MET 413

ADVANCED METHODS IN
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
PROGRAM ELECTIVE II

1
Course Outcomes
• CO1
• Understand the theoretical and practical knowledge in methods of non-
destructive testing processes (Module 1)
• CO2
• Understand the knowledge of advanced methods in ultrasonic testing which
enables to perform inspection of samples. (Module 2)
• CO3
• Illustrate complete theoretical and practical understanding of the radiographic
testing, interpretation and evaluation. (Module 3)
• CO4
• Understand the recent advances in the field of non-destructive testing (Module 4)
• CO5 2
• Outline the recent and advanced developments in radiography testing (Module 5)
Syllabus

3
4
Textbooks

5
Continuous evaluation

6
NDT
• Based on the application of physical principles employed for the purpose of
determining the characteristics of materials or components or systems and for
detecting and assessing the inhomogeneity and harmful defects without impairing
the usefulness of such materials or components or systems.
• Used for quality control of the finished product as well as in stages of manufacturing.
• Also used for condition monitoring of various items during operation to predict and
assess the remaining life of the component while retaining its structural integrity.

7
 Destructive testing Non-destructive testing
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Measurements are direct. Measurements are indirect.
2. Usually quantitative measurements. Usually qualitative measurements.
Disadvantages Advantages
1. Tests are not made on the objects directly. Tests are made directly on the object.
2. A single test may measure only one or a few of the Many NDT methods can be applied on the same part
properties. and hence many or all properties of interest can be
measured.
3. In-service testing is not possible. In-service testing is possible.
4. Measurement of properties over a cumulative Repeated checks over a period of time are possible.
period of time cannot readily be possible
5. Preparation of the test specimen is costly. Very little preparation is sufficient.
6. Time requirements are generally high. Most test methods are rapid.
Examples
8
Tension test, compression test, izod test etc. Visual testing, magnetic testing, ultrasonic testing
etc.
Visual Testing – Fundamentals
• Method of visually inspecting the material for deciding the acceptability of the
material.
• Most widely used, simple, low cost.
• The basic procedure used in visual NDT involves illumination of the test specimen
with light, usually in the visible region.
• The specimen is then examined with eye or by light sensitive devices such as
photocells.
• The equipment required for visual inspection is extremely simple, but adequate
illumination is absolutely essential. The surface of the specimen should be
adequately cleaned before being inspected.

9
Vision
• Human eye is the most valuable NDT tool
• Under ordinary conditions, the eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light, which has
a wavelength of 5560 Å.
• Human eye cannot be a good judge for distinguishing the differences in brightness or
intensity, except under the most restricted conditions.
• Defects which can be detected by Unaided Visual Inspection
• The general condition of the component.
• The presence or absence of oxide film or corrosive product on the surface.
• The presence or absence of cracks and their orientation.
• The surface porosity, unfilled craters, contour of the weld beads etc.
• Potential sources of mechanical weakness such as sharp notches or misalignment etc.
10
Lighting and material attributes
• For visual inspection, adequate lighting (about 800-1000 lux) is of prime importance.
• The lighting can be
• Natural (sunlight)
• Artificial (Incandescent, Fluorescent, Arc Lighting, LED)
• The material attributes that affect visual inspection are
• Surface Condition of material
• Cleanliness
• Color
• Texture
• Physical Condition of material
• Shape
• Size
11
• Temperature
Optical aids
• They are used to
• Magnify defects that cannot be detected by the unaided
eye
• Permit visual checks of areas not accessible to the unaided
eye.
• Microscope
• Borescope – Used to inspect bores and inside of a
narrow tube
• Flexiscope – Flexible Fibre-Optic Borescope. It allows
directional changes around corners.
• Holography – To obtain three dimensional image of a
given object. Used for surfaces of highly complicated 12
and precision components.
Direct Methods
• In the case of direct visual inspection, the component to be inspected is tested by an
inspector.
• Testing, analysis and assessment are carried out by one person.
• The direct visual inspection can be carried out with tools such as borescopes.
• Advantages
• Non-destructive testing with simple technical equipment
• Mobile use
• Ideal for sampling
• Disadvantages
• No comparable test results, since no documentation
• Depends on the experience / the ability of an individual to judge 13
Indirect Methods
• In indirect visual inspection, the area to be inspected is captured by a camera and
displayed on a monitor, allowing several people to judge.
• The image can be enlarged, details can be visually highlighted for analysis reasons or
the image can be saved for documentation purposes.
• The indirect visual inspection is carried out by means of videoscopes.
• Advantages
• Digitalization enables image optimization for better defect evaluation
• Secure 100 % controls
• Defects can be documented and tracked for process optimization
• Better analysis possible
• Disadvantages
• Acquisition costs higher than with direct visual inspection 14

