sensors
Article
Measurement of Transient Overvoltages by Capacitive Electric
Field Sensors
Felipe L. Probst * , Michael Beltle
Citation: Probst, F.L.; Beltle, M.;
Tenbohlen, S. Measurement of
Transient Overvoltages by Capacitive
Electric Field Sensors. Sensors 2024, 24,
1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/
s24051357
Academic Editors: Pawel Rozga,
Michał Kunicki and Jan Fulneček
Received: 22 January 2024
Revised: 12 February 2024
Accepted: 13 February 2024
Published: 20 February 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24051357
and Stefan Tenbohlen *
Institute of Power Transmission and High Voltage Technology (IEH), University of Stuttgart,
70569 Stuttgart, Germany; michael.beltle@ieh.uni-stuttgart.de
* Correspondence: felipe-luis.probst@ieh.uni-stuttgart.de (F.L.P.); stefan.tenbohlen@ieh.uni-stuttgart.de (S.T.)
Abstract: The accurate measurement and the investigation of electromagnetic transients are becoming
more important, especially with the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the
power grid. These sources introduce new transient phenomena due to the extensive use of power
electronics. To achieve this, the measurement devices must have a broadband response capable of
measuring fast transients. This paper presents a capacitive electric field sensor-based measurement
system to measure transient overvoltages in high-voltage substations. The concept and design of
the measurement system are first presented. Then, the design and concept are validated using
tests performed in a high-voltage laboratory. Afterwards, two different calibration techniques are
discussed: the simplified method (SM) and the coupling capacitance compensation (CCC) method.
Finally, three recorded transients are evaluated using the calibration methods. The investigation
revealed that the SM tends to overestimate the maximum overvoltage, highlighting the CCC method
as a more suitable approach for calibrating transient overvoltage measurements. This measurement
system has been validated using various measurements and can be an efficient and flexible solution
for the long-term monitoring of transient overvoltages in high-voltage substations.
Keywords: capacitive electric field sensor; capacitive divider; high-voltage measurement system;
switching transients; transient overvoltages
1. Introduction
Transient overvoltage events are one of the major causes of dielectric failures in substa-
tion equipment [1,2]. These events are caused by switching operations, lightning discharges,
and short circuits, among others [3]. With the increasing integration of renewable energy
sources into the electric power system, the system dynamics are changing, and new tran-
sient phenomena are occurring [4–6]. Investigating their effects on substation equipment
and accurately measuring the transients becomes even more important.
The required frequency bandwidth of the measuring device depends on the transient
being measured. In high-voltage substations, voltage measurement is often carried out
using capacitive voltage transformers (CVT) or inductive voltage transformers (IVT). Al-
though these devices provide accurate measurements at nominal frequency, their outputs
deviate significantly at higher frequencies [7–11]. Consequently, this characteristic restricts
their application for measuring fast transients.
To overcome the limitations of voltage transformers, specific techniques have been
proposed in the literature [10–16]. Most of these methods focus on correcting the distorted
output voltage. However, these approaches often require complex filtering techniques
or the installation of additional devices. Another strategy to measure transients is to use
voltage sensors connected to the measurement tap of transformer bushings [17–21]. While
this technique has high accuracy and wide bandwidth, its use is limited to transformer bays.
Using electric field sensors for voltage measurement is another solution that has
been the subject of research and further improvement [22–33]. In [25–28], the authors
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
 this technique has high accuracy and wide bandwidth, its use is limited to transformer
bays.
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 Using electric field sensors for voltage measurement is another solution that has2 of 20
been
the subject of research and further improvement [22–33]. In [25–28], the authors propose
voltage calculation through inversion or integration of the measured electric field.
propose
However, voltage
thesecalculation throughcomplex
methods require inversion or integration
algorithms of the
to solve measured
matrix inverse electric field.
operations
However,
or numerical these methods require
integration complex
of the spatial algorithms
electric field. Thisto solve
resultsmatrix
in lowinverse
accuracy operations
and long
or numerical integration
computation time [25,28].of In
the[29],
spatial
the electric
voltagefield. This results
is calculated frominthelowrateaccuracy
of change and in long
the
computation time [25,28]. In [29], the voltage is calculated from the
electric displacement field, using a differential self-integration D-dot sensor. However, rate of change in the
electric displacement
this sensor field, using
is a near-field a differential
device positionedself-integration
on the ceramic D-dot sensor.
casing However,
of the this
conductor,
sensor is a near-field device positioned on the ceramic casing of
exhibiting inflexibility and a potential galvanic risk. Another investigated techniquethe conductor, exhibiting
inflexibility and a potential
involves voltage measurement galvanic
basedrisk.onAnother investigated technique(D/I)
a differentiating/integrating involves
concept voltage
[30–
measurement
32], utilizing a capacitive pick-up electrode composed of a parallel plate capacitor withaa
based on a differentiating/integrating (D/I) concept [30–32], utilizing
capacitive
groundedpick-up
bottomelectrode
plate. The composed
primary of a parallelofplate
drawback this capacitor
method iswith a grounded
its low accuracybottom due to
plate.
the neglect or inaccurate estimation of coupling between the outer phases. the
The primary drawback of this method is its low accuracy due to neglect
In [33], or
various
inaccurate estimation of coupling between the outer phases.
alternative methods for measuring transients using unconventional transducers are In [33], various alternative
methods
discussed. for One
measuring
of thesetransients
methodsusing unconventional
employs a couplingtransducers
plane as anare discussed.
electric field One of
sensor;
these methods employs a coupling plane as an electric
however, the author provides only a brief overview of the technique. field sensor; however, the author
provides only a brief overview of the technique.
This paper presents a measurement system based on capacitive electric field sensors
This paper presents a measurement system based on capacitive electric field sensors to
to measure transient overvoltages in a high-voltage substation. Two prior publications
measure transient overvoltages in a high-voltage substation. Two prior publications [34,35]
[34,35] have briefly outlined the system’s concept, major components, and its field
have briefly outlined the system’s concept, major components, and its field application.
application. In [34], the measurement system monitored switching transient overvoltages
In [34], the measurement system monitored switching transient overvoltages during the
during the energization of a 420 kV transmission line. The primary aim was to investigate
energization of a 420 kV transmission line. The primary aim was to investigate the failure of
the failure of a surge arrester during a switching operation. In [35], the authors evaluated
a surge arrester during a switching operation. In [35], the authors evaluated some measured
some measured transient overvoltages in the frequency domain. The analysis revealed
transient overvoltages in the frequency domain. The analysis revealed that the transients
that the transients contain significant high-frequency components (>>1 kHz), making
contain significant high-frequency components (>>1 kHz), making traditional IVT or CVT
traditional IVT or CVT unsuitable for accurately measuring them.
unsuitable for accurately measuring them.
Thisstudy
This studyextensively
extensivelydiscusses
discussesthe theconcept
conceptand anddesign
designof ofthe
themeasurement
measurementsystem, system,
introduces an improved calibration method, and provides a statistical
introduces an improved calibration method, and provides a statistical analysis of signals analysis of signals
measured during a one-year measurement campaign. Section
measured during a one-year measurement campaign. Section 2 outlines the system’s 2 outlines the system’s
conceptand
concept anddesign.
design. Section
Section 33 reports
reports thethe results
results ofofthe
thevalidation
validation performed
performed in in aa high-
high-
voltage laboratory. Section 4 describes the aspects of the measurement
voltage laboratory. Section 4 describes the aspects of the measurement system installation system installation
ininaahigh-voltage
high-voltagesubstation
substationand anddiscusses
discussestwo twocalibration
calibrationmethods.
methods.SectionSection55presents
presentsthe the
statistical analysis of all recorded transients and evaluates three
statistical analysis of all recorded transients and evaluates three of them using the different of them using the
different calibration methods. Finally, Section 6 presents
calibration methods. Finally, Section 6 presents the conclusions of the study. the conclusions of the study.

2.2.Concept
Conceptand
andDesign
Designof
ofthe
theMeasurement
MeasurementSystem
System
AAmeasurement
measurementsystem
systembased
basedon oncapacitive
capacitiveelectric
electricfield
fieldsensors
sensorshas
hasbeen
beendeveloped
developed
totomeasure
measuretransient
transientovervoltages
overvoltagesininsubstations.
substations.Figure
Figure11shows
showsits
itsschematic
schematicdiagram.
diagram.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagramofofthe
thetransient
transientovervoltage
overvoltagemeasurement
measurementsystem.
system.

