Chapter 9 ee _ OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS Objectives a At the end of the chapter, students should be able to: 1, Identify various environmental concerns and problems. | 2. Discuss ways and means on how to lessen the identified environmental | problems. (o Greenhouse Effect ‘The Greenhouse Effect is an extremely vital process where infrared rays from the sun come into the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere then traps these rays after they have come in keeping the Earth warm and habitable. CO, (carbon dioxide), N,O (nitrous oxide), and CH, (methane) are destroying the atmosphere, causing more infrared rays to reflect on Earth Having more infrared rays reflected on Earth makes the Earth warmer. As temperatures on Earth rise, so does the ocean water level and the ice caps begin to melt. The worst possible scenario with this problem would be mass flooding in low lying areas of the Earth including many islands in the ocean which would basically disappear, most of Florida would be underwater, all coastline cities, and river deltas such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, Egypt, Louisiana and other parts of the U.S. It will also cause more tropical storms, hurricanes, extreme temperatures and droughts.Causes The main causes of the Greenhouse Eifect are gases called CO, (carbon dioxide), N,O (nitrous oxide), and CH, (methane). Small amount of carbon dioxide (CO,) in the air helps kkeep heat in the Earth in the vital process of the Greenhouse Effect. As car exhausts and industries continue to shoot CO, in the ait, the amount of CO, in the will increase. This ‘causes more heat to be kept, increasing the Earth’ temperature. Methane and Nitrous Oxide haas the same effects as CO,, but they have a less harmful effect on the Greenhouse Effect Solutions 4. Reduce usage of greenhouse gas emissions (carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide). 2. Prevent forest fires and the depletion of trees, 3. Do not use nitrogen-based fertilizer to reduce the amount of nitrous oxide “Acid rain’ is a broad term used to describe several ways that acids fall out of the ‘atmosphere. A more precise term is acid deposition, which has two parts: wet and dry. Wet deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow. As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it afects a variety of plants and animals. The strength of the effects depend on many factors, including how acidic the water is, the chemistry and buffering ‘capacity of the soils involved, and the types of ish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water. Dry deposition refers to acidic gases and particles. About half of the acidity in the ‘atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition. The wind blows these acidic particles and gases onto buildings, cars, homes, and trees: Dry deposited gases and particles can also bbe washed from trees and other surfaces by rainstorms. When that happens, the runoff water ‘adds those acids to the acid rain, making the combination more acidic than the falling rain alone Prevailing winds blow the compounds that cause both wet and dry acid deposition across state and national borders, and sometimes over hundreds of miles. Scientists discovered, and have confirmed, that sulfur dioxide ($O,) and nitrogen oxides are the primary causes of acid rain, ‘ Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and ‘other chemicals to form various acidic compounds. Sunlight increases the rate of most of these reactions, ‘The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid. Measurement of Acid Rain ain ain measured using a scale called “pH” The lower a substance’ pH, the more acidic itis,Pure water has a pH of 7.0, Normal rain is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves into it, so it has a pH of about 5.5, As of the year 2000, the most acidic rain falling jn the US hasa pH of about 4.3 ~~ teh meta ‘What is PH? Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are two ‘extremes that describe temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their extreme effects much like mixing hot and cold water can even out the water temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral. ‘The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. It ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of isneutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic. Each whole pH yalue below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next higher value. For example, a pH of 4is ten times more acidic than a pH of Sand 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than a pH of 6 ‘The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline (another vay to say basic) than the next lower whole value, For example, a pH of 10 is ten times more alkaline than a pH of 9. Pure water is neutral, with a pH of 7.0. When chemicals are mixed with water, the ‘mixture can become either acidic or basic. Vinegar and lemon juice are acidic substances, while laundry detergents and ammonia are basic. ‘Chemicals that are very basic or very acidic are called “reactive” These chemicals can cause severe burns. Automobile battery acid is an acidic chemical that is reactive. ‘Automobile batteries contain a stronger form of some of the same acid that is in acid ‘ain. Household drain cleaners often contain lye, a very alkaline chemical that is reactive. Sr aa NEUTRAL — (the pH scale and the pH of some common items) Effects : lamage to forests and soils, fish and ‘Acid deposition has a variety of effects, including damage to forest eth eaters and man heath, Aid rain also reduess how fr and how deny eee gh the al, an effect called visibility reduction, The aid rain eects Section provides more details on each of these.Solutions “There are several ways to reduce acid deposition, more properly called acid deposition, ranging from societal changes to individual action. 