CH2007D

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION
Lecture – 11
Vacuum Measurement, Errors in
Pressure Gages
 Problem
• A McLeod gage has total volume of capillary, bulb and tube down to the opening,
V1 = 100 cm3. The volume of compressed gas in the capillary, 𝛼𝑐 h = 10 cm3.
Calculate the percentage error in the pressure calculated using the formula
𝜌 𝛼
p=Ah2, where, A= 𝑚 𝑐 .
𝑉1
• Given: V1 = 100 cm3 and 𝛼𝑐 h = 10 cm3.
𝜌𝑚 𝛼𝑐 ℎ2 10
• The actual pressure is given by 𝑝𝑎 = = 𝜌 ℎ.
𝑉1 −𝛼𝑐 h 90 𝑚
𝜌𝑚 𝛼𝑐 ℎ2 10
• The calculated pressure is given by 𝑝𝑐 = = 𝜌 ℎ.
𝑉1 100 𝑚
𝑝𝑎 −𝑝𝑐
• Therefore, the percentage error (as percentage of the actual pressure) = ×
𝑝𝑎
10 10
𝜌𝑚 ℎ− 𝜌𝑚 ℎ 1000
90 100
100 = 10 × 100 = %=10%
𝜌 ℎ 100
90 𝑚
• The percentage error (as percentage of the calculated pressure or pressure
10 10
𝑝𝑎 −𝑝𝑐 90
𝜌𝑚 ℎ− 𝜌 ℎ
100 𝑚 1000
reading) = × 100 = 10 × 100 = %=11.11%
𝑝𝑐 𝜌 ℎ 90
100 𝑚
 Pirani Gage
• At low pressures, the effective thermal conductivity of gases
decreases with pressure.
• Pressure is measured through the change in thermal conductance of
the gas.

• Pirani gages require an empirical calibration and are not generally

suitable for use at pressures much below 1 μ.
• Overall range of about 0.1 to 100 Pa.
• The transient response of the Pirani gage is poor.
• The time necessary for the establishment of thermal equilibrium
may be of the order of several minutes at low pressures.
 Pirani Gage
• An electrically heated filament is placed inside the vacuum space.
• The heat loss from the filament is dependent on the thermal conductivity
of the gas and the filament temperature.
• The temperature of the filament could be measured by observing the
variation in resistance of the filament material (tungsten, platinum, etc.).
• The resistance measurement may be performed with an appropriate
bridge circuit.
• Two gages are connected in series to compensate for possible variations in
the ambient conditions.
• The bridge circuit is then adj-
usted (through resistance R2)
to produce a null condition.
 Ionization Gage
• The heated cathode emits electrons, which are accelerated by the positively
charged grid.
• As the electrons move toward the grid, they produce ionization of the gas
molecules through collisions.
• The plate is maintained at a negative potential so that the positive ions are
collected there, producing the plate current 𝑖𝑝 .
• The electrons and negative ions are collected by the grid, producing the grid
current 𝑖𝑔 .
• The pressure of the gas is proportional to the ratio of plate current to grid
current.
1 𝑖𝑝
• 𝑝= where, S is called the sensitivity of
𝑆 𝑖𝑔
the gage, determined by calibration. The
value of S is a function of the tube geometry,
the type of gas, and the operating voltages.
 Ionization Gage
• Range between 1.0 and 10−5 μ
• The current output is usually linear.
• At higher pressures there is the danger of burning out the cathode.
• Special types of ionization gages are suitable for measurements of
pressures as low as 0.13 nPa. Very precise experimental techniques
are required in order to perform measurements at these high
vacuums.
Comparison of Vacuum Gages
Ranges of Various Pressure Gages
 Static Accuracy of Pressure Gages
• Sources of static error in pressure gages
– Ambient effect
– Head effect
– Barometric effect
– Line-loss effect
– Calibration shift
• Ambient-temperature effect
– Negligible except infrequently in liquid-column manometers.
– Cause(s): (1) Temperature coefficient of linear expansion of the manometric
fluid (cubical expansion or volumetric expansion). Results in zero shift of
calibration.
– Negligible error in manometers if ambient-temperature change is less than
30°F
– Elastic type pressure gages: Cause (2) Temperature coefficient of Young’s
modulus.  Results in zero shift and span shift of calibration.
 Static Accuracy of Pressure Gages
• Head effect
– Head due to liquid columns in the gage line
– Can be corrected by shifting the zero point of the pressure-gage calibration.
• Barometric effect
– Due to changes in barometric pressure
– Can be manually corrected or automatic barometric compensation can be
used.
• Line-loss effect
– Due to leakage in measuring lines
– Size of the line or size of the leak
– Difficult to locate with colourless odourless gas
– Install shutoff cock in the measuring line close to the point of measurement
to check for leakages at periodic intervals.
 Static Accuracy of Pressure Gages
• Calibration shift
– Due to application of pressures higher than the highest calibration point.
– Solutions
• Overrange protection
• Limit stops