The capacitance C1 represents the stray capacitance between the coupling plane (CP)
and the high-voltage connection (HV) if the measurement device is installed under a sub-
station busbar or on the base of a disconnector (see Figure 2). The user-defined capacitance
C2 is connected between CP and ground and is chosen based on the desired voltage ratio.
There is also a stray capacitance between the CP and ground (around 30 pF), but it is much
 ratio is given by:
𝑉 𝐶 𝐶
(1)
𝑉 𝐶
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 3 of 20
where Vin is the voltage between HV and ground, and Vout is the divider’s output voltage.
Equation (1) is used to calculate the expected voltage ratio, considering the maximum
voltage expected in a transient overvoltage (Vin-max) and the maximum output voltage
smaller than C2system
suitable for the measurement and can(Vbe neglected. Therefore, considering both capacitances C1 and C2 ,
out-max). In this study, Vin-max is considered as 1 MV
the measurement system has a capacitive divider whose voltage ratio is given by:
and Vout-max as 20 V. Thus, the theoretical voltage ratio is 50,000:1. To accurately determine
this voltage ratio, the capacitances C1 and C2 mustVinbe known. C + C2However, C1 is a stray
capacitance that changes according to the layoutVout = 1the measurement
where system is (1)
C1
installed. Therefore, this capacitance is estimated using the finite element method (FEM)
where
in CST Studio Suite Vin The
® [36]. is thethree-dimensional
voltage between HV and ground,
model and Visoutshown
of the setup is the divider’s
in Figureoutput
2. voltage.

Figure 2. Three-dimensional model of the measurement setup for calculation of stray capacitance
C1 . Figure 2. Three-dimensional model of the measurement setup for calculation of stray capacitance C1 .

Equation (1) is used to calculate the expected voltage ratio, considering the maximum
The three sensors
voltageare installed,
expected in aone on each
transient base of a three-phase
overvoltage (Vin-max ) anddisconnector.
the maximumThe output voltage
electric field cansuitable
be assumed
for the measurement system (Vout-max ). In this study,voltage.
to be quasi-static considering the steady-state Vin-max As a
is considered as
result, it exhibits the and
1 MV characteristics
Vout-max as 20 ofV.anThus,
electrostatic field [25].
the theoretical Therefore,
voltage the strayTo accurately
ratio is 50,000:1.
capacitance C1 isdetermine
calculatedthis using the electrostatic
voltage solver in C
ratio, the capacitances CST Studio.
1 and C2 must be known. However, C1 is a
The CST Studio model uses the technical drawing
stray capacitance that changes according to of the substation
layout where asthe
themeasurement
reference. system is
The distance between phases
installed. is 4.50this
Therefore, m. capacitance
The disconnector base is
is estimated made
using theof metal
finite and has
element a
method (FEM) in
® version 2021 [36]. The three-dimensional model of the setup is shown in
height of 2.75 m.CSTTheStudio
moving Suite
contact of the disconnector is 3.75 m long and has a radius
Figure 2. are modeled as ceramic porcelain with a relative permittivity ε =
of 0.05 m. The insulators
The three
6, a relative permeability µ = sensors are installed,
1, a height of 3.35 m, one
andon an
each baseradius
outer of a three-phase
of 0.13 m.disconnector.
The The
electric field can be assumed to be quasi-static considering the
sensor’s CP is 0.10 m above the base of the disconnector. It has a length, width, and height steady-state voltage. As
of 0.40 m, 0.40 m,a result, it exhibits
and 0.04 the characteristics
m, respectively. of an electrostatic
All the metal field [25].
parts are modeled as Therefore,
perfect the stray
capacitance C1 is calculated using the electrostatic solver in CST Studio.
electric conductors (PEC), with the voltage of the moving contact set at 242.5 kV. The
The CST Studio model uses the technical drawing of the substation as the reference.
sensors and bases are grounded.
The distance between phases is 4.50 m. The disconnector base is made of metal and has a
height of 2.75 m. The moving contact of the disconnector is 3.75 m long and has a radius of
0.05 m. The insulators are modeled as ceramic porcelain with a relative permittivity ε = 6, a
relative permeability µ = 1, a height of 3.35 m, and an outer radius of 0.13 m. The sensor’s
CP is 0.10 m above the base of the disconnector. It has a length, width, and height of
0.40 m, 0.40 m, and 0.04 m, respectively. All the metal parts are modeled as perfect electric
conductors (PEC), with the voltage of the moving contact set at 242.5 kV. The sensors and
bases are grounded.
According to the electrostatic simulation, the calculated capacitances, C1B , and C1C are
0.766 pF, 0.772 pF, and 0.776 pF, respectively. The difference between C1A and C1C arises
from the inherent approximation within the FEM. To achieve a voltage ratio of 50,000:1,
the capacitance C2 should be 38.6 nF, based on the average of the calculated C1 values.
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20

According to the electrostatic simulation, the calculated capacitances, C1B, and C1C are
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 0.766 pF, 0.772 pF, and 0.776 pF, respectively. The difference between C1A and C1C arises 4 of 20
from the inherent approximation within the FEM. To achieve a voltage ratio of 50,000:1,
the capacitance C2 should be 38.6 nF, based on the average of the calculated C1 values.
Additionally,
Additionally,there
there is
is aa coupling
coupling between
betweeneach
eachsensor
sensorand
andthe
theadjacent
adjacentphases.
phases.This
Thistopic
topic
will
willbe
bediscussed
discussedininSection
Section4.4.

2.1.The
2.1. TheCapacitive
CapacitiveDivider
DividerSetup
Setup
Afterestimating
After estimatingthe capacitanceCC1 1and
thecapacitance anddefining
definingthe
thevoltage
voltagedivider
dividerrequirements,
requirements,
the capacitive divider setup (CDS) is designed and assembled. The CDS comprises aaCP
the capacitive divider setup (CDS) is designed and assembled. The CDS comprises CP
andan
and anelectronic
electroniccircuit
circuit mounted
mounted in IP65
in an an IP65 metal
metal enclosure.
enclosure. Theis CP
The CP is an aluminum
an aluminum plate
plate connected
connected to the electronic
to the electronic circuit circuit
through through an external
an external terminal.
terminal. Figure 3Figure
shows3 the
shows the
CP (a)
CP (a) and the metal housing (b) of the electronic circuit. The housing
and the metal housing (b) of the electronic circuit. The housing has four external has four external
connectors:one
connectors: one44mmmmconnector
connectorforforthe
theCP,
CP,one
oneN-connector
N-connectorforforthe
themeasurement
measurementcoaxial
coaxial
cable, one waterproof 2-pin connector for the DC source, and one ground
cable, one waterproof 2-pin connector for the DC source, and one ground connector. connector.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3.3.External
Externalcomponents
componentsofofthe
theCDS.
CDS.(a)
(a)Coupling
Couplingplane;
plane;(b)
(b)metal
metalhousing
housingwith
withconnections.
connections.

Inside
Inside the metal
metal housing,
housing,the the
CPCP connects
connects to capacitors
to the the capacitors constituting
constituting C2.
C2 . Specif-
Specifically, six 8.3 nF temperature-stable SMD capacitors are connected
ically, six 8.3 nF temperature-stable SMD capacitors are connected in parallel to achieve in parallel to
achieve a capacitance
a capacitance of 49.8of 49.8
nF. nF. If
If the the output
output of theofvoltage
the voltage divider
divider is directly
is directly connected
connected to a
to a measurement
measurement instrument
instrument using
using a longcoaxial
a long coaxialcable,
cable,the
the cable’s capacitance
capacitance influences
influences
the
thevoltage
voltageratio
ratioofofthe
themeasurement
measurementsystem. system.Consequently,
Consequently,aaline linedriver
driverisisemployed
employedto to
decouplethe
decouple thecapacitive
capacitivedivider
dividerfrom
fromthe thecoaxial
coaxialmeasurement
measurementcable. cable.
The line
The line driver uses
usesaaJFET
JFETinput
inputoperational
operational amplifier [37][37]
amplifier with a slew
with rate of
a slew rate60 of
V/µs,
60
a bandwidth of 14 MHz, and a supply voltage of ± 20 V. The circuit board
V/µs, a bandwidth of 14 MHz, and a supply voltage of ±20 V. The circuit board also has also has additional
internal buffered
additional internalconverters
buffered [38] to ensure
converters [38]voltage stability.
to ensure A 15stability.
voltage m coaxialA cable
15 mconnects
coaxial
the line
cable driver output
connects the linetodriver
a power quality
output to monitor.
a power Figure
quality4monitor.
shows theFigure
electronic circuit
4 shows theof
the CDS (a)
electronic and of
circuit thethe
sixCDS
parallel capacitors
(a) and the six of C2 (b).capacitors of C2 (b).
parallel

2.2. The Power Quality Monitor

A power quality monitor [39] is installed in a control cabinet to read and record the
measured transient signals. It measures high-frequency harmonics and transients at a
sampling rate of 1 MS/s. It has eight channels with synchronous sampling: four channels
with 4 mm connectors with an input impedance of 10 MΩ and an input range from −600 V
to +600 V; and four channels with BNC connectors with an input impedance of 1 MΩ and
an input range from −50 V to +50 V. The transients recorded by the power quality monitor
PQM-800 are stored internally and can also be uploaded to a monitoring cloud.
 Sensors
Sensors 2024,
2024, 24, 24,
1357x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 20 5 of 20

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Electronic circuit of the CDS. (a) Top view; (b) parallel capacitors of C2.