1, Clean up smokestacks and exhau Use alternative energy sources Restore a damaged environment. Individuals can contribute directly by conserving energy, since energy production ‘causes the largest portion ofthe acid deposition problem. For example, you can “Tur offlights, computers, and other appliances when you're not using them: pipes. air conditioners, heaters, refrigerators, Use energy efficient appliances: lighting, washing machines, etc Only use electric appliances when you.nced them. ‘Keep your thermostat at 68F in the winter and 72 Fin the summer. You can tarn iteven lower in the winter and higher inthe summer when you are away from home Insulate your home as best you can. Carpool, use public transportation, orbeter yet, walkor bicycle whenever possible Buy vehicles with low Nitrogen emissions, and maintain all vehicles wel. Be well-informed. Ozone Layer Depletion “The ozone layer is a gaseous cover in the earth's atmosphere that serves as a shield against dangerous ultraviolet radiation, Excessive levels of UV radiation can cause cataracts skin cancer, and immune system suppression in humans as well as having harmful effects fon other living systems. Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, prevalent in Styrofoam, refrigerants (ach asin air conditioners), and cleaning agents (such as ammonia) are largely to blame for the degradation of the ozone layer. Toxic emissions and the burning of fossil fuels by power plants, factories, and engines also play a role inthe alteration of ozone layer functioning. Solutions 1. Avoid using Styrofoam whenever possible 1.1 Replace Styrofoam cups with a mug. 12 Buy individual fruits and vegetables rather than those packaged in Styrofoam containers ‘When shipping fragile goods, wrap them in newspaper or, use plastic bubble wrap instead of Styrofoam “popcorn” 2. Avoid using acar when its not crucial 2.1 Take public transportation, 22. Ride abicycle or walk. 23. Wand when driving is necessary: Carpool with othe and super-unleaded gasoline. se a fuel-efficient vehicle3. Avoid using excessive power. a. Turn off the lights, TV, stereo, computer, and other appliances when you leave the room and especially when you leave your residence. Ifyou want to keep alight on while you're away at night to discourage burglars, use timer to control when your lights switch on and off Install energy-efficient bulbs such as halogen lamps. ‘Wait until the dishwasher is full before running Use a screen saver for your computer. At work or at your apartment, take the stairs instead of the elevator when you can. Pollution Problems ‘There isa variety of possible pollution in the lower atmosphere, and these are divided into 2 main categories: primary pollutant and secondary pollutant. Primary pollutant is those, which are produced directly by the automobile. These include the products from the combustion of fossil fuels and other products, which the engine produces, As the chemistry of the internal combustion engine is quite complex, a variety of products are possible. The input to the petrol engine is hydrocarbons, mainly octane. Surprisingly, the hydrocarbons themselves ae in facta form of pollution, as the most volatile components of the Fuel escapes from the refinery, the petzol tanker, and the pump at the petrol station as well as directly from the car. Inside the petrol engine, Carbon Dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is produced as the complete combustion product of petrol. When incomplete combustion occurs, Carbon Monoxide, the toxic gas, is produced. The small amount of Sulphur Dioxide, which causes acid rain, is also produced because of the sulphur-bearing impurities in petrol. Due to the abundance of nitrogen in the atmosphere, some ofthat nitrogen is oxidized atthe temperature ‘of 1000°C in the engine, and nitrous oxides are produced. These have very little effects by itself, but as we shall see later, when combined with some other chemicals present in the atmosphere, it can cause a lot of damages. Water Pollution ‘There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories exist: direct and indirect contaminant sources. Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, waste treatment plants etc.. that emits fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies. In the United States and other countries, these practices are regulated, although this doesn't mean that pollutants can't be found in these waters. Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from soils/ ‘groundwater systems and from the atmosphere via rainwater. Soils and groundwater contain the residue of human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of industrial wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries). Effects of Water Pollutio The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous drinking water, poisonous food animals (due to these organisms having bioaccumulated toxins from theenvironment over their life spans), unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full biological diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and many other effects. These effects are, of course, specific to the various contaminants, ee Science provides many practical solutions to minimizing the present level at which are introduced into the environment and for remediating (cleaning up) past problems. All of these solutions come with some cost (both societal and monetary). In our everyday lives, a great deal can be done to minimize pollution if we take care to recycle ‘materials whose production creates pollution and if we act responsibly with household chemicals and their disposal. Additionally, there are choices we make each day that also can affect the quantity of pollutants our actions will introduce into the environment. Heavily packaged foods, for instance, contain boxes, cartons, bottles etc.. made with polluting dyes, ‘many of which are released from groundwater at municipal landfills. Whether we choose to drive to the corner store rather than walk or ride a bicycle will determine how much we personally contribute