Tourist loyalty in the metaverse: the role of

immersive tourism experience and

cognitive perceptions
Rana Muhammad Sohail Jafar and Wasim Ahmad

Abstract
Purpose – Metaverse technology is of interest to researchers and practitioners in tourism and hospitality.
The metaverse offers tourists the capacity to enjoy unprecedented tourism experiences. These
opportunities may radically change the tourism and hospitality landscape. This study aims to examine
how metaverse experiences affect tourists’ cognitive processing, satisfaction and loyalty toward
metaverse tourism using the stimulus-organism-response paradigm and cognitive experiential self-
theory.
Design/methodology/approach – An online survey was undertaken to gather information from 329
Rana Muhammad Sohail
respondents who were frequent users of different metaverse applications to meet the study’s objectives.
Jafar and Wasim Ahmad
Data were evaluated through partial least squares structural equation modelling.
are both based at UCSI
Findings – The findings revealed that metaverse experiences, such as immersion, escapism and
enjoyment, had a significant positive impact on metaverse organismic experience. Additionally, Graduate Business School,
metaverse cognitive processing positively influenced metaverse tourist responses, including satisfaction UCSI University, Kuala
and loyalty, with tourist involvement acting as a moderator. Lumpur, Malaysia.
Originality/value – This study provides guidelines for metaverse developers and travel industry
professionals to encourage visitor satisfaction and loyalty to metaverse tourism.
Keywords Cognitive processing, Escapism, Enjoyment, Immersion, Metaverse tourism, PLS-SEM
Paper type Research paper

元宇宙中的游客忠诚度：沉浸式旅游体验及认知的作用
摘要
目的: Metaverse 技术引起了旅游和酒店业的研究人员和从业人员的兴趣。 元宇宙为游客提供了享受前
所未有的旅游体验的能力。 这些机会可能会从根本上改变旅游业和酒店业的格局。 本研究旨在使用刺
激-有机体-反应 (S-O-R) 范式和认知体验自我理论 (CEST) 研究虚拟世界体验如何影响游客的认知处理、
满意度和对虚拟世界旅游的忠诚度。
Received 9 November 2022
方法: 为了实现研究目标, 我们开展了一项在线调查, 从 329 名经常使用不同元宇宙应用程序的受访者那 Revised 27 January 2023
里收集信息。 通过偏最小二乘结构方程模型 (PLS-SEM) 评估数据。 10 April 2023
发现: 研究结果表明, 虚拟世界体验, 如沉浸、逃避现实和享受, 对虚拟世界有机体体验有显着的积极影 9 June 2023
Accepted 27 June 2023
响。 此外, 虚拟世界的认知处理对虚拟世界游客的反应产生了积极影响, 包括满意度和忠诚度, 游客的参
与起到了调节作用。 Authors have no conflicts of
独创性/价值: 这项研究为元宇宙开发人员和旅游行业专业人士提供指导方针, 以鼓励游客对元宇宙旅游的 interest to declare.
满意度和忠诚度。 Author contributions:
关键词 认知加工, 逃避现实, 享受, 沉浸, 虚拟旅游, PLS-SEM Rana Muhammad Sohail
Jafar – Drafting the article, Data
文章类型 研究型论文 collection, Data analysis and
interpretation and Critical
Fidelizacion del turista en el metaverso: El papel de la experiencia turı´stica inmersiva y las revision of the article.
percepciones cognitivas Wasim Ahmad – Conception or
Resumen design of the work, Critical
revision of the article and Final
Objetivo: El Metaverso esta siendo de de interes  para investigadores y profesionales en turismo y approval of the version to be

hotelerı´a. Este avance tecnologico ofrece al turista la capacidad de disfrutar de experiencias turı´sticas published.