2.2. The Power Quality Monitor

A power quality monitor [39] is installed in a control cabinet to read and record the
measured transient signals. It measures high-frequency harmonics and transients at a
sampling rate of 1 MS/s. It has eight channels with synchronous sampling: four channels
with 4 mm(a) connectors with an input impedance of 10 MΩ and (b) an input range from −600
V to +600 V; and four channels with BNC connectors with an input impedance of 1 MΩ
andFigure
Figure 4. Electronic
Electronic
an4. input range circuit
circuit
from ofCDS.
of the
−50 thetoCDS.
V (a)
+50 (a)
Top Top (b)
V.view;
The view; (b) parallel
parallel
transients capacitors
capacitors
recorded of . ofpower
byC2the C2. quality
monitor PQM-800 are stored internally and can also be uploaded to a monitoring cloud.
The
2.2. Thecontrol
Powercabinet
Quality also includes an LTE router for sending the recorded transients to
Monitor
The control cabinet also includes an LTE router for sending the recorded transients
the monitoring cloud and a 24 V DC power supply for the CDS, as shown in Figure 5.
A power quality
to the monitoring cloud and monitor
a 24 V [39] is installed
DC power supplyinfor
a control
the CDS,cabinet to read
as shown and record
in Figure 5. the
measured transient signals. It measures high-frequency harmonics and transients at a
sampling rate of 1 MS/s. It has eight channels with synchronous sampling: four channels
with 4 mm connectors with an input impedance of 10 MΩ and an input range from −600
V to +600 V; and four channels with BNC connectors with an input impedance of 1 MΩ
and an input range from −50 V to +50 V. The transients recorded by the power quality
monitor PQM-800 are stored internally and can also be uploaded to a monitoring cloud.
The control cabinet also includes an LTE router for sending the recorded transients
to the monitoring cloud and a 24 V DC power supply for the CDS, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. The
The control
control cabinet
cabinet with
with the
the power
power quality
quality monitor.
monitor.

3. Tests in the High-Voltage Laboratory

Three CDSs are assembled for monitoring transient overvoltages in the substation.
Prior to installation, the devices are tested in the high-voltage laboratory of the University
of Stuttgart, where the following tests are conducted:
• Measurement of C2 capacitances;

Figure 5. The control cabinet with the power quality monitor.

 3. Tests in the High-Voltage Laboratory
Three CDSs are assembled for monitoring transient overvoltages in the substation.
Prior to installation, the devices are tested in the high-voltage laboratory of the University
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 6 of 20
of Stuttgart, where the following tests are conducted:
 Measurement of C2 capacitances;
 Accuracy assessment (measurement of divider ratio and stray capacitances C1);
• Accuracy assessment (measurement of divider ratio and stray capacitances C1 );
 Lightning impulse test;
• Lightning impulse test;
 Measurement of the CDS bandwidth.
• Measurement of the CDS bandwidth.
The capacitances C
The capacitances C2 of the CDSs, formed by temperature-stable multilayer ceramic
2 of the CDSs, formed by temperature-stable multilayer ceramic
capacitors (MLCC), are measured using aa multimeter.
capacitors (MLCC), are measured using multimeter. The
The values
values obtained
obtained for
for the
the devices
devices
MD1, MD2, and MD3 are 49.94 nF, 50.76 nF, and 50.53 nF, respectively.
MD1, MD2, and MD3 are 49.94 nF, 50.76 nF, and 50.53 nF, respectively.

3.1.
3.1. Accuracy
Accuracy Assessment
Assessment Using
Using AC AC Voltage
Voltage
The accuracy
accuracyof ofthe
thethree
threeCDSsCDSs is assessed
is assessed by by measuring
measuring the voltage
the voltage ratioratio andstray
and the the
stray capacitance C of the setup built in the high-voltage laboratory. Despite
capacitance C1 of the setup built in the high-voltage laboratory. Despite differences from
1 differences
from the configuration
the configuration in Figurein 2,Figure 2, possible
it is still it is stilltopossible
evaluate to
theevaluate
linearity the
of thelinearity of the
measurement
measurement
system response system
sinceresponse
C1 is thesince 1 is the only
onlyCparameter parameter
that changes that changes
based on thebased onThe
layout. the
layout. The measurements
measurements are performed areindividually
performed individually
with an inputwith an input
voltage rangevoltage
from 13range from
kVrms to
13 kVrms
76 kV rms .to 76 kV6rms
Figure . Figure
shows the 6schematic
shows the schematic
diagram diagram
(a) and (a) and
the setup themeasuring
(b) for setup (b) the
for
measuring
accuracy ofthe theaccuracy
CDSs. of the CDSs.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Measurement
Figure 6. Measurement of
of the
the accuracy of the
accuracy of the CDSs.
CDSs. (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic diagram; (b) test
diagram; (b) test setup.
setup.

The input high voltage Vinin is is measured

measured using
using a standard capacitive divider with a
ratio of 3060:1. Both signals, the output of the standard divider and the output of the CDSs
out),),are
(Vout areevaluated
evaluated with
with aa 70
70 MHz
MHz oscilloscope with a sampling
sampling rate
rate of
of 11 GS/s.
GS/s. The
The stray
capacitance C11 is is then calculated from Equation (1) using thethe measured
measured values
values of
of CC22, V
Vin
in,,

and Vout .
out .Figure
Figure 77shows
shows the
the measured
measured values
values of
of voltage
voltage ratio (a) and stray capacitance C 11
(b). Ten measurements are conducted for each device, with the input voltage ranging from
13 kVrms rms toto76
76kV
kVrms ..
rms
The median voltage ratios for devices MD1, MD2, and MD3 are 69,892:1, 71,503:1,
and 70,574:1, respectively. The average voltage ratios are 69,859:1, 71,535:1, and 70,610:1.
Distinct voltage ratios are expected due to the dependence of the ratio on C1 and C2 and
the different capacitances C2 among the CDSs.
The stray capacitance C1 should ideally have a unique value for a given configuration.
However, variations are observed in the measurements of the three units, potentially
attributed to sensor sensitivity or slight misalignment of the devices during measurements.
Considering the average value of C1 for each unit, the maximum error observed is 0.29%
for devices MD1 and MD2, and 0.46% for device MD3.
 Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 7 of 20

72,000 0.720

71,500
0.715
71,000

70,500
0.710
70,000

69,500 0.705
MD1 MD2 MD3 MD1 MD2 MD3
Measurement Device Measurement Device
(a) (b)
Figure7.7.Measurement
Figure Measurementresults.
results.(a)
(a)Voltage
Voltageratio;
ratio;(b)
(b)stray
straycapacitance
capacitance
C1C. 1.

