Stoichiometric

Calculations
• Mass of Substance

Atomic Weight (Aw): Ratio of the average mass of a chemical element’s atoms to
some standard (Carbon-12).
Molecular Weight (M.wt): The sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms in a
molecule of the substance.
Formula weight (FW): The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of
the compound, whether molecular or not.
Molecular mass (MM): The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule
of the substance.
Molar mass: The mass of one mole of the substance in gram.

Molar mass,
Atomic Weight (Aw)
Molecular Weight (M.wt) Calculated the same
way,
Molecular Mass (MM)
have different unit
Formula Mass (FM) (for ionic compound)
2
 Step 1: Identify the number and type of atoms in the chemical formula.

Step 2: Use the periodic table to obtain the atomic mass of each of the elements
present in the compounds.

Step 3: Considering the number of each atom present in the formula, sum the
masses. If atoms in the formula are enclosed within parentheses, the number of
each element within the parentheses should be multiplied by the subscript that
follows the final, or closing, parenthesis.

Formula mass of Fe2(SO4)3:

2 × AM of Fe = 2 × 55.8 = 111.6 amu

3 × AM of S = 3 × 32.1 = 96.3 amu Formula mass of CHCl3:
3 × 4 × AM of O = 12 × 16.0 = 192.0 amu
399.9 amu 1 × AM of C = 12 amu
1 × AM of H = 1 amu
3 × AM of Cl = 3 × 35.45 = 106.4 amu
119.4 amu
Definition of Mole

 A mole (symbol mol) is defined as the quantity of a given substance that contains as many molecules or
formula units as the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12.

 The number of atoms in a 12-g sample of carbon-12 is called Avogadro’s number (to which we give the
symbol NA). Recent measurements of this number give the value 6.0221367 × 1023, which to three significant
figures is 6.02 × 1023.

 A mole of a substance contains Avogadro’s number (6.02 × 1023) of molecules (or formula units).
Mole Calculations
Suppose you are going to prepare acetic acid from 10.0 g of ethanol, C2H5OH. How many moles of
C2H5OH is this? You convert 10.0 g C2H5OH to moles C2H5OH by multiplying by the appropriate
conversion factor.

Zinc iodide, ZnI2, can be prepared by the direct combination of elements. A chemist determines from
the amounts of elements that 0.0654 mol ZnI2 can form. How many grams of zinc iodide is this?

 Whenever you solve a problem of this type, be sure to write all units, making certain that they will
cancel. This “built-in” feature of dimensional analysis ensures that you are correctly using the
conversion factors.

6
How many molecules are there in a 3.46-g sample of hydrogen chloride, HCl?
 The number of molecules in a sample is related to moles of compound (1 mol HCl 6.02 × 1023 HCl
molecules). Therefore, if you first convert grams HCl to moles, then you can convert moles to number of
molecules.
Moles of Gases

Empirical Gas Laws

All gases behave quite simply with respect to temperature, pressure, volume, and molar
amount. By holding two of these physical properties constant, it becomes possible to
show a simple relationship between the other two properties. The studies leading to the
empirical gas laws:

 Boyle’s Law: Relating volume & pressure

 Charles’s Law: Relating volume & temperature
 Combined Gas Law: Relating volume, temperature, & pressure
 Avogadro’s Law: Relating volume & amount
 Boyle’s Law
The volume of a sample of gas at constant temperature varies inversely with the applied pressure.
The mathematical relationship:
1
In equation form: V 
P
PV  constant
Pf V f  PV
i i

At normal atmospheric pressure, when pressure is doubled, the volume is halved. When pressure is tripled,
the volume decreases to one-third.

A volume of air occupying 12.0 dm3 at 98.9 kPa is compressed to a pressure of 119.0 kPa. The temperature
remains constant. Determine the new volume.

Vi = 12.0 dm3 Vf = ?
Pi = 98.9 kPa Pf = 119.0 kPa
PV
Vf  i i
Pf
Charles’s Law
The volume of a sample of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to
the absolute temperature (K).