to acid and hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere (and ultimately to global fresh water supplies) (Dr. Ken Rubin, Assistant Professor, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu). Noise Pollution Noise pollution can be defined as unwanted or offensive sounds that unreasonably intrude into our daily activities. Ithas many sources, most of which are associated with urban development: road, air and rail transport; industrial noise; neighborhood and recreational noise. A number of factors contribute to problems of high noise levels, including: + Increasing population, particularly where it leads to increasing urbanization and urban consolidation; activities associated with urban living generally lead to increased noise levels + Increasing volumes of road, rail and air traffic. Effects of Noise ‘The WHO suggests that noise can affect human health and well-being in a number of, ways, including annoyance reaction, sleep disturbance, interference with communication, performance effects, effects on social behavior and hearing loss. Noise can cause annoyance and frustration as a result of interference, interruption and distraction. Activity disturbance is regarded as an important indicator of the community impact of noise. Research into the effects of noise on human health indicates a variety of health effects. People experiencing high noise levels (especially around airports or along road/rail corridors) differ from those with less noise expo sure in terms of: increased number of headaches, ‘greater susceptibility to minor accidents, increased reliance on sedatives and sleeping pills, increased mental hospital admission ratesExposure to noise is also associated with a range of possible physical effects includ «olds, changes in blood pressure, other cardiovascular changes, sees general m practice attendance, problems with the digestive system and general fatigue ing: al ‘Theres fairly consistent evidence that prolonged at prolonged exposure to noise levels at or above 80 4B (A) can cause deafness. The amount of deafness depends upon the degree of exposure. Major Noise Sources 1. Road traffic noise is one of the most widespread and growing environmental problems inurban. Road traffic noise has become a major urban environmental problem because + Land use planning has not been well integrated with transport planning, allowing residential developments and major transport corridors to occur in close proximity without appropriate buffer zones or treatment to buildings ‘There has been an increasing community reliance on road transportation, and a reluctance to implement or accept partial solutions involving greater use of public transport. + Traffic on many existing roads through built-up areas has increased well beyond expectations prevailing during planning or construction of the roadways + Potential solutions, apart from new vehicle noise standards are complex, offen costly, and require coordinated actions by a number of agencies and the community + While there is high community awareness of the problem, there isa general lack of ‘understanding ofits extent and possible solutions. 2. Cost of transport noise. ‘The economic costs of noise can include costs associated with building noise barriers alongside major transport routes, insulating affected buildings and the lowering of property prices for residential and commercial buildings. Noise costs are difficult to quantify and so estimates can vary widely. Other costs, such as annoyance and impacts on human health or fauna are even more difficult to quantify. 3, Neighborhood & domestic noise. Other significant sources of noise annoyance in Sydney include barking dogs, car alarms, garbage recycling, building construction and household noise. Noise from barking dogs is of particular concern because it is unpredictable and often happens repeatedly. Soil Erosion Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such ‘background’ (or ‘geological’) soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, since the first land plants formed the first sol. In general, background erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate as soil i formed. But ‘accelerated’ soil erosion, loss of soil at a much faster rate than it is formed — is a far more recent problem. I is always a result of mankind's unwise actions, such as overgrazing, ‘or unsuitable cultivation practices. These leave the land unprotected and vulnerable. Then, during times of erosive rainfall or windstorms, soil may be detached, transported, and. (possibly travelling a long distance) deposited.Accelerated soil erosion by water or wind may affect both agricultural areas and the natural environment, and is one of the most widespread of today’s environmental problems. It has impacts which are both on-site (at the place where the soil is detached) and off-site (wherever the eroded soil ends up). ‘More recently still, the use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some parts of, the world, led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under the action of ‘tavity: this is so-called tillage erosion. Erosion processes Soil may be detached and moved by water, wind or tillage. These three however differ ‘greatly in terms of: ‘+ Where and when they occur ‘What happens to the area that is being eroded (on-site impacts) + How far the eroded soil is moved, and + If the soil is moved away from the place where it was eroded, what happens as a result (off-site impacts) Erosion by Water Soil erosion by water is the result of rain detaching and transporting vulnerable soil, either directly by means of rainsplash or indirectly by rill and gully erosion. Rainsplash Rain may move soil directly: this is known as rainsplash erosion. Splash is only effective if the rain falls with sufficient intensity. If it does, then as the raindrops hit bare soil, their kinetic energy is able to detach and move soil particles a short distance. Because soil particles can only be moved a few centimetres