Theaccuracy
The median of voltage ratios for devices
the measurement devices MD1, MD2, and
is assessed MD3 are 69,892:1,
by analyzing 71,503:1,
the voltage ratio
and 70,574:1,
measured respectively.
for each device. TheTheratio
average
errorvoltage ratiosas
is calculated are 69,859:1, 71,535:1, and 70,610:1.
follows:
Distinct voltage ratios are expected due to the dependence of the ratio on C1 and C2 and
(k r Vout − Vin )
the different capacitances C2 among ε= the CDSs. × 100% (2)
The stray capacitance C1 should ideally Vin have a unique value for a given configuration.
However,
where variations
kr is the averageareof observed
the measuredin the measurements
voltage ratios for of thedevice.
each three units, potentially
The results are
attributed to sensor sensitivity or slight misalignment of the
given in Table 1, which shows a linear behavior of the measurement devices concerning devices during
the
measurements.
applied Considering
voltage. The maximum theerror
average valueisof0.29%
observed C1 for
foreach unit,MD1
devices the maximum
and MD2, anderror
observed
0.46% is 0.29%
for device for relative
MD3, devices toMD1 and
their MD2, and
average 0.46%
voltage for device MD3.
ratios.
The accuracy of the measurement devices is assessed by analyzing the voltage ratio
measured
Table 1. Ratiofor each
error device. The
considering ratio error
the average is calculated
of the as follows:
measured voltage ratios.
𝑘 𝑉 𝑉
Device MD1 Device MD2 𝜀 100% Device MD3 (2)
Input Meas. Ratio Input Meas. Ratio𝑉 Input Meas. Ratio
Voltage Voltage Error
where kr is Voltage Voltage
the average of the measuredError Voltage
voltage ratios for eachVoltage Error are
device. The results
Vin kr-MD1 Vout ε Vin kr-MD2 Vout ε Vin kr −MD3 Vout ε
given in Table 1, which shows a linear behavior of the measurement devices concerning
(kV) (kV) (%) (kV) (kV) (%) (kV) (kV) (%)
the applied voltage. The maximum error observed is 0.29% for devices MD1 and MD2,
13.92 13.90 − 0.150.46% for13.16
and device MD3,13.16 0.03average voltage
relative to their 13.46 ratios.13.49 0.17
20.20 20.19 −0.03 20.69 20.75 0.29 20.72 20.69 −0.13
28.09 28.01 −0.28 28.61 28.69 0.26 27.82 27.82 0.02
Table 1. Ratio error considering the average of the measured voltage ratios.
35.80 35.91 0.29 34.58 34.48 −0.28 35.19 35.30 0.33
41.31 41.43 MD1
Device 0.28 41.31 41.20
Device MD2 − 0.26 41.31 41.38 MD3
Device 0.16
47.12 47.08 −0.08 47.43 47.50 0.15 47.43 47.59 0.34
Input
53.55
Meas.
53.65
Ratio
0.19
Input
55.39
Meas.
55.30 −Ratio
0.16
Input
54.47
Meas.
54.37 −Ratio
0.18
Voltage
60.59 Voltage
60.50 −Error
0.15 Voltage
62.12 Voltage
62.02 −Error
0.16 Voltage
62.42 Voltage
62.14 −Error
0.46
Vin
67.63 k67.62
r‐MD1 Vout ε
0.00 Vin
68.54 k68.60
r‐MD2 Vout 0.08ε Vin
68.85 k68.63
r−MD3 Vout −0.32
ε
76.19
(kV) 76.15
(kV) −0.06
(%) 76.50
(kV) 76.54
(kV) 0.05
(%) 76.19
(kV) 76.26
(kV) 0.08
(%)
13.92 13.90 −0.15 13.16 13.16 0.03 13.46 13.49 0.17
20.20 20.19 3.2. Lightning Impulse
−0.03 20.69 Test 20.75 0.29 20.72 20.69 −0.13
28.09 28.01 −0.28 28.61
The lightning impulse test28.69 0.26
is the next evaluation 27.82
performed in the27.82
high-voltage0.02
labora-
35.80 35.91 0.29
tory. 34.58IEC 60060-1
The standard 34.48 −0.28
[40] defines a lightning35.19
impulse as a35.30 0.33
double exponential
41.31 41.43 0.28
waveform 41.31
characterized by a 41.20 of 1.2 µs ±30%
front time T1 −0.26 41.31 41.38
and a tail time ±20%.
T2 of 50 µs0.16
47.12 47.08 The impulse generator
−0.08 47.43 can deliver
47.50 switching 0.15and lightning
47.43impulse47.59
voltages up to 1 MV
0.34
53.55 53.65 and a total energy
0.19 of 30 kJ. Figure
55.39 55.30 8 illustrates
−0.16the schematic
54.47diagram54.37
(a) and test setup
−0.18(b).
60.59 60.50 −0.15 62.12 62.02 −0.16 62.42 62.14 −0.46
67.63 67.62 0.00 68.54 68.60 0.08 68.85 68.63 −0.32
76.19 76.15 −0.06 76.50 76.54 0.05 76.19 76.26 0.08
 Thelightning
The lightningimpulse
impulsetest
testisisthe
thenext
nextevaluation
evaluationperformed
performedininthethehigh-voltage
high-voltage
laboratory.The
laboratory. Thestandard
standardIECIEC60060-1
60060-1[40] [40]defines
definesa alightning
lightningimpulse
impulseasasa adouble double
exponentialwaveform
exponential waveformcharacterized
characterizedby bya afront
fronttime
timeTT 1 of
1 of 1.2µsµs±30%
1.2 ±30%and
anda atail
tailtime
timeTT 2 of
2 of
50 µs ±20%. The impulse generator can deliver switching and lightning
50 µs ±20%. The impulse generator can deliver switching and lightning impulse voltages impulse voltages
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 upuptoto1 1MV
MVand
anda atotal
totalenergy
energyofof3030kJ.
kJ.Figure
Figure8 8illustrates
illustratesthetheschematic
schematicdiagram
diagram (a)
(a)
8 of and
20and
test setup (b).
test setup (b).

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure8.
Figure
Figure 8.8.Lightning
Lightningimpulse
Lightning impulse
impulse test.
test.
test. (a)
(a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic
Schematic diagram;
diagram;
diagram; (b)test
(b)(b)
test test setup.
setup.
setup.

Theapplied
The
The appliedimpulse
impulsevoltage
impulse voltage
voltage ismeasured
measured
isismeasured using
using
using a astandard
standard
a standard capacitive
capacitive divider.
divider.
capacitive Its
Its Its
divider.
output and the output from device MD1 are evaluated using an oscilloscope with a a
output
output and
and thethe output
output from from device
device MD1 MD1
are are evaluated
evaluated using anusing an oscilloscope
oscilloscope with a band-with
width of 1 GHz
bandwidth
bandwidth and
ofof1 1GHz
GHz aand
sampling rate ofrate
anda asampling
sampling 10 GS/s.
rate Figure
ofof1010GS/s. 9Figure
shows
GS/s.Figure the
9 9showsmeasurement
shows of the ofof
themeasurement
the measurement
lightning
the impulse,
thelightning
lightning where
impulse,
impulse, the output
where
where the voltage
theoutput from
outputvoltage unit
voltage MD1
from
from is multiplied
unit
unit by the voltage
MD1isismultiplied
MD1 multiplied bybythe
the
ratio measured
voltage ratio for this
measured configuration,
for this which
configuration,is 20,434:1.
which
voltage ratio measured for this configuration, which is 20,434:1. is 20,434:1.

150
150
V V in
in
20,434V V
20,434 out
out

100
100

5050

00
00 2020 4040 6060 8080 100
100
Time( ( s)s)
Time
Figure9.
Figure
Figure 9.9.Lightning
Lightningimpulse
Lightning impulse
impulse response
response
response ofdevice
device
ofofdevice MD1.
MD1.
MD1.

The
The applied
appliedlightning
Theapplied lightningimpulse
lightning impulse
impulse has
has
has aafront
afront time
front ofof1.22
time
time of1.22µsµs
1.22 and
µsand a tail
and time
a atail of 51.48
tailtime
time µs, µs,
ofof51.48
51.48 µs,
whereas
whereas device
deviceMD1
MD1 exhibits a
exhibitsfront
a time
front of
time 1.17
of µs
1.17 and
µs a
and tail
a time
tail of
time 54.35
of µs.
54.35 Both
µs. signals
Both signals
whereas device MD1 exhibits a front time of 1.17 µs and a tail time of 54.35 µs. Both signals
meet the
meetthe criteria
criteriaof
thecriteria IEC 60060-1 and demonstrate similarity. Therefore, the measurement
meet ofofIEC
IEC 60060-1
60060-1 and
and demonstrate
demonstrate similarity.
similarity. Therefore,
Therefore, themeasurement
the measurement
device can accurately reproduce a lightning impulse signal.
devicecan
device canaccurately
accuratelyreproduce
reproducea alightning
lightningimpulse
impulsesignal.
signal.
3.3. Measurement of the CDS Bandwidth
The measurement of the CDS bandwidth is performed using a 120 pF ceramic capacitor
to simulate the stray capacitance C1 . Although the typical stray capacitance is less than 1 pF,
a higher value is chosen to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the measurement. Using
a Rohde & Schwarz ZVRE vector network analyzer (VNA) [41] with a frequency range
from 9 kHz to 4 GHz, the measurement assessed the Vout /Vin ratio over a frequency range
 3.3. Measurement of the CDS Bandwidth
The measurement of the CDS bandwidth is performed using a 120 pF ceramic
capacitor to simulate the stray capacitance C1. Although the typical stray capacitance is
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357
less than 1 pF, a higher value is chosen to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of9 ofthe 20
measurement. Using a Rohde & Schwarz ZVRE vector network analyzer (VNA) [41] with
a frequency range from 9 kHz to 4 GHz, the measurement assessed the Vout/Vin ratio over
aspanning
frequencyfrom 10 kHz
range to 10from
spanning MHz.10Figure
kHz to1010shows
MHz.the test 10
Figure setup (a) and
shows the setup
the test obtained
(a)
measurement results (b).
and the obtained measurement results (b).