In equation form: V
 constant
T
Vi V f

Ti T f
Combined Gas Law
The volume of a certain amount of gas at constant pressure is proportional to the absolute
temperature divided by the pressure.

T
The mathematical relationship: V 
P
In equation form:
PV
 constant
T
Pf V f PV
= i i
Tf Ti

According to the Dumas method of determining %N in an

organic compound, 39.8 mg of caffeine gives 10.1 cm3 of
nitrogen gas at 23°C and 746 mmHg. Determine the volume
of nitrogen at 0°C and 760mmHg.
Avogadro’s Law

• Equal volumes of any two gases at the same

temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules. This volume of one mole of gas is called the
molar gas volume (Vm).

• One mole of any gas has a volume of 24 dm3 or

24,000 cm3 at rtp (room temperature (25 °C) and
pressure (1 atm).

• Volume of gas at rtp = number of moles × 24

• At STP (standard temperature (0 °C) and pressure (1

atm)), one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L.

• Volume of gas at rtp = number of moles × 22.4

12
Example: Calculate the volume of 0.5 mol of carbon dioxide at rtp.

Volume = 0.5 × 24 = 12 dm3

Remember that 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3 so the volume is also 12 000 cm3

Example: Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen that occupy 6 dm3 at rtp.

Number of moles = 6 ÷ 24 = 0.25 mol

Hint: 1 dm3 = 1 L
1) How many liters will a 0.19-mole sample of oxygen gas take up at STP?

2) Calculate the mass of 16.4 L of chlorine gas at STP.

Gas
Mole Mass (g)
volume

3) A balloon is filled with argon gas at STP. What is the density of the gas
in the balloon?

4) A balloon is filled with an unidentified gas at STP. If its density is 2.35

g/L, what is the molar mass of this gas?

5) A balloon is filled with 487 liters of hydrogen gas at STP. What is the
Ar
mass in grams of this gas?

14
Several balloons are filled with 8250 total liters of helium gas at STP.
How many total atoms of helium are contained in all of the balloons?

Solution: Gas
Mole Atoms
volume

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑒 6.02 ×1023 𝐻𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

8250 L × × = 2.22 × 1026 atoms
22.4 𝐿 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝑒

Extra:
A balloon is filled with 8.0 x 1028 molecules of
nitrogen gas at STP. What is the volume in
liters of this balloon?
15
Ideal Gas Law
The ideal gas law is given by the equation

The molar gas constant, R, is the constant of proportionality that relates the molar
volume of a gas to T/P.

Prove the following statement: the pressure of a given amount of gas at a

fixed volume is proportional to the absolute temperature. This is sometimes
called Amontons’ law. Using the ideal gas law:

PV  nRT
 nR 
P= T
V 

P = constant  T P T
Determine the grams of O2 in a 50.0-L cylinder at 21°C when the O2 pressure is 15.7 atm.

Variable Value
P 15.7 atm
V 50.0 L
T (21 + 273) K =
294 K
n ?

Solving the ideal gas law for n

PV
n=
RT
Molar Concentration (Molarity)
 Solute is a substance that is dissolved in a liquid that is called a solvent.

 The general term concentration refers to the quantity of solute in a standard quantity of solution.

 A solution is dilute when the solute concentration is low and concentrated when the solute concentration is
high.

 Molar concentration, or molarity (M), is defined as the moles of solute dissolved in one liter (cubic decimeter)
of solution.
 How to relate
moles, number
of particles, and
concentration?

20
An aqueous solution that is 0.20 M HCl
contains 0.2 mol HCl per liter of
solution. If you want to prepare a
solution that is, for example, 0.200 M
CuSO4, you place 0.200 mol CuSO4 in a
1.000-L volumetric flask, or a
proportional amount in a flask of a
different size.

Example: A sample of NaNO3 weighing

0.38 g is placed in a 50.0 mL
volumetric flask. The flask is then filled
with water to the mark on the neck,
dissolving the solid. What is the
molarity of the resulting solution?
Example: How many milliliters of 0.150 M
NaOH are required to give 0.184 g NaOH?