at most by this process, its effects are solely on-site. Although considerable quantities of soil may be moved by rainsplash, itis all merely redistributed back over the surface of the soil (on steep slopes, however, there will be a modest net downslope movement of splashed soil). Thus a more descriptive term might be ‘rainsplash redistribution. Erosion by Wind Unlike water, wind can move soil over very large distances of thousands of kilometres and over sea to other countries. It can move soil up-hill. Of course, the finest clay particles are transported furthest. The amount of soil moved, must not be underestimated, and once in motion, and the air heavy with dust, its erosive power increases. Damage is caused in various ways: a. Loss of fine soil: fine soil is transported furthest away. ‘the fine clay particles bind nutrients and are crucial to fertility.'b. Loss of crops: crops are lost because they are being dug out, sand-blasted and covered in soil. Damage to soil: the composition of the soil changes; the land is furrowed in rills and gullies, leaving infertile rock behind 4d, Damage to buildings and infrastructure: roads are dug out and sand deposited over houses, fences and 50 on, The farm becomes unrecognizable. To avoid wind-blown erosion, arid soils should not be worked, but in order to survive, people do. ‘The remains of the previous crop (stubble, stalks, straw) should not be removed until just prior to planting, Strip cropping shelters the land and so do shelterbelts. Reduced tillage or no-tillage is preferable. Once the soil has been swept into land dunes (as opposed to sea dunes), these should be planted and stabilized. Fertilizer is an important weapon in doing so Causes of Erosion Deforestation. Forest soils contain much organic matter, indeed often more than can be converted by the soil organisms. When a forest is cleared, the trees are burnt, which leads to an immediate loss in organic matter, but above the soil. Some of the organic matter in the soil is burnt too. But in the years following, soil organisms become starved of a carbon source and burn the remaining organic soil content. It all leads to massive emissions of carbondioxide. In the wet tropics, forest soils do not contain much fertility. The tropical rains make farming a nightmare. Fuelwood. Cutting forest for fuelwood is another form of deforestation. Fuelwood is usually converted to charcoal, which burns cleanly. In the process, all hydrogen and oxygen are removed, so that carbon remains. Humans need enough fuelwood for cooking, to be problematic. In arid regions, even the last tree and shrub is used, leaving the landscape barren. Overgrazing. When insufficient amounts of grass litter are left for the soil, the soil organisms die and the soil loses fertility. Sparse cover lets raindrops erode the surface. Itis a common practice that leads to desertification, Agriculture, Most agricultural practices are harmful to the soil. Industrialization. Industries can pollute soils, mining operations do. Factors affecting erosion can be summarized as follows: 1. Natural factors a. Heavy rains on weak soi them down hill rain drops loosen soil particles and water transports b. Vegetation depleted by drought: rain drops are free to hit the soil, causing erosion during rainfall. Winds blow away the fine particles during droughts. c.. Steep slopes: gravity ‘pulls harder’: water flows faster; soil creeps, slips or slumps mn downl4. Sudden climate change i. Rainfall: erosion increases unexpectedly rapidly as rainstorms become ‘more severe. fi, Drought: water dries up and the soil becomes a playball of winds. Soil biota die. A sudelen rain causes enormous damage. fii, Changing winds: areas previously sheltered, become exposed. 2. Human-induced factors ‘a. Change of land (deforestation): the land loses its cover, then its soil biota, porosity and moisture. b. Intensive farming: the plough, excessive fertilizer and irrigation damage the land, often permanently. < Housing development: soil is bared; massive earthworks to landscape the subdivision; soil is on the loose. 4 Road construction: roads are cut; massive earthworks, leaving scars behind. Not ‘enough attention paid to rainwater flow and maintenance of roadsides. Here are various remedies to combat erosion on grassland and hilly terrain. 1. Riparian fencing: by fencing waterways, cattle wor't trample river banks and natural ‘vegetation can regrow. Also tree planting on river sides helps. Make sure the flat land is not part of the river's flood zone. 2. Shelter belts: shelter belts provide roots at the boundaries ofthe field, sheltering the soil, supplying organic matter. 3. Grassed waterways: a very effective protection of shallow water ways is to grass them ‘over. Grass leaves bend over in the current, protecting the soil. Note that grass needs sunlight, so shelter belts must be placed on the correct side. Make grassed waterways ‘wide and shallow to slow the water down and to prevent it from rilling and then gullying the waterway. Avoid spraying and mow regularly. 4. Spaced tree planting: trees provide deep roots that hold the soil; cycle deep nutrients ‘and lost nutrients, provide organic matter and more. Trees must compete with highly ‘metabolizing grassland, thus should be fast growing and deciduous. 5. Debris dams: debris dams check the water in steep gullies. They should not be used in slow-flowing waterways. Any kind of debris would do but natural products such as tree stumps, branches, plantings are better, Retirement fencing: problem ateas should be fenced for retirement so that seedlings are no longer grazed. Fencing is an absolute must to encourage natural growth and to protect tree plantings. Close tree planting: on retired land, trees can be planted close i J, trees can be closely. Once retired, any kind of tree can be planted, as necessary for forestry ot for slow growing native bush + Topdresing: fertilizing ithe best remedy agains erosion, both immediately and in the jong term,