–48

–50

–52

–54

–56

–58
104 105 106 107
Frequency (Hz)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Bandwidth
Bandwidth measurement
measurement of
of device
device MD1.
MD1. (a)
(a) Test
Test setup;
setup; (b)
(b) measurement
measurement result.
result.

The
The frequency
frequency response
responsemeasurement
measurementshows showsa aconstant
constantratio of of
ratio −49.8 dB dB
−49.8 up to
up1.2
to
MHz, withwith
1.2 MHz, the 3the
dB 3frequency at 5.6 MHz.
dB frequency at 5.6 It indicates
MHz. that the measurement
It indicates device hasde-
that the measurement a
broadband response and
vice has a broadband can measure
response fast transients.
and can measure fastHowever, the power
transients. quality
However, themonitor
power
limits
qualitythe bandwidth
monitor limitsofthe
the measurement
bandwidth of thesystem to a frequency
measurement systemrange of up to 500
to a frequency kHz,
range of
up to 500
which kHz,
is still which istostill
sufficient sufficient
measure fastto measure fast transients.
transients.

4. Installation
4. Installation and
and Calibration
Calibration
The measurement
The measurement system
system was
was installed
installed in
in aa high-voltage
high-voltage substation
substation for
for aa one-year
one-year
measurement campaign. The CDSs were mounted on the bases
measurement campaign. The CDSs were mounted on the bases of a three-phase of a three-phase discon-
nector in a transmission line bay. Devices MD1, MD2, and MD3 were installed
disconnector in a transmission line bay. Devices MD1, MD2, and MD3 were installed in phases
in
A, B, and C, respectively. The control cabinet was placed on the concrete base
phases A, B, and C, respectively. The control cabinet was placed on the concrete base of a circuit
of a
breaker,
circuit approximately
breaker, six meters
approximately from the
six meters fromdevices. Figure
the devices. 11 shows
Figure a CDS
11 shows (a) and
a CDS the
(a) and
control cabinet (b) installed in the substation.
the control cabinet (b) installed in the substation.
The value of the stray capacitance C1 depends on the distance and layout. Additionally,
there is a coupling between the adjacent phases and the sensor, influencing its output
voltage Vout , as illustrated in Figure 12.
Figure 12 shows only the coupling capacitances between the CDS installed in phase
A and the three high-voltage connections. The same happens with the CDSs installed in
phases B and C. To mitigate cross-coupling effects in the measurement, it is necessary to
calibrate the measurement system. Two calibration techniques are examined:
• Simplified method (SM);
• Compensation of coupling capacitances (CCC).

4.1. Calibration Using the Simplified Method

The first calibration method compares the voltage values measured by the CDSs with
the AC voltage from a substation divider at 50 Hz. In this case, the primary voltage mea-
sured by a capacitive voltage transformer serves as the reference. During the installation,
the RMS value of the primary phase voltage was 238.45 kV, assuming a balanced three-
phase system. The RMS voltages measured by the CDSs for phases A, B, and C were 2.03 V,
1.68 V, and 1.89 V, respectively. Therefore, the calculated voltage ratios for devices MD1,
MD2, and MD3 are 117,461:1, 141,932:1, and 126,162:1, respectively. The voltage ratios can
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 2

Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 10 of 20

Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW be set directly in the power quality monitor. Figure 13 shows the reference primary voltage
10 of 20
(Vin ) and the measured voltage (Vmeas ) considering the calculated voltage ratio.

(a) (b)
Figure 11. Measurement system installed in the substation. (a) CDS on the base of a disconnector
(b) Control cabinet on the concrete base of a circuit breaker.

(a) (b)
The value of the stray capacitance C1 depends on the distance and layout
Figure 11.
Figure Measurement
Additionally,
11. there
Measurementsystem installed
issystem
a coupling in between
installed the substation.
in the (a) CDS
the adjacent
substation. onphases
(a) CDS the basebase
on the of aof
and disconnector;
the sensor, influencing
a disconnector;
(b) (b)
Control cabinet on the concrete base of a circuit breaker.
itsControl
outputcabinet
voltage Voutconcrete
on the , as illustrated in Figure
base of a circuit 12.
breaker.

The value of the stray capacitance C1 depends on the distance and layout.
Additionally, there is a coupling between the adjacent phases and the sensor, influencing
its output voltage Vout, as illustrated in Figure 12.

Figure 12.Coupling
Figure12. Couplingcapacitances between
capacitances a CDS
between and adjacent
a CDS phases.phases.
and adjacent
In phase B, the reference and measured voltages are in phase. It happens due to the
Figure 12.Figure
Coupling
12capacitances
shows only between a CDS andcapacitances
the coupling adjacent phases.between the CDS installed in phas
symmetrical influence of phases A and C on the device installed in phase B. However, the
A and
measured the three high-voltage connections. The
◦ same happens with the voltage
CDSs installed in
Figure 12voltage
shows of phase
only the A is delayed
coupling by 14.14 with
capacitances respect
between to theinstalled
the CDS referencein phase of
phases
the sameBphase
and due
C. Toto mitigate cross-coupling
the influence of phases B andeffects in the measurement,
C. Similarly, it is necessary
the measured voltage of to
A and the three high-voltage connections. The◦same happens with the CDSs installed in
calibrate
phase the the
C leads measurement system.
reference voltage Two calibration
by 13.12 techniques
due to the influence are examined:
of phases A and B.
phases B and C. To mitigate cross-coupling effects in the measurement, it is necessary to
 This
calibrate
calibration
Simplified method
method
the measurement
is generally suitable for measuring steady-state voltages. It is
(SM);
system. Two calibration techniques are examined:
straightforward to implement directly in the power quality monitor. However, the coupling

 between Compensation
Simplified of coupling
method (SM);devices and capacitances (CCC).
the measurement adjacent phases may introduce notable errors when
 measuring
Compensation of couplingtransients,
electromagnetic capacitances (CCC).
as will be shown in Section 5.
4.1. Calibration Using the Simplified Method
4.1. Calibration Using
The first the Simplified
calibration Method
method compares the voltage values measured by the CDSs with
TheAC
the firstvoltage
calibration method
from compares the
a substation voltage
divider at values
50 Hz.measured
In this by the CDSs
case, with
the primary voltag
the measured
AC voltage by from a substation divider at 50 Hz. In this case, the primary voltage
a capacitive voltage transformer serves as the reference. During th
measured by a capacitive
installation, voltageoftransformer
the RMS value the primary serves
phase as voltage
the reference. DuringkV,
was 238.45 theassuming
installation, the RMS value of the primary phase voltage was 238.45 kV, assuming a
balanced three-phase system. The RMS voltages measured by the CDSs for phases A, B
balanced three-phase system. The RMS voltages measured by the CDSs for phases A, B,
and C were 2.03 V, 1.68 V, and 1.89 V, respectively. Therefore, the calculated voltage ratio
and C were 2.03 V, 1.68 V, and 1.89 V, respectively. Therefore, the calculated voltage ratios

Sensors 2024, 24, 1357
for devices MD1, MD2, and MD3 are 117,461:1, 141,932:1, and 126,162:1, respectively. Th
voltage ratios can be set directly in the power quality monitor. Figure 13 shows th
reference primary voltage (Vin) and the measured voltage (Vmeas) considering11
the calculated
of 20
voltage ratio.

400
V
in-A
V in-B
200 V
in-C
V
meas-A
V
0 meas-B
V meas-C

–200

–400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (ms)

Figure13.
Figure 13.Comparison
Comparison between
between the reference
the reference and measured
and measured voltages.
voltages.

