SECTION 3.

5 DIFFERENTIALS; LINEAR
APPROXIMATIONS; NEWTON’S METHOD: OBJECTIVES

Find the differential of a function and interpret it geometrically

Find the linear approximation to a function
Use differentials in applications
Use Newton’s Method to approximate a real zero of a function
 DIFFERENTIAL (1 of 2)
DEFINITION Differential
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a differentiable function and let Δ𝑥 denote a
change in 𝑥.
The differential of 𝒙, denoted 𝑑𝑥, is defined as 𝑑𝑥 = Δ𝑥 ≠ 0.
The differential of 𝒚, denoted 𝑑𝑦, is defined as
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
DIFFERENTIAL (2 of 2)
 FINDING AND INTERPRETING
DIFFERENTIALS GEOMETRICALLY (1 of 2)
For the function 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 find the equation of the tangent line to
the graph of 𝑓 at 0,0 . Find the differential 𝑑𝑦. Compare 𝑑𝑦 to Δ𝑦
when 𝑥 = 0 and Δ𝑥 = 0.5.

Solution: 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 , so 𝑓 ′ 0 = 1. So the equation of the

tangent line is 𝑦 = 𝑥.
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 + 1)𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
When 𝑥 = 0 and Δ𝑥 = 𝑑𝑥 = 0.5, then 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (0 +
1)𝑒 0 0.5 = 0.5
The tangent line 𝑦 = 𝑥 rises by 0.5 as 𝑥 changes from 0 to 0.5.
Δ𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 − 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 0.5 − 𝑓 0 = 0.5𝑒 0.5 − 0 ≈ 0.824
Thus, the graph of the tangent line is approximately 0.324 below the
graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥 = 0.5.
 FINDING AND INTERPRETING
DIFFERENTIALS GEOMETRICALLY (2 of 2)
 LINEAR APPROXIMATION

THEOREM Linear Approximation

The linear approximation 𝑳(𝒙) to a differentiable function
𝑓 at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is given by
𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑓′(𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
The graph of the linear approximation is the tangent line to
the graph of 𝑓 at 𝑥0 .
FINDING THE LINEAR APPROXIMATION
TO A FUNCTION
Find the linear approximation 𝐿(𝑥) to 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 near
𝑥 = 0. Use 𝐿(𝑥) to approximate tan(0.1).
Solution: 𝑓 0 = 0. 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥, so 𝑓 ′ 0 = 1. Then the
linear approximation 𝐿(𝑥) to 𝑓 at 0 is
𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑓 0 + 𝑓′ 0 𝑥 − 0 = 𝑥
So for 𝑥 close to 0, the function 𝑓 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 can be
approximated by the line 𝐿 𝑥 = 𝑥.
The approximate value of tan 0.1 is 0.1.
SECTION 3.6 HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:
OBJECTIVES
Define the hyperbolic functions
Establish identities for hyperbolic functions
Differentiate hyperbolic functions
Differentiate inverse hyperbolic functions
DEFINE THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
DEFINITION

The hyperbolic sine function and hyperbolic cosine function are defined
as
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 =
2
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥
𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 =
2
Hyperbolic functions are related to a hyperbola in much the same way as
the trig functions are related to the circle. The same relationships hold for
the other four hyperbolic functions as well. For instance,
sinh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 = =
cosh 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
GRAPHS OF THE HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS (1 of 2)
GRAPHS OF THE HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS (2 of 2)
 IDENTITIES FOR HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 = 1
tanh2 𝑥 + sech2 𝑥 = 1
coth2 𝑥 − csch2 𝑥 = 1
Sum Formulas:
sinh 𝐴 + 𝐵 = sinh 𝐴 cosh 𝐵 + cosh 𝐴 sinh 𝐵
cosh 𝐴 + 𝐵 = cosh 𝐴 cosh 𝐵 + sinh 𝐴 sinh 𝐵
Even/odd properties:
sinh −𝐴 = − sinh 𝐴
cosh −𝐴 = cosh 𝐴
 DERIVATIVES OF HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
The formulas for the derivatives of the hyperbolic functions are
similar to those of the trigonometric functions.
𝑑
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
tanh 𝑥 = sech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
csch 𝑥 = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
cosh 𝑥 = − sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
coth 𝑥 = − csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
sech 𝑥 = − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
 DIFFERENTIATING HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
𝑑
𝑥 4 − 3 cosh 𝑥 = 4𝑥 3 + 3 sinh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(sinh(𝑥 2 − 4)) = cosh 𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ 2𝑥 = 2𝑥 cosh(𝑥 2 − 4)
𝑑𝑥
 INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦

𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦 𝑦 ≥ 0

Since the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential

functions, their inverses can be expressed in terms of natural
logarithms.

𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1)
𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 1)
−1
1 1 + 𝑥
𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 = ln
2 1 − 𝑥
−1
1 𝑥 + 1
𝑦 = coth 𝑥 = ln
2 𝑥 − 1
 DIFFERENTIATING AN INVERSE
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTION
Show that if 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥, then
𝑑 1
𝑦′ = −1
sinh 𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥2 + 1
Solution: Since 𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 = ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1 , we have
1 2 1
−2
𝑑 𝑑 1 + 𝑥 + 1 (2𝑥)
′
𝑦 = −1
sinh 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 1) = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 1
𝑥2 + 1 + 𝑥
𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 1 1
= = =
2 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1)( 𝑥 + 1) 𝑥2 + 1