21
Diluting solutions

 Dilution is the process whereby the concentration of a solution is lessened by the addition of solvent.
Commercially available aqueous ammonia (28.0% NH3) is 14.8 M NH3. Suppose, however, that you want a
solution that is 1.00 M NH3. You need to dilute the concentrated solution with a definite quantity of water. For
this purpose, you must know the relationship between the molarity of the solution before dilution (the initial
molarity) and that after dilution (the final molarity).

Rearrange the equation to have:

Moles of solute = molarity × liters of solution

Diluting solutions

Writing Mi for the initial molar concentration and Vi for the initial volume of solution, you get:

Moles of solute = Mi × Vi

When the solution is diluted by adding more water, the concentration and volume change to Mf (the final molar
concentration) and Vf (the final volume), and the moles of solute equals:

Moles of solute = Mf × Vf

Because the moles of solute has not changed during the dilution:

Mi × V i = Mf × V f

Note: You can use any volume units, but both Vi and Vf must be in the
same units.
You are given a solution of 14.8 M NH3. How many milliliters of this solution do you require to give 100.0 mL of
1.00 M NH3 when diluted.

If 0.850 L of a 5.00-M solution of copper nitrate, Cu(NO3)2, is diluted to a volume of 1.80 L by the addition of
water, what is the molarity of the diluted solution?
 Determining Chemical Formulas

Analyzing the
compound to
Discovering of a What is the
determine
new compound formula?
amounts
of the elements

Percentage
composition
Obtaining
The mass
chemical
percentages of
formula
each element in
the compound
Mass Percentages from the Formula

Suppose that A is a part of something—that is, part of a whole. It could be an element in a compound
or one substance in a mixture. We define the mass percentage of A as the parts of A per hundred
parts of the total, by mass.

The mass percentage of A as the number of grams of A in 100 g of the whole.

Example: Formaldehyde, CH2O, is a toxic gas with a pungent odor. Large quantities are consumed in the
manufacture of plastics. Calculate the mass percentages of the elements in formaldehyde.
Molar mass of CH2O = (1×12)+(2×1)+(1×16) = 30 g
12𝑔 2×1 𝑔
%C = × 100% = 40% %H = × 100% = 6.73%
30𝑔 30𝑔
O% = 100% - (40% + 6.73%) = 53.3%
• How many grams of carbon are there in 83.5 g of formaldehyde, CH2O? Use the percentage composition
obtained in the previous example (40.0% C, 6.73% H, 53.3% O).

• The mass percentage of C is 40%. Therefore:

• 83.5 g × 0.4 = 33.4 g

Determine the percent composition of iron in iron (III) oxide.

Answer: 70.0%

Hypochlorous acid is one of the active sanitizers in pool-cleaning products. Its formula is
HClO. What percent of the compound is oxygen?
Answer: 30.5%

27
• Determining formulas

• The percentage composition of a compound leads directly to its

empirical formula. An empirical formula (or simplest formula) for a
compound is the formula of a substance written with the smallest
integer (whole number) subscripts.

• For example, hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula H2O2. The
molecular formula, you may recall, tells you the precise number of
atoms of different elements in a molecule of the substance. The
empirical formula, however, merely tells you the ratio of numbers of
atoms in the compound. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) is HO.

• Compounds with different molecular formulas can have the same

empirical formula, and such substances will have the same percentage
composition. An example is acetylene, C2H2, and benzene, C6H6.

• To obtain the molecular formula of a substance, you need two pieces

of information: (1) as in the previous section, the percentage
composition, from which the empirical formula can be determined;
and (2) the molecular mass. The molecular mass allows you to choose
the correct multiple of the empirical formula for the molecular
formula.

28
To obtain the empirical formula of a compound:
• A compound of nitrogen and oxygen is analyzed, and a sample weighing
1.587 g is found to contain 0.483 g N and 1.104 g O. What is the empirical
formula of the compound?

• NxOy ?