• More space required than with direct visual inspection

Liquid Penetrant Testing - Principles
• It utilizes the natural accumulation of a fluid around a discontinuity to create a
recognizable indication of a crack or other surface defects.
• Penetrant inspection depends mainly on the ability of liquid to wet the surface of a
solid work piece or specimen and flow over that surface to form a continuous and
reasonably uniform coating, thus penetrating into cavities that are open to the
surface.
• The ability of a given liquid to flow over a surface and enter surface cavities mainly
depends on the surface tension and capillary action.
• The cohesive force between the molecules of a liquid causes surface tension.
• Capillary action is the phenomenon of rise or depression of liquid in narrow cavities.

15
Process
• The method employs a penetrating liquid, applied
over the cleaned surface of the component, which
enters the discontinuities under capillary action.
• After adequate time, known as dwell time, the excess
penetrant is removed from the surface either by a
solvent or by water, depending upon the type of
penetrant used.
• The washed surface is dried and a thin layer of
developer is applied uniformly over the surface.
• The developer acts as a blotter and draws out any
liquid remaining in the discontinuity.
• An indication is produced over the background of the
developer layer, when the discontinuities are open to
the surface
16

Click to see a video of the LPT process

17
Types of liquid penetrants
• Liquid penetrants are mainly of two types:
Visible liquid penetrant Fluorescent liquid penetrant

18
Developers
• A developer is applied to get the penetrant in the discontinuities back to the surface
so that it can form an indication of the discontinuity.
• The penetrant is drawn out by capillary action in the reverse direction.
• The developer tends to enhance or make discontinuities appear larger than the
actual size.
• There are four types of developers:
• Water suspendable developer
• Water soluble developer
• Dry particles developer
• Non-aqueous developer
19
• Water suspendable developer
• Aqueous developer that does not dissolve in water but remains suspended in the
water.
• Suitable for visible penetrants
• Water soluble developer
• Aqueous developer that is dissolved in water.
• Suitable for fluorescent penetrants
• Dry particles developer
• In the form of powder.
• The powder is fluffy and forms a thin film on the work piece whenever it is
applied.
• Suitable for fluorescent penetrants
• Non-aqueous developer
• Suitable for all penetrants 20
Methods of liquid penetration
1. Water washable method
• All materials used are water soluble.
• Penetrants will contain inbuilt-emulsifier.
• Penetrants are removed simply by washing
with water
• If aqueous developers are used, part is dried
after its application
• When non-aqueous developers are used,
part is dried before its application

21
• Advantages
• Less expensive
• Process time is quicker
• Fewer processing steps
• Disadvantages
• Over washing can occur in shallow defects
• Water rinsing time is critical
• Water contamination is susceptible
• Application
• Used on rough surface parts, threaded or grooved parts and those with holes and
orifices.

22
2. Post-Emulsifiable method
• Penetrants require two-step removal.
• First, the excess penetrant is treated with an
emulsifier for a stipulated period of time.
• This will break down the penetrant.
• It is then water washed.
• Emulsification is accomplished by applying a
separate emulsifier to make it water-
washable.

23
• Two types of emulsifiers are used here
• Lipophilic emulsifiers
• After the emulsifier has coated the surface of the object, mechanical action starts
to remove some of the excess penetrant as the mixture drains from the part.
• During the emulsification time, the emulsifier diffuses into the remaining
penetrant and the resulting mixture is easily removed with a water spray.
• Hydrophilic emulsifiers
• The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks-up the penetrant into small quantities and
prevents these pieces from recombining or reattaching to the surface of the part.
• The mechanical action of the rinse water removes the displaced penetrant from
the part and causes fresh remover to contact and lift newly exposed penetrant
from the surface.

