Reproduction

Offsprings are produced by reproduction. They obtain chromosomes from their parent or
parents. Chromosomes contain DNA. They consist of instructions known as genes. These
genes can create different characteristics, such as eye and skin colour, mass and height.
Reproduction is essential to the survival of a species. There are two very different ways of
reproducing sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction in plants
In sexual reproduction, the parent produces sex cells called gametes. Eggs are the female
gamete in plants and pollen grains are the male gametes. When a pollen grain meets an
egg, fertilisation occurs. The new cell is called a zygote. This divides again and again,
eventually growing into a new organism. The offspring of sexual reproduction have genes
from both parents. Although they will have some similarities with their parents and each
other, they will have some unique differences.
Parts of a flower
For sexual reproduction in plants, the flower is an important organ. The diagram shows
the inside of a flower, which has both male and female parts. The stamen is the male part;
the carpel is the female part.

For sexual reproduction to occur, the pollen from the male part of one flower must
reach the female parts of another flower in a process called pollination.
Flowers have features to either attract animal pollinators such as insects, or to help their
pollen to be carried by the wind. If a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it releases special
substances. These make a tunnel through a part called the style. The nucleus from the
pollen grain enters, and ends
its journey when it meets an ovum in an ovule. Here, fertilisation occurs and a zygote is
produced. Over time, the zygote will grow to form a seed. This is usually enclosed within a
fruit.

Asexual reproduction in plants

Unlike sexual reproduction, asexual reproduction usually involves one parent. Gametes and
fertilization are not involved. The offspring are identical to each other, and the parent plant.
This is because they have exactly the same genes. Potatoes, for example, reproduce using
stem tubers. Some of the plant’s stems grow under the soil and become swollen because
sugars are stored as starch. The tubers grow larger, and can create new potato plants even
if the flowers are lost or pollination is unsuccessful. The new plants are identical to their
parents and there is no variation among the offspring. Later, you will see why this can be a
problem.

Artifical cloning of plants

As you have seen, many plants reproduce naturally by cloning. Gardeners and farmers
have used this knowledge for many hundreds of years. This can be useful: perhaps one
plant has exactly the characteristics that are wanted, such as attractive flowers, or high
quality yield. To clone plants with desirable characteristics, several methods can be used:
• Taking cuttings. Small pieces of stem can be removed from a parent plant and put in
the soil to form a new plant.
• In layering, a stem from a plant is folded underground into the soil, while still
attached to the parent plant. Often, this folded stem can grow into a new plant, which
can be cut off from the parent plant.
• As well as cutting and layering, growers can use unusual methods called budding and
grafting. This involves transferring a bud, or a developing branch, or a mature branch to
another plant. Grafting is shown in Figure 2.4.
For example, apricot scions can be inserted into plum tree rootstocks. The result are
apricots that are more disease- resistant than those produced on apricot trees.
More recently, scientists developed a process called tissue culture or micropropagation to
clone plants. Although it costs more to do, it means that thousands of new plants can be
made from one tiny piece of plant tissue. A mixture of plant hormones are used to make a
small group of cells from the plant you want to clone. They can then go on to produce a big
mass of identical plant cells called a callus. Careful work in the laboratory is used to break
up this callus into cells, each of
which can develop into an individual plantlet. This ensures that thousands of plants
with the desired characteristics can be produced.