Chapter 3:

Pulse Code Modulation

➢ Pulse Code Modulation
➢ Quantizing
➢ Encoding
➢ Analogue to Digital Conversion
➢ Bandwidth of PCM Signals
 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
➢ DEFINITION: Pulse code modulation (PCM) is essentially
analog-to-digital conversion of a special type where the
information contained in the instantaneous samples of an analog
signal is represented by digital words in a serial bit stream.

➢ The advantages of PCM are:

• Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used,
• PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources may be merged with
data signals and transmitted over a common high-speed digital
communication system,
• In long-distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a clean PCM
waveform can be regenerated at the output of each repeater, where the input
consists of a noisy PCM waveform,
• The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that of an
analog system,
• The probability of error for the system output can be reduced even further
by the use of appropriate coding techniques.
 Sampling, Quantizing, and Encoding
➢ The PCM signal is generated by carrying out three basic operations:
1. Sampling
2. Quantizing
3. Encoding
1. Sampling operation generates a flat-top PAM signal.
2. Quantizing operation approximates the analog values by using a
finite number of levels. This operation is considered in 3 steps
a) Uniform Quantizer
b) Quantization Error
c) Quantized PAM signal output
3. PCM signal is obtained from the quantized PAM signal by encoding
each quantized sample value into a digital word.
 Analog to Digital Conversion
➢ The Analog-to-digital Converter (ADC)
performs three functions:
Analog – Sampling
Input • Makes the signal discrete in time.
Signal
• If the analog input has a bandwidth
Sample
of W Hz, then the minimum sample
frequency such that the signal can be
reconstructed without distortion is
2W or more.
ADC
Quantize – Quantization
• Makes the signal discrete in
111
110
101
100
011
amplitude.
010
001
• Round off to one of q discrete levels.
Encode 000

– Encode
• Maps the quantized values to digital
words that are  bits long.
Digital Output ➢ If the (Nyquist) Sampling Theorem is
Signal satisfied, then only quantization introduces
111 111 001 010 011 111 011 distortion to the system.
Eeng 360 4
 Quantization
➢ The output of a sampler is still continuous in amplitude.
– Each sample can take on any value e.g. 3.752, 0.001, etc.
– The number of possible values is infinite.

➢ To transmit as a digital signal we must restrict the number of

possible values.

➢ Quantization is the process of “rounding off” a sample according to

some rule.
– E.g. suppose we must round to the nearest tenth, then:
3.752 --> 3.8 0.001 --> 0
Illustration of the Quantization Error
 PCM TV transmission:

(a) 5-bit resolution;

(b) 8-bit resolution.

 Uniform Quantization
Dynamic Range: • Most ADC’s use uniform
(-8, 8)
quantizers.
Output sample
• The quantization levels of a
7
XQ
5
uniform quantizer are
3

1
equally spaced apart.
-8 -6 -4 -2 -1 2 4 6 8
• Uniform quantizers are
Input sample X
-3
optimal when the input
-5 distribution is uniform.
-7 When all values within the
Quantization Characteristic Dynamic Range of the
Example: Uniform  =3 bit quantizer quantizer are equally likely.
q=8 and XQ = {1,3,5,7}
Types of Quantization
There are two types of Quantization - Uniform Quantization and Non-uniform
Quantization.

The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are uniformly spaced is
termed as a Uniform Quantization.

The type of quantization in which the quantization levels are unequal and mostly
the relation between them is logarithmic, is termed as a Non-uniform
Quantization.

There are two types of uniform quantization. They are Mid-Rise type and Mid-
Tread type. The following figures represent the two types of uniform quantization.
•The Mid-Rise type is so called because the origin lies in the
middle of a raising part of the stair-case like graph. The
quantization levels in this type are even in number.

•The Mid-tread type is so called because the origin lies in the

middle of a tread of the stair-case like graph. The quantization
levels in this type are odd in number.

•Both the mid-rise and mid-tread type of uniform quantizers are

symmetric about the origin.
Quantization Example

Analogue signal

Sampling TIMING

Quantization levels.
Quantized to 5-levels

Quantization levels
Quantized 10-levels
 PCM encoding example

Levels are encoded

using this table

Table: Quantization levels with belonging code words

M=8

Chart 2. Process of restoring a signal.

Chart 1. Quantization and digitalization of a signal. PCM encoded signal in binary form:
Signal is quantized in 11 time points & 8 quantization segments. 101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
Total of 33 bits were used to encode a signal
 Encoding
• The output of the quantizer is one of M possible signal levels.
– If we want to use a binary transmission system, then we need to map
each quantized sample into an n bit binary word.

M = 2n , n = log2 (M )
• Encoding is the process of representing each quantized sample
by a  bit code word.
– The mapping is one-to-one so there is no distortion introduced by
encoding.
– Some mappings are better than others.
• A Gray code gives the best end-to-end performance.
• The disadvantage of Gray codes is that they will give poor
performance when the sign bit (MSB) is received in error.
 Gray Codes
• With gray codes adjacent samples differ only in one bit position.
• Example (3 bit quantization):
XQ Natural coding Gray Coding
+7 111 110
+5 110 111
+3 101 101
+1 100 100
-1 011 000
-3 010 001
-5 001 011
-7 000 010
• With this gray code, a single bit error will result in an amplitude
error of only 2.
– Unless the MSB is in error.
 Waveforms in a PCM system for M=8
M=8

(a) Quantizer Input output characteristics

(b) Analog Signal, PAM Signal, Quantized PAM Signal

M = 2n n = log 2 ( M )
M is the number of Quantization levels
(c) Error Signal n is the number of bits per sample

(d) PCM Signal

PCM Transmission System
To implement the analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
encoding operation
1) Counting or ramp encoder
2) Serial or successive approximation encoder
3) Parallel or flash encodes

In the counting encoder, at the same time the sample

is taken, a ramp generator is energized (started)
and a binary counter is started. The output of the
Ramp generator is continuously compared with the
sample value

When the ramp value equals the sample value the

binary value of the counter is read. This count is
Taken as the PCM word.

Speed of this type ADC is limited with the speed of

The counter.
 Practical PCM Circuits
1. The counting or ramp, ( Maxim ICL7126 ADC)
2. Serial or successive approximation, (AD 570)
3. Parallel or flash encoders. ( CA3318)

• The objective of these circuits is to generate the

PCM word.
• Parallel digital output obtained (from one of the
above techniques) needs to be serialized before
sending over a 2-wire channel
• This is accomplished by parallel-to-serial
converters [Serial Input-Output (SIO) chip]
• UART, USRT and USART are examples for SIO’s
Bandwidth of PCM Signals