K2CrO4

Cr2O3 Chromium forms compounds of various colors. Sodium

dichromate is the most important commercial chromium
CrO3
compound, from which many other chromium compounds
are manufactured. It is a bright orange, crystalline
K2Cr2O7
substance. An analysis of sodium dichromate gives the
Cr2(SO4)3
following mass percentages: 17.5% Na, 39.7% Cr, and
42.8% O. What is the empirical formula of this compound?
Cr NaxCryOz
Molecular Formula from Empirical
Formula

• The molecular formula of a compound is a

multiple of its empirical formula. For example, the
molecular formula of acetylene, C2H2, is equivalent
to (CH)2, and the molecular formula of benzene,
C6H6, is equivalent to (CH)6. Therefore, the
molecular mass is some multiple of the empirical
formula mass, which is obtained by summing the
atomic masses of the atoms in the empirical
formula. For any molecular compound, you can
write:
Molecular mass = n × empirical formula mass

• where n is the number of empirical formula units

in the molecule.
31
After analysis of the acetic acid, we found the percentage composition to be 39.9% C, 6.7% H, and
53.4% O. Determine the empirical formula. The molecular mass of acetic acid was determined by
experiment to be 60.0 amu. What is its molecular formula?

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 3.33 mol

39.9g C × = 3.33 mol C For C = = 1.0
12𝑔 𝐶 3.33 mol
The
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 6.70 mol
6.7g H × = 6.70 mol H For H = = 2.0 empirical formula of
1𝑔 𝐻 3.33 mol
acetic acid is CH2O
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 3.34 mol
53.4g O × = 3.34 mol O For O = = 1.0
16𝑔 𝑂 3.33 mol

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 60 𝑎𝑚𝑢

n= = = 2.0
𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 30 𝑎𝑚𝑢

The molecular formula of acetic acid is (CH2O)2, or C2H4O2.

The percentage composition of acetaldehyde is 54.5% C, 9.2% H, and 36.3% O, and its molecular
mass is 44 amu. Obtain the molecular formula of acetaldehyde.

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 4.54 mol

54.5g C × = 4.54 mol C For C = = 2.0
12𝑔 𝐶 2.27 mol
The
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 9.20 mol
9.2g H × = 9.20 mol H For H = = 4.0 empirical formula of
1𝑔 𝐻 2.27 mol acetaldehyde is
C2H4O
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂 2.27 mol
36.3g O × = 2.27 mol O For O = = 1.0
16𝑔 𝑂 2.27 mol

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 44 𝑎𝑚𝑢

n= = = 1.0
𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 42 𝑎𝑚𝑢

The molecular formula of acetaldehyde is C2H4O.

Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions

Stoichiometry is the calculation of the quantities of reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction. It is
based on the chemical equation and on the relationship between mass and moles.

Hydrogen is usually obtained from natural gas or petroleum and so

is relatively expensive. For this reason, the price of hydrogen partly
determines the price of ammonia. Thus, an important question to
answer is, How much hydrogen is required to give a particular
quantity of ammonia?
Interpreting a Chemical Equation

A chemical equation may be interpreted in terms of:

 Numbers of molecules (or ions or formula units)
 Numbers of moles
 Because moles can be converted to mass, you can also give a mass interpretation of a chemical equation.
molar mass of N2= 28.0 g/mol
molar mass of H2 = 2.02 g/mol 28.0 g of N2 reacts with 3 × 2.02 g of H2 to yield 2 × 17.0 g of NH3
molar mass of NH3 = 17.0 g/mol

We summarize these three interpretations as follows:

In an industrial process, hydrogen chloride, HCl, is prepared by burning hydrogen gas, H2, in an
atmosphere of chlorine, Cl2. Write the chemical equation for the reaction. Below the equation, give
the molecular, molar, and mass interpretations.

molar mass of Cl2= 71.0 g/mol

molar mass of H2 = 2.02 g/mol
molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g/mol

A balanced chemical equation relates the amounts of

substances in a reaction.
Steps in a stoichiometric calculation

Convert:
 The mass of substance A in a
reaction to moles of substance
A
 Then to moles of another
substance B
 Finally, to mass of substance B
The calculation to convert 907 kg NH3, or 9.07 × 105 g NH3, to mol NH3 is as follows:

Now you convert from moles NH3 to moles H2.

