) implies
  .V   0  .V   0

MUHAMMAD WAQAR AHMAD KHAN 12

 FLUID MECHANICS

MUHAMMAD WAQAR AHMAD KHAN 13