4.2. Compensation of the Coupling Capacitances

In phase B, the reference and measured voltages are in phase. It happens due to th
Given the constraints of the simplified method, especially in measuring transient
symmetrical influence of phases A and C on the device installed in phase B. However, th
overvoltages, a post-processing calibration method is developed. This method considers
measured voltage of phase A is delayed by 14.14° with respect to the reference voltage o
the coupling capacitances between the sensors and the high-voltage connections of the
the same
three phase
phases due to the
to reconstruct theinfluence of phases
primary voltages B and
from C. Similarly,
the measured thevoltages.
output measured voltage o
phase C leads the reference voltage by 13.12° due to the influence of phases
This calibration method also requires the information of the steady-state primary A and B.
voltage This calibration
during method
the installation is generally
of the measurementsuitable
system.forThe
measuring steady-state
same primary voltages. I
voltage mea-
is straightforward
sured by a CVT and the to corresponding
implement directly in theofpower
output signals quality
the CDSs monitor.
are used. However, th
The primary
voltages
coupling arebetween
consideredthesymmetrical,
measurement with the same
devices amplitude
and adjacentand a phase
phases maydifference of notabl
introduce
120 ◦ . Therefore, the primary phase voltages are expressedas inwill
phasor notationin
as:Section 5.
errors when measuring electromagnetic transients, be shown
V1A = Vp ∠ 0◦
4.2. Compensation of the Coupling Capacitances
V1B = Vp ∠ 120◦ (3)
Given the constraints of the simplified method, especially in measuring transien
V1C = Vp ∠ − 120◦
overvoltages, a post-processing calibration method is developed. This method consider
the coupling
where Vp is the capacitances betweenby
peak voltage measured thethesensors
CVT, inand the high-voltage
this case 337.22 kV. connections of th
Given
three the to
phases schematic diagram
reconstruct shown involtages
the primary Figure 12,from
an equivalent circuitoutput
the measured for the voltages.
mea-
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEWsurement device installed in phase A is established to calculate the output voltage 12 ofas20a
This calibration method also requires the information of the steady-state primary
function
voltage ofduring
the primary voltage. Theof
the installation resulting equivalent circuit
the measurement is presented
system. The same in Figure
primary 14. voltag
measured by a CVT and the corresponding output signals of the CDSs are used. Th
primary voltages are considered symmetrical, with the same amplitude and a phas
difference of 120°. Therefore, the primary phase voltages are expressed in phasor notation
as:
𝑉 𝑉 ∠ 0°
𝑉 𝑉 ∠ 120° (3
𝑉 𝑉 ∠ 120°
where Vp is the peak voltage measured by the CVT, in this case 337.22 kV.
Given the schematic diagram shown in Figure 12, an equivalent circuit for th
measurement device installed in phase A is established to calculate the output voltage a
a function of the primary voltage. The resulting equivalent circuit is presented in Figur
14.
Figure
Figure14.
14.Equivalent
Equivalentcircuit
circuitrepresenting
representingthe
themeasurement
measurementdevice
deviceinstalled
installedin
inphase
phaseA.
A.

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law for node 1, the current I2A can be calculated as:
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 (4)

where
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 12 of 20

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law for node 1, the current I2A can be calculated as:

I2A = I1A + IBA + ICA (4)

where

I2A = jωC2A ·V2A

I1A = jωC1A ·(V1A − V2A )
(5)
IBA = jωCBA ·(V1B − V2A )
ICA = jωCCA ·(V1C − V2A )
Substituting the equations from (5) into Equation (4), the output voltage V 2A is calcu-
lated as:
1
V2A = (C ·V + CBA ·V1B + CCA ·V1C ) (6)
(C2A + C1A + CBA + CCA ) 1A 1A

The capacitance C2A has a value of approximately 50 nF, which is much higher than
the stray capacitances C1A , CBA , and CCA , usually less than 1 pF. Therefore, Equation (6)
can be simplified as:

1
V2A = (C ·V + CBA ·V1B + CCA ·V1C ) (7)
C2A 1A 1A

The same concept and simplifications can be applied to the devices installed in phases
B and C. Then, the output voltages are calculated as:
CCA 
C CBA

1A
  
V2A V1A
 C2A C2A C2A

 
 V2B  =  CAB C1B CCB   
 C2B C2B C2B   V1B  (8)
 
 
C AC CBC C1C
 
V2C V1C
C2C C2C C2C

Equation (8) describes a linear system wherein the coefficient matrix depends on the
stray capacitances and the user-defined capacitances C2 . Since the stray capacitances have
a unique value for a particular layout, there is only one physical solution for this system.
However, all stray capacitances are unknown, leading to nine unknown parameters. The
symmetry in the sensor installation reduces the number of unknown parameters, yet even
in this scenario, the system may not be entirely determined.
Assuming identical influences of phases A and C on the sensor installed in phase B,
CAB is equal to CCB , and V 2B has the same phase as V 1B in steady-state voltage calibration.
Additionally, the influence of phase B on the sensors in phases A and C is assumed to be
the same, resulting in CBA being equal to CBC . The summarized assumptions are as follows:

CBA = C AB = CCB = CBC (9)

As previously stated, the linear system has mathematically infinite solutions, even with
the assumptions outlined in (9). One potential approach, explored in other works [30–32],
is to neglect the coupling capacitance between the outer phases, i.e., to consider CCA and
CAC equal to 0. However, this choice may result in substantial errors when evaluating
transient overvoltages. An alternative is to assign values obtained from FEM simulation to
these parameters. Upon defining CCA , all parameters can be calculated by formulating the
equations presented in (8), considering the assumptions given in (9).
The measurement system is calibrated using five distinct values of CCA , ranging from
0 to 0.2 pF, to assess the impact of coupling between the outer phases. The values have
been chosen so that the calculated parameters are of the same order of magnitude as those
obtained in the FEM simulation. The calculated parameters are shown in Table 2.

Sensors 2024, 24, 1357
simulation to these parameters. Upon defining CCA, all parameters can be calculated by
formulating the equations presented in (8), considering the assumptions given in (9).
The measurement system is calibrated using five distinct values of CCA, ranging from
0 to 0.2 pF, to assess the impact of coupling between the outer phases. The values have
been chosen so that the calculated parameters are of the same order of magnitude as13those
of 20
obtained in the FEM simulation. The calculated parameters are shown in Table 2.

Table 2.
Table 2. Set of stray capacitances
capacitances calculated
calculated from
from different
different CCCA
CA values.

Param. Set
Param. CCCA CCAC CC1A
1A
CC1B
1B
CC1C CCBA
BA
CCAB
AB
CCCB CCBC
CA AC 1C CB BC
No.
Set No. (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF) (pF)
(pF)
11 0.000
0.000 0.018
0.018 0.476
0.476 0.473
0.473 0.452
0.452 0.121
0.121 0.121
0.121 0.121
0.121 0.121
0.121
22 0.050
0.050 0.068
0.068 0.526
0.526 0.523
0.523 0.502
0.502 0.171
0.171 0.171
0.171 0.171
0.171 0.171
0.171
33 0.100
0.100 0.118
0.118 0.576
0.576 0.573
0.573 0.552
0.552 0.221
0.221 0.221
0.221 0.221
0.221 0.221
0.221
4 0.150 0.168 0.626 0.623 0.602 0.271 0.271 0.271 0.271
4 0.150 0.168 0.626 0.623 0.602 0.271 0.271 0.271 0.271
5 0.200 0.218 0.676 0.673 0.652 0.321 0.321 0.321 0.321
5 0.200 0.218 0.676 0.673 0.652 0.321 0.321 0.321 0.321

A transient overvoltage is reconstructed using the five

five parameter
parameter sets
sets from
from Table
Table 2.
2.
Figure 15 shows
shows the
the signals
signals from
from phase
phase C,
C, where
where the
the maximum
maximumovervoltage
overvoltageoccurred.
occurred.

1000 850
C = 0 pF C = 0 pF
CA 800 CA
750 C CA = 0.05 pF C CA = 0.05 pF
C CA = 0.10 pF
750 C CA = 0.10 pF
500
C CA = 0.15 pF 700 C CA = 0.15 pF
C CA = 0.20 pF C CA = 0.20 pF
250 650

600
0
550
–250
500

–500 450
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4
Time (ms) Time (ms)
(a) (b)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. Transient
Transient overvoltage
overvoltage reconstruction
reconstruction with
with different
different calibration
calibration parameters.
parameters. (a)
(a) Response
Response
of phase C; (b) zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum overvoltage.
of phase C; (b) zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum overvoltage.