24
• Advantages
• Higher sensitivity to smaller defects
• Shows wide, shallow defects
• More controlled removal of surface penetrants
• Disadvantages
• Extra processing step
• Emulsification time control is critical
• Penetrant removal is difficult in threaded parts, holes and slots
• Not good on rough surfaces NDT
• Application
• Used on smoothed surfaces that perform critical functions.

25
3. Solvent removable method
• Penetrant is removed using a solvent
• Solvent removal is done in two stages
• Initially as much excess penetrant as possible
is wiped from the test surface with a clean,
dry, lint-free cloth.
• This is followed with a second cleaning with a
clean, lint-free cloth moistened with a solvent
cleaner.

26
Selection of penetrant
• One of the important factors to be considered while selecting a penetrant is its
detection sensitivity.
• Water washable and post-emulsifiable methods have the highest sensitivity.
• Viscosity has negligible effect on penetrating ability of liquid. But it affects the
flowing ability of penetrant.
• Very viscous liquids are unsuitable as penetrants because they do not flow rapidly
enough ever the surface of a work piece, consequently they require excessive long
periods of time to penetrate into fine flaws.
• The fluorescent penetrants have greater visibility for the detection of fine defects,
but these are not recommended for use on rough surface; such as sand castings,
because of the difficulty to remove the excess penetrant.
• Water washable fluorescent penetrants may be used on sand castings with rough 27
surfaces.
Applicable codes and standards
• IS 3658:1981 is the Bureau of Indian Standards Code Of Practice For Liquid Penetrant
Flaw Detection.
• It deals with standardization of types of penetrants, test procedure, inspection etc.

28
Magnetism
• Ability of a ferromagnetic material to attract other ferromagnetic materials is called
magnetism.
• Materials are classified as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic or diamagnetic depending
on their behavior in a magnetic field.

29
• Ferromagnetic material
• Can be strongly magnetized
• Have many unpaired electrons in the atoms
or ions present in that materials.
• Suitable for magnetic particle testing
• Paramagnetic material
• Can be weakly magnetized
• Have unpaired electrons in the atoms or ions
present in that materials
• Diamagnetic material
• Weakly repelled by a strong magnet
• Have no unpaired electrons in the atoms or
ions present in that materials.
30
• Magnetic field interaction with different materials

Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic

31
Magnetic field Characteristics
• Magnetic flux
• Magnetic lines of force existing in a magnetic field
• Unit is Maxwell
• Magnetizing force
• Force that tends to set up a magnetic flux in a material
• Flux Density
• Flux per unit area
• Reluctance
• Resistance to establishment of magnetic field
• Permeability
• Ease with which a material can be magnetized. 32
Magnetic Particle Testing
• When a homogeneous ferromagnetic material is placed in a
magnetic field, it gets magnetized and the magnetic field
forms a continuous circuit from pole to pole through the
material.
• If any surface or subsurface discontinuity is present, the
magnetic field (and the associated magnetic lines of force)
gets deflected and forms a leakage field.
• If fine particles of magnetic material are applied on the
surface of the test material, the leakage field attracts the
particles which form an outline of discontinuity and
indicate the location, size, shape and extent of the
discontinuity.
• The method is very sensitive for locating fine surface and
sub-surface defects. 33
Steps in MPT
• Cleaning of the surface and demagnetizing.
• Magnetization of the component.
• Application of fine magnetic particles on the surface
of the component.
• Examination of the component surface for defects.
• Demagnetization and temporary protection.

• The equipment needed here are

• A means to magnetize the component
• A device for the application of magnetic particles
• A means of demagnetizing the component after 34
the test
Methods of Magnetization
• Magnetisation by a permanent magnet

35
• Magnetisation using an electric current
• Direct as well as alternating currents are used to magnetize components for the
magnetic particle test.
• The choice of current depends on the strength, direction and distribution of the
desired magnetic field.
• A magnetic field produced by direct current (DC) penetrates the cross-section of a
component.
• The field produced by an alternating current (AC) is largely confined to the surface
of the component due to the skin effect.