Finally, you convert moles H2 to grams H2.

 How many grams of iron can be produced from 1.00 kg Fe2O3?

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

1 mol Fe2O3 2 mol Fe 55.8 g Fe

1.00 × 103 g Fe2O3 × × × = 698 𝑔 𝐹𝑒
160 g Fe2O3 1 mol Fe2O3 1 mol Fe

 How many grams of HCl react with 5.00 g of manganese dioxide, according to this equation?

4HCl(aq) + MnO2(s) 2H2O(l) + MnCl2(aq) + Cl2(g)

1 mol MnO2 4 mol HCl 36.5 g HCl

5.0 g MnO2 × × × = 8.40 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙
86.9 g MnO2 1 mol MnO2 1 mol HCl
Limiting reactant
 The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the reactant that is entirely consumed when a
reaction goes to completion.
 A reactant that is not completely consumed is often referred to as an excess reactant.

Once one of the reactants is used up, the reaction stops. This means that:
The moles of product are always determined by the starting moles of limiting reactant.
Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid by the following reaction:

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

If 0.30 mol Zn is added to hydrochloric acid containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many moles of H2 are produced?

Step 1: Which is the limiting reactant?

Step 2: You obtain the amount of product obtained from the amount of limiting reactant.
Since HCl is the limiting reactant, the amount of H2 produced must be 0.26 mol

Aluminum chloride, AlCl3, is used as a catalyst in various industrial reactions. It is

prepared from hydrogen chloride gas and aluminum metal shavings.

2Al(s) + 6HCl(g) 2AlCl3(s) + 3H2(g)

Suppose a reaction vessel contains 0.15 mol Al and 0.35 mol HCl. How many moles of
AlCl3 can be prepared from this mixture?
Consider the following reaction:

2CH3CHO(l) + O2(g) 2CH3COOH(l)

20.0 g CH3CHO and 10.0 g O2 were put into a reaction vessel.

a. How many grams of acetic acid can be produced by this reaction from these amounts of reactants? b. How
many grams of the excess reactant remain after the reaction is complete?

(a) You must convert grams of each reactant (acetaldehyde and oxygen) to moles of product (acetic acid). From
these results, you decide which is the limiting reactant and the moles of product obtained, which you convert to
grams of product.
Step1:

Thus, acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, is the limiting reactant, so 0.454 mol CH3COOH

was produced.
Step 2: You convert 0.454 mol CH3COOH to grams of CH3COOH.

(b) You convert the moles of acetic acid to grams of oxygen.

You started with 10.0 g O2, so the quantity remaining is:

Theoretical and actual yields
The theoretical yield of product is the maximum amount of product that can be obtained by a
reaction from given amounts of reactants. It is the amount that you calculate from the
stoichiometry based on the limiting reactant.
 In practice, the actual yield of a product may be much less for several possible reasons. First,
some product may be lost during the process of separating it from the final reaction mixture.
Second, there may be other, competing reactions that occur simultaneously with the reactant on
which the theoretical yield is based. Finally, many reactions appear to stop before they reach
completion; they give mixtures of reactants and products.

The percentage yield of product is the actual yield (experimentally determined) expressed as a
percentage of the theoretical yield (calculated).
To illustrate the calculation of percentage yield, recall that the theoretical yield of acetic acid
calculated in was 27.3 g. If the actual yield of acetic acid obtained in an experiment, using the
amounts of reactants given in example, is 23.8 g, then:

New industrial plants for acetic acid react liquid methanol with carbon monoxide in the presence of a catalyst.

CH3OH(l) + CO(g) CH3COOH(l)

In an experiment, 15.0 g of methanol and 10.0 g of carbon monoxide were placed in a reaction vessel. What is
the theoretical yield of acetic acid? If the actual yield is 19.1 g, what is the percentage yield?