In the
In the scenario
scenario where
where CCCA
CA is
isnot
notconsidered
considered (parameter
(parameter set
set 1),
1), the
the reconstructed
reconstructed signal
signal
exhibits a maximum overvoltage of 843 kV. Conversely, when C is 0.20
exhibits a maximum overvoltage of 843 kV. Conversely, when CCA is 0.20 pF (parameter
CA pF (parameter
set 5),
set 5), the
the reconstructed
reconstructed signal
signal reaches
reaches only
only 665
665 kV.
kV. This
This difference
difference of of 178
178 kV
kV represents
represents
21.1%. Therefore, neglecting the coupling capacitance between the outer
21.1%. Therefore, neglecting the coupling capacitance between the outer phases mayphases may lead
lead
to substantial errors in reconstructing the primary voltage. The question that arises is how
to compute the correct coupling capacitances.
Based on the established principle of parallel plate capacitors, some configurations
yield a capacitance inversely proportional to the distance between the electrodes. Hence,
the initial investigation aimed to establish this correlation for the specific layout where the
measurement system was installed. However, this relationship could not be established.
Then, an investigation is conducted to determine if the stray capacitances exhibit an
inverse proportionality to the square of the distance, represented as follows:

C1A ∝ 1
d AA 2
CBA ∝ 1
(10)
d BA 2
CCA ∝ 1
dCA 2

where dAA , dBA , and dCA are the distances from the CDS installed in phase A to the high-
voltage connections of phases A, B, and C, respectively.
Based on the information presented in (10) and considering that the permittivity and
electrode area are identical for all phases, three normalized ratios can be calculated:

Sensors 2024, 24, 1357
where dAA, dBA, and dCA are the distances from the CDS installed in phase A to the h
voltage connections of phases A, B, and C, respectively.
Based on the information presented in (10) and considering that the permittivity
electrode area are identical for all phases, three normalized ratios can be14calculated:
of 20

∴ . 1
 2  2
C1A d BA C1A d AA
CBA = d AA ∴ CBA . ∴
d BA .= 1 1
 2  2
CBA dCA CBA d BA (11)
CCA = d BA ∴ CCA . dCA =1
 2 ∴2 . 1
C1A dCA
CCA = d AA ∴ CC1A . ddAA = 1
CA CA
If the assumption that the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square o
If the assumption that the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square of the
distanceis isaccurate,
distance accurate, a of
a set setstray
of stray capacitances
capacitances satisfying
satisfying the equations
the equations in (11) can in
be (11) ca
identified.
identified. Figure
Figure 16 shows
16 shows the normalized
the normalized ratios
ratios for for different
different parameters,
parameters, representedrepresente
by
thestray
the straycapacitance
capacitance CCAC . CA.

4
C 1A / C BA

C BA / C CA
3
C 1A / C CA
Refer. = 1

0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
Capacitance C CA (pF)

Figure16.16.
Figure Normalized
Normalized ratios
ratios according
according to different
to different values ofvalues of stray capacitances.
stray capacitances.

When the capacitance CCA is 0.061 pF, the three normalized ratios become equal to 1.
When the capacitance CCA is 0.061 pF, the three normalized ratios become equal
It indicates that a specific set of parameters satisfies the three equations given in (11). The
parameters forthat
It indicates a specific
the layout setcase
of this of parameters satisfies
study are presented the three
in Table 3. equations given in (11).
parameters for the layout of this case study are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Set of stray capacitances calculated for the specific layout.

CCA CAC C1A C1B C1C CBA CAB CCB CBC

(pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF) (pF)
0.061 0.079 0.537 0.534 0.513 0.182 0.182 0.182 0.182

The correlation between the stray capacitances and the square of the distance has
been demonstrated for the layout where the measurement system was installed. However,
further investigation is necessary to confirm its validity for other configurations. If this cor-
relation cannot be clearly established, alternative solutions include neglecting the coupling
capacitance between the outer phases or estimating it using FEM simulations.

5. Measurement Results
The measurement system has been installed in the substation for one year, recording
transients associated with transmission line switching and other disturbances. This section
outlines the reconstruction of three transient signals using the calibration methods discussed
in Section 4 and provides a statistical analysis of the recorded transients.

Sensors 2024, 24, 1357
5. Measurement Results
The measurement system has been installed in the substation for one year, recording
transients associated with transmission line switching and other disturbances. This
section outlines the reconstruction of three transient signals using the calibration methods
discussed in Section 4 and provides a statistical analysis of the recorded transients. 15 of 20

5.1. Comparison of Calibration Methods

5.1. Comparison
As detailedofinCalibration
Section 4.1,Methods
the calibration provided by the simplified method is
As detailed
appropriate in Section 4.1,
for measuring the calibration
steady-state provided
voltages. by the it
However, simplified
may lead method is appro-
to significant
priate when
errors for measuring steady-state
reconstructing voltages.
transient However,
signals. it may
Therefore, the lead to significant
recommended errors when
approach is to
reconstructing
utilize the methodtransient
outlinedsignals. Therefore,
in Section the recommended
4.2, which compensates for approach
couplingiscapacitances.
to utilize the
method outlined
Nevertheless, in Section 4.2,
calculating thewhich compensates
coupling for coupling
capacitances can capacitances.
be challenging,Nevertheless,
and a
calculating the coupling capacitances can be challenging, and a simplification
simplification can be made by considering the coupling capacitance between the outer can be made
by considering the
phases as neglectable. coupling capacitance between the outer phases as neglectable.
To assess the
To thedissimilarities
dissimilaritiesininthe reconstruction
the reconstruction of real transient
of real signals,
transient threethree
signals, tran-
sients are are
transients evaluated using
evaluated the the
using following methods
following methodsandandparameters:
parameters:
• Simplified method
Simplified method (SM);(SM);
• Compensation
Compensation of of coupling
coupling capacitances
capacitances (CCC)
(CCC) with
with CCCA
CA==00pF;
pF;
• Compensation
Compensation of of coupling
coupling capacitances
capacitances (CCC)
(CCC) with
with CCCA
CA==0.061
0.061pF.
pF.
The first
The first transient
transient (also
(also shown
shown in
in Section
Section 4)
4) occurs
occurs due
due to
to the
the energization
energization of
of the
the
transmission line. Figure 17 shows the reconstructed signals for phase C (most critical).
transmission line. Figure 17 shows the reconstructed signals for phase C (most critical).

1200 1050
VC-SM VC-SM
900 VC-CCC / C CA = 0 pF 950 VC-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
VC-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF VC-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF
600 850

300 750

0 650

–300 550

–600 450
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 4.9 5.3 5.7 6.1 6.5 6.9
Time (ms) Time (ms)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 17.
17.Transient
Transientovervoltage reconstruction—line
overvoltage energization.
reconstruction—line (a) Response
energization. of phase
(a) Response C; (b)
of phase C;
zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum overvoltage.
(b) zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum overvoltage.

The signal reconstructed using the CCC method with a CCA of 0.061 pF is considered
the reference. The maximum voltage of this signal is 761 kV. Ignoring the CCA in the CCC
method results in a maximum voltage of 843 kV, representing a difference of 82 kV or 10.8%.
The signal reconstructed with the simplified method has a maximum voltage of 1000 kV,
indicating a difference of 31.4%.
The second signal is also a transient that occurs during the energization of the transmis-
sion line. The signal reconstruction of phase C, where the maximum negative overvoltage
happened, is shown in Figure 18.
Considering again the signal reconstructed using the CCC method with a CCA of
0.061 pF as reference, the maximum negative voltage is −813 kV. Employing the CCC
method with neglected CCA results in a maximum negative voltage of −916 kV, representing
a difference of 103 kV or 12.7%. The signal reconstructed using the simplified method has
a maximum negative voltage of −1107 kV, representing a difference of 294 kV or 36.2%.
Therefore, the simplified method evidently overestimates the maximum overvoltage of the
analyzed transients, whereas the difference ranging from 10% to 13% when ignoring CCA
may or may not be considered acceptable, depending on the evaluation’s objective.
The third evaluated transient was recorded during the de-energization of the trans-
mission line. The reconstructed signals are shown in Figure 19.
 –600
method results in a maximum voltage of 843 kV, representing a difference of 82 kV or
0 10.8%. The signal reconstructed with the simplified method has a maximum voltage of
1000 kV, indicating a difference of 31.4%.
–800
–400
The second signal is also a transient that occurs during the energization of the
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 transmission line. The signal reconstruction of phase C, where the maximum negative
16 of 20
V V
overvoltage
C-SM
happened, is shown in–1000
Figure 18. C-SM
–800 V
C-CCC
/C
CA
= 0 pF V
C-CCC
/C
CA
= 0 pF
VC-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF VC-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF
800 –400
–1200 –1200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
400 Time (ms) Time (ms)
–600
(a) (b)
0
Figure 18. Transient overvoltage reconstruction—line energization. (a) Response of phase C; (b)
–800
zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum negative overvoltage.
–400