36
• Induction method
• This method is used to magnetize ring shaped components.
• Here, AC or DC is passed through the primary winding of a transformer, where the
ring-shaped component forms a single turn secondary
• The magnetic field is produced because of induced current in the part.
• This type of magnetization helps in the detection of circumferential defects.

37
• Solenoid Coil Method
• Solenoids carrying current produce a magnetic field along the axis of the solenoid
• When a part is placed inside a solenoid coil, a magnetic field is created parallel to
the solenoid axis.
• The field strength inside the solenoid is proportional to the product of current
(Amps) and the number of turns of the coil.
• Solenoid-carrying currents are preferred for creating the longitudinal fields in
ferromagnetic parts

38
Other arrangements

39
Demagnetization
• The reasons for demagnetization are
• Residual magnetism may interfere with subsequent machining, causing machined
chips of the material to adhere to the surface of the component or the tool·
• During welding with an electric arc, residual magnetism may cause deflection of
the arc and obstruct proper welding.
• The functioning of navigational instruments, which are sensitive to magnetic field,
is affected by the proximity of ferromagnetic components having residual
magnetism
• Residual magnetism may interfere with the functioning of dynamic components if
any chips are held on it like ball bearing-races, gear assemblies, etc.
• It also affects finishing operations like painting and plating
40
MPT methods
➢Dry method
• Finely divided ferromagnetic particles, in dry powder form, are uniformly dusted
over the magnetized surface.
• The powder is gray, black or red to provide suitable contrast indication.
• This method is used to examine rough surfaces and is also convenient for
fieldwork.
➢Wet method
• Fine magnetic particles suspended in kerosene or any liquid are sprayed over the
test surface after magnetization.
• Magnetic particles used here are fine compared to those used for the dry method.
• The size of the particles is maintained in the range of 10–50 microns which makes
41
this method sensitive to the detection of fine defects.
➢Fluorescent method
• Magnetic particles are coated with a fluorescent dye and used where the surface
finish is fine.
• The components are examined under ultraviolet light.
• The method is particularly useful in locating discontinuities in corners, key ways,
deep holes etc.
➢Residual method
• The magnetizing field is withdrawn after magnetizing the component.
• Magnetic particles are applied on the surface of the component after the field is
withdrawn.
• The method is applicable for components that show high retentivity (The capacity
for a body to remain magnetized after the magnetizing field has ceased to exert
an effect).
• It is essential that residual magnetism be strong enough to produce a leakage field 42
at discontinuities.
➢Continuous method
• A magnetic powder is applied on the component surface when the magnetic field
is still on.
• To produce a meaningful indication during the test, the level of magnetization
must be sufficient to produce a strong leakage field to attract and hold fine
magnetic particles.

43
Limitations
• It can detect only surface opening and subsurface defects in ferromagnetic materials.
• Thin coatings of paint and other nonmagnetic surface layers such as plating
adversely affect sensitivity.
• For best results, the magnetic field must be in a direction that will intercept the
discontinuity at 90°. Sometimes this requires two or more sequential inspection
steps with different magnetization directions.
• Care is necessary to avoid local heating and burning of finished parts or surfaces at
the points of electrode contact.
• Necessity for complete demagnetization of the part after completing the MPT.

44
Eddy Current Testing (ECT)
• When magnetic flux through a conductor changes, induced currents are set up in
closed paths on the surface of the conductor. These currents are in a direction
perpendicular to the magnetic flux and are called eddy currents.

45
• When an alternating current is passed through a coil, a
magnetic field is set up around it.
• If a conductor is brought near this field, eddy currents
are induced in it.
• The induced eddy current produces its own magnetic
field in a direction opposite to the inducing primary
magnetic field.
• The secondary magnetic field due to the eddy current
interacts with the primary magnetic field and changes
the overall magnetic field and the magnitude of the
current flowing through the coil.
• This means that the impedance of the coil is altered due
to the influence of the eddy current.
• During non-destructive testing, changes in impedance
are displayed either on a meter or on a CRT screen. 46
Factors effecting Eddy currents
• Test parameters
• Frequency of the current
• Lift-off
• Material parameters
• Conductivity of the material
• Magnitude of primary magnetic field
• Geometrical Variations
• In-homogeneities and discontinuities

