Subsurface Investigation

Purposes
Subsurface investigations are conducted for a variety of purposes
including:

1. Site Assessments - The purpose of an Environmental Site

Assessments (ESA) is to evaluate the degree of environmental
liability (generally soil or groundwater contamination) that may be
associated with a property.
 Purposes (cont.)
2. Groundwater Supply or Mineral Exploration - Many techniques
are used depending on the individual geologic situation and quantity
of water required or mineral resources prospected. Several
geophysical methods have been proven to be especially useful for
initial regional groundwater or mineral exploration.
 Purposes (cont.)
3. Aquifer Protection Planning - This service is provided to
formulate a strategy for protecting an aquifer, supply well or well
field. Multidisciplinary cooperation is generally necessary because
of interaction between groundwater scientists and engineers,
planners and developers.
Reference

https://localnews8.com/news/local-
news/2020/07/29/groundwater-
contamination-continues-in-southern-
idaho/?fbclid=IwAR2QnoLl4RSkZBRSEIm3l_
HjjzKxqRsxRzG-yW3faBO-L7msLB0pElhRULA
 Purposes (cont.)
4. Site Remediation - If soil and/or groundwater contamination are
identified on a site, and if contaminant concentrations are found
above regulatory limits, remedial activities or feasibility studies
should be performed.
 1. Borehole Geophysics
Borehole Geophysics is the science of recording and analyzing
measurements of physical properties made in wells or test holes.
Probes that measure different properties are lowered into the
borehole to collect data that is graphically displayed as a
geophysical log.
 Types of Borehole Logs
❑ Caliper logs record borehole diameter.

❑ Gamma logs record the amount of natural gamma radiation emitted

by the rocks surrounding the borehole.

❑ Normal-resistivity logs record the electrical resistivity of the

borehole environment and surrounding rocks and water.

❑ Temperature logs record the water temperature in the borehole.

❑ Self potential logs measure small electric potentials (in millivolts)

between depths in the borehole and a grounded voltage at the surface.

❑ Television logs record a color optical image of the borehole.

What do these things have in common?

Images Source: Reflection Seismology, Geophysics c/o Dr. Teresito Bacolcol

2A. Seismic Reflection Survey
Seismic Reflection is a method of geophysical exploration that
uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the
Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves.
2A. Seismic Reflection Survey (cont.)
Seismic Vibrators or Vibroseis
2B. Seismic Refraction Survey
The seismic refraction method utilizes the refraction of seismic
waves on geologic layers and rock/soil units in order to characterize
the subsurface geologic conditions and geologic structure.
 2B. Seismic Refraction (cont.)
• Seismic refraction surveys reveal two
main pieces of information

– Velocity structure
• Used to infer rock type

– Depth to interface
• Lithology change
• Water table
Seismic methods are massively used by the oil and gas industry.

They can detect the following:

❑ Stratigraphy
❑ Faults
❑ Folds
❑ Oil & Gas Reservoirs
❑ Groundwater Resources
 3. Resistivity Survey
Resistivity surveying investigates variations of electrical
resistance, by causing an electrical current to flow through
the subsurface using wires (electrodes) connected to the
ground.

A multi electrode resistivity survey A close-up of an electrode

 3. Resistivity Survey (cont.)
The resistivity of the subsurface depends upon:
– The presence of certain metallic ores
– The temperature of the subsurface
– The presence of archeological features
– Amount of groundwater present
– Alteration in rocks

A resistivity profile
3. Resistivity Survey (cont.)
 3. Resistivity Survey (cont.)
Highest R Igneous Rocks
Why? Only a minor component of pore water

Metamorphic Rocks
Why? Hydrous minerals and fabrics

Sedimentary Rocks
Why? Abundant pore space and fluids
Lowest R
Clay: super low resistivity
 3. Resistivity Survey (cont.)
Highest R Older Rocks
Why? More time to fill in fractures and pore
spaces

Younger Rocks
Why? Abundant fractures and/or pore spaces
Lowest R
 4. Magnetic Survey
The aim of a magnetic survey is to investigate subsurface geology
on the basis of the anomalies in the earth's magnetic field resulting
from the magnetic properties of the underlying rocks.

Magnetometers are complex instruments that measure both the

orientation and strength of the magnetic field.

Unit: nT (nano Tesla)

 4. Magnetic Surveying (cont.)
The magnetic method is typically used to:

❑ Locate abandoned steel well casings, buried tanks, pipes and

metallic debris
❑ Map old waste sites and landfill boundaries
❑ Map basement faults and basic igneous intrusives
❑ Investigate archaeological sites
5. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that
uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. This nondestructive
method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band
(UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the
reflected signals from subsurface structures.
5. Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
(cont.)
GPR can have applications in a variety of media, including rock, soil,
ice, fresh water, pavements and structures. In the right conditions,
practitioners can use GPR to detect subsurface objects, changes in
material properties, and voids and cracks.

GPR uses high-frequency radio waves, usually in the range 10 MHz

to 1 GHz.
 6. Gravity Survey
❑ measures the variations of gravitational field caused by differences in
subsurface rock densities at target locations

❑ advantages include cheap, non-destructive, and non-invasive remote

sensing method- marine, airborne or land

❑ higher the gravity values determined mean that the subsurface rocks
are denser

❑ instruments that record gravity measurements are called gravity

meters or gravimeters

❑ corrections are made from elevation, tidal effect, latitude, topography,

and instrumental drift; gravity readings are adjusted and corrected

❑ Unit: mGal (milligals) one thousandth of a Gal (1 com/sec2)

Source
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-
sciences/gravimeter

Images may be subject to copyright

 IGNEOUS ROCKS

Source
https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-geophysics/web/html/gravity_methods.html
 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Source
https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-geophysics/web/html/gravity_methods.html
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Source
https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-geophysics/web/html/gravity_methods.html
Gravity anomaly of the New
England States and the Gulf
of Maine

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1258/HTML
/NE_grav_small_map.htm

https://archive.epa.gov/esd/archive-
geophysics/web/html/gravity_methods.ht
ml
7. Electromagnetic (EM) Survey

Alternating currents are produced from the transmitter and are

passed through the surface and subsurface generating the primary
field. When a conducting body is passed by the currents, eddy
currents are produced and this secondary field, along with the
primary field, are both detected and recorded by the receiver.
Source

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261114076_Remnant_Echoes_of_the_Past_Geophysical_Archaeological_Prospec
tion_in_Sweden/figures?lo=1

Images may be subject to copyright

❑ Help trace contacts and marker beds in regions that are extensively
covered with overburden [1]

❑ Oil and gas exploration [2]

[1]
Application of Electromagnetic Surveying to Geologic Mapping in Northern Maine
Author(s) Frank C. Frischknecht
Published: January 01, 1966
GeoScienceWorld
https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/books/book/1021/chapter/106907632/Application-of-Electromagnetic-Surveying-to

[2]
Active Geophysical Monitoring
E.P. Velikhov, V.P. Panchenko, in Handbook of Geophysical Exploration: Seismic Exploration, 2010
ScienceDirect
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/electromagnetic-survey