Considering
V
C-SM again the signal reconstructed using the CCC method V
C-SM with a CCA of 0.061
–1000
–800 pF as reference,
V
C-CCC
/ C the
CA
maximum
= 0 pF negative voltage is −813 kV. Employing
V
C-CCC
/ C the
CA
CCC method
= 0 pF
with neglected
VC-CCC
/ C CCA results in a maximum negative voltage of C-CCC
CA
= 0.061 pF V −916 kV,
/ C CA
= representing
0.061 pF a
–1200 difference of 103 kV or 12.7%. The–1200 signal reconstructed using the simplified method has a
0 10 20 30
maximum 40
negative 50 voltage
60 of −1107 3.0 3.5 4.0
kV, representing a4.5difference
5.0 5.5
of 2946.0kV or6.536.2%.
Time (ms) Time (ms)
Therefore, the simplified method evidently overestimates the maximum overvoltage of
(a)
the analyzed transients, whereas the difference ranging(b) from 10% to 13% when ignoring
CCA may
Figure 18.or may not be considered
Transient acceptable, depending on the evaluation’s objective.
Figure 18. Transientovervoltage
overvoltagereconstruction—line
reconstruction—lineenergization.
energization.(a) (a) Response
Response of phase C; (b)
of phase C;
Thewaveforms
zoomed third evaluated transient
on the region was negative
of maximum recordedovervoltage.
during the de-energization of the
(b) zoomed waveforms on the region of maximum negative overvoltage.
transmission line. The reconstructed signals are shown in Figure 19.
Considering again the signal reconstructed using the CCC method with a CCA of 0.061
600
pF as reference, the maximum negative voltage is −813 kV. Employing the CCC method
with neglected CCA results in a maximum negative voltage VA-SMof −916 kV, representing a
difference
400 of 103 kV or 12.7%. The signal reconstructed using the/ Csimplified
VA-CCC CA
= 0 pF method has a
maximum negative voltage of −1107 kV, representing a Vdifference / C CA =of 294pFkV or 36.2%.
0.061
A-CCC
Therefore,
200
the simplified method evidently overestimates the
VB-SM
maximum overvoltage of
the analyzed transients, whereas the difference ranging from 10% to 13% when ignoring
VB-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
CCA may or may not be considered acceptable, depending on the evaluation’s objective.
0 V / C CA = 0.061 pF
The third evaluated transient was recorded duringB-CCC the de-energization of the
VC-SM
transmission line. The reconstructed signals are shown in Figure 19.
VC-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
–200
600 VC-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF
VA-SM
–400
400 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 VA-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
Time (ms) VA-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF
Figure 19.Transient
20019.
Figure Transientovervoltage
overvoltagereconstruction—line
reconstruction—linede-energization.
de-energization.
VB-SM
VB-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
The most significant difference between the reconstructed signals is observed in phase
VB-CCC / C CA = 0.061 pF
0
B. The simplified method indicates a difference of up to 148 kV compared to the CCC
VC-SM
method with a CCA of 0.061 pF. Moreover, the CCC method with neglected CCA and CCC
VC-CCC / C CA = 0 pF
–200 with a CCA of 0.061 pF have a maximum difference
method of approximately 30 kV. For
VC-CCC
this signal, no critical voltage level for equipment operation / C CA = 0.061 pF
is identified. Consequently,
the utilization of the simplified method would not compromise the evaluation.
–400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
5.2. Statistical Analysis of Transient
Time (ms)Signals
During
Figure the one-year
19. Transient measurement
overvoltage campaign,
reconstruction—line the measurement system recorded
de-energization.
142 transient events. Table 4 shows the classification of these transients.

Table 4. Number of transient events recorded by the measurement system.

Line Line External

Energization De-Energization Disturbance Total
(No. of Events) (No. of Events) (No. of Events)
27 28 87 142
 Line Line External
Energization De-Energization Disturbance Total
(No. of Events) (No. of Events) (No. of Events)
27 28 87 142
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 17 of 20

Sixty-one percent of all recorded transients originate from external disturbances,

suchSixty-one
as circuit switching
percent of allinrecorded
the same substation
transients or other
originate fromperturbations in the power
external disturbances,
such as circuit switching in the same substation or other perturbations in thewithin
system. These signals are transients that return to the previous steady-state powera few
milliseconds, meaning that there is no change in the state (closed/open)
system. These signals are transients that return to the previous steady-state within a few of the
transmissionmeaning
milliseconds, line. The transmission
that there is no changeline underwent
in the 28 de-energizations
state (closed/open) and 27
of the transmission
energizations
line. during line
The transmission the underwent
one-year period. This difference
28 de-energizations andoccurs because the
27 energizations line was
during
energized
the one-yearwhenperiod.theThis
measurement systembecause
difference occurs was installed and energized
the line was de-energizedwhenwhenthe the
measurement system was installed and de-energized when the system was removed.
system was removed.
The
Themost
mostcritical transient
critical overvoltages
transient occurred
overvoltages during during
occurred the energization of the trans-
the energization of the
mission line. Therefore,
transmission a statistical
line. Therefore, analysis
a statistical of theofmaximum
analysis the maximum voltage of theofrecorded
voltage the recorded
transients
transientsisisperformed
performed and thethe
and results areare
results presented
presentedin Figure 20. 20.
in Figure

900

800

700

600

500

400

300
A B C
Phase
Figure20.
Figure 20.Maximum
Maximum voltage
voltage measured
measured during
during the the energization
energization oftransmission
of the the transmission
line. line.

The
Themedian
medianofofthe maximum
the maximum voltage registered
voltage for for
registered phases A, B,
phases A,and C are
B, and C 482
are kV,
482 kV,
637 kV, and 479 kV, respectively. The maximum overvoltages are 654 kV, 820 kV,
637 kV, and 479 kV, respectively. The maximum overvoltages are 654 kV, 820 kV, and 813 and
813
kV,kV, respectively.Therefore,
respectively. Therefore, the
the maximum
maximumregistered
registeredovervoltage, measured
overvoltage, in phase
measured B, B,
in phase
Sensors 2024, 24, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 20
represents about 2.4 times the rated peak voltage. Figure 21 shows the transient signal with
represents about 2.4 times the rated peak voltage. Figure 21 shows the transient signal
the highest maximum (negative) overvoltage.
with the highest maximum (negative) overvoltage.
600

400

200

–200

–400
VA
–600
V
B
–800 VC

–1000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (ms)
Figure21.
Figure 21.Transient
Transient signal
signal with
with thethe maximum
maximum measured
measured overvoltage.
overvoltage.

6. Conclusions
Accurately measuring and investigating electromagnetic transients is gaining
importance with the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the power
grid. This paper introduces a measurement system based on capacitive electric field
sensors capable of accurately measuring fast transients due to its broadband response.
Sensors 2024, 24, 1357 18 of 20

6. Conclusions
Accurately measuring and investigating electromagnetic transients is gaining impor-
tance with the increasing integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid. This
paper introduces a measurement system based on capacitive electric field sensors capable
of accurately measuring fast transients due to its broadband response. The measurement
system was installed in a high-voltage substation for one year, recording 142 transient
events. The installation process is straightforward and does not require de-energizing
the bay.
Calibration is essential for measuring transient overvoltages using the proposed
measurement system. This paper discusses two techniques: the simplified method and the
CCC method. The simplified method can measure steady-state voltages, but it has been
proven inaccurate for measuring transients. On the other hand, the CCC method, which
accounts for the coupling capacitances between the measurement devices and the three
phases, is the most appropriate for reconstructing transient overvoltages. All coupling
capacitances were successfully calculated based on the layout and simplifications. However,
neglecting the coupling capacitance between the external phases is acceptable if no relation
between the layout (distances) and the calculated capacitances can be established. This
study found that neglecting it resulted in a difference between 10% and 13%.
Finally, the study demonstrates that the proposed measurement system serves as an
efficient and flexible solution for the long-term monitoring of transient overvoltages in a
high-voltage substation, especially for fast transients requiring broadband measurement.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.B. and S.T.; methodology, F.L.P. and S.T.; software,
F.L.P.; validation, F.L.P. and S.T.; investigation, F.L.P.; resources, M.B. and S.T.; writing—original draft
preparation, F.L.P.; writing—review and editing, M.B. and S.T.; visualization, F.L.P.; supervision, M.B.
and S.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of TransnetBW GmbH. Special
appreciation is expressed to Kai A. Alsdorf for his significant contributions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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