47
➢Frequency of the current
• The frequency determines the depth of penetration of
eddy currents in the material.
• The eddy current density decreases exponentially from
the material surface.
• Frequency is the only parameter that can be varied by
the inspector during inspection.
• Very high frequency can cause noise.
• Very low frequency will have very less sensitivity.
➢Lift-off
• The distance between the probe and the test surface is
called lift-off.
• As lift-off increases, the eddy current density in the
material decreases and in turn the impedance change in
the probe decreases.
48
• Minimum lift-off is desired.
➢Conductivity of the material
• In non-magnetic materials, the distribution of eddy
currents is strongly influenced by their conductivity.
• In materials of high conductivity, strong eddy currents
are generated on the surface of the conductor. This
results in a strong secondary magnetic field, opposing
the primary magnetic field. This restricts the
penetration of the primary magnetic field into the
depth of the material.
• This means that the depth penetration of eddy
currents in good conducting materials is limited.
• But in poor conducting materials, the depth
penetration of eddy currents is comparatively larger
49
➢Magnitude of primary magnetic field
• The primary magnetic field determines the
strength of the induced eddy current as well as
the depth of penetration of the eddy current
into the material.
• The effect of magnetic permeability on the eddy
current is similar to that of conductivity.
➢Geometrical Variations
• The shape, thickness and the presence of
conducting materials in close proximity affects
the distribution of eddy currents.
• Edges, corners and radii obstruct the circular
pattern of the eddy current. This is called the
edge effect.
• It limits the volume distribution of the eddy 50
current and its associated magnetic field
➢In-homogeneities and discontinuities
• Discontinuities like cracks, inclusions, voids, etc. in conducting materials also affect
the circular pattern of eddy currents and the associated magnetic field.

51
ECT Equipment
• ECT system consist of
• An oscillator to provide the alternating current for exciting the test coil
• A combination of a test coil and a test object to generate information in the form
of an electrical signal.
• Signal processing and display

52
• The oscillator provides an alternating current of the required frequency to the test
coil, which generates an eddy current in the test object.
• Test object variables like conductivity, permeability or discontinuities modulate the
test coil impedance.
• The modulated impedance signal is processed and displayed over a readout
mechanism like meters, CRT, relays, recorders, etc.

53
Sensing Elements
• The sensing element is also called the test coil.
• It serves as the main link between the test instrument and the test object.
• It establishes a varying electromagnetic field, which induces the eddy current in the
test object and increases the magnetic effect in magnetic materials.
• It also senses the current flow and magnetic effect within the test object and feeds
the information to the signal analysis system.
• The three types of test coil are
• Encircling coil
• Coil inside the test object
• Surface coil
54
Encircling Coil
• The test coil is in the form of a solenoid into which the test part is placed
• Test objects in the form of rods and tubes examined conveniently.
• The entire exterior circumferential surface of the test object covered by the coil is
scanned.
• This arrangement also helps high-speed testing.
• However, it is not possible to exactly locate the defect on the circumference

55
Coil inside Test Object
• Here the test coil is in the form of a winding over a bobbin.
• The coil, thus wound, passes through test objects like tubes, bolt holes, etc. and
scans the inner circumferential surface of the test object
• This arrangement evaluates the entire internal circumferential surface at a time,
which is not accessible to any other optical method of inspection.
• However, it is not possible to exactly locate the defect over the circumference
examined.

56
Surface Coil
• Here, the test coil is in the form of a spring-mounted flat probe or a pointed pencil-
type probe, which scans the surface of the selected location of the test object.
• Here, it is possible to pin-point the defect.

57
Test coil selection
• The main factors behind selection of test coils are
• The nature and shape of the specimens to be tested
• The type of information, sensitivity and resolution required
• The volume of tests required
• High frequency probes are used for the detection of surface and below-the-surface
defects.
• Low frequency probes are used to detect corrosion or cracks located deep down in
the material

58
Standardization
• Eddy current test methods are applied on ‘Go/No Go’basis by calibrating the test
system against a prefabricated standard with known magnitudes of variation of the
parameters desired to be measured.
• The standard test specimen is identical to the test component except in the
parameter being measured.
• Artificially fabricated standards may contain notches, slots, holes, etc.

59