DOI 10.1108/TR-11-2022-0552 © Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 1660-5373 j TOURISM REVIEW j

 
ineditas, generando oportunidades que pueden cambiar radicalmente el panorama de la industria del
turismo. Este estudio tiene la intencion de examinar como las experiencias del metaverso afectan el
procesamiento cognitivo, la satisfaccion  y la lealtad de los turistas hacia el turismo del metaverso
utilizando el paradigma de estı´mulo-organismo-respuesta (S-O-R) y la auto-teorı´a cognitiva experiencial
(CEST).
Metodos: Se realizo una encuesta en lı´nea para recopilar informacion  de 329 encuestados que eran
usuarios frecuentes de diferentes aplicaciones de metaverso para cumplir con los objetivos del estudio.
Los datos se evaluaron a traves  de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales de mı´nimos cuadrados
parciales (PLS-SEM).
Recomendaciones: Los hallazgos revelaron que las experiencias del metaverso, como la inmersion,  el
escapismo y el disfrute, tuvieron un impacto positivo significativo en la experiencia organı´smica del
metaverso. Ademas,  el procesamiento cognitivo del metaverso influyo positivamente en las respuestas
 y la lealtad, y la participacion
de los turistas del metaverso, incluidas la satisfaccion  del turista actuo
como moderador.
Originalidad/valor: Este estudio proporciona pautas para los desarrolladores de metaversos y los
 y la lealtad de los visitantes al turismo
profesionales de la industria de viajes para fomentar la satisfaccion
de metaversos.
Palabras clave Procesamiento cognitivo, Escapismo, Disfrute, Inmersion,  Turismo metaverso,
PLS-SEM
Tipo de papel Trabajo de investigacion 

1. Introduction
Metaverse technology has revolutionized the tourism experience (Buhalis et al., 2023a). The
metaverse is generally known as the layer between you and reality and/or a 3-D virtual
collective universe in which all practices can be conducted with the help of virtual and
augmented reality amenities (Dwivedi et al., 2022). In the metaverse, tourists may visit art
galleries, participate in live events, play games and travel to unique areas using a
personalized online avatar (Arpaci et al., 2022). As an integrative innovation, the metaverse
uses virtual reality (VR) headgear, digital currency (non-fungible tokens) and avatars to
blend digital and physical worlds (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Virtual tourists can interactively and
enjoyably access tourism destinations from the comfort of their homes (Iisp et al., 2018).
Metaverse technology in tourism is also altering how enterprises interact with their clients by
bridging physical gaps and providing novel experiences (Dwivedi et al., 2022). The
metaverse can also offer a hybrid environment during the visit allowing customers to take
advantage of goods and services physically and virtually (Buhalis and Moldavska, 2022b).
The metaverse also permits an amalgam of advancements relating to functions, meetings
and conferences (Dwivedi et al., 2022). Visitors can engage in the real environment and
regional resources via augmented reality (AR) and VR. AR can provide many levels of
knowledge relating to objects and artistic tourism. On-site, VR and AR can be combined to
help explain tourist destinations and historical sites (Zhao et al., 2022). This immersive
experience is sometimes referred to as extended reality. Individuals can empathize, be
inspired and learn when they are convinced that what they are seeing or feeling is true
(Rosenberg, 2022). Figure 1 differentiates the metaverse from other VR amenities.
Metaverse technology improvements may increase tourism reservations and improve the
entire travel experience (Buhalis et al., 2023a). The Chinese metaverse XiRang (Lands of
Hope) can facilitate up to 100,000 participants engaging in real-time communication and
virtual travel to many destinations such as museums, theme parks and Shaolin temples (Liu,
2022). Digital technology has obfuscated the boundaries between the actual and virtual
worlds, potentially increasing the level of immersion in tourism activities (Belk et al., 2022).
Metaverse has the ability to improve the tourist experience by creating an immersive and
interactive virtual environment prior to visiting a destination or attraction (Buhalis and
Karatay, 2022a).
Immersive experiences are vital to the experience economy in the staging of brand-new
encounters (Koo et al., 2022). The prospect of complete immersion and gamification have

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 Figure 1 Metaverse and other virtual reality amenities

boosted accessibility to new, individualized experiences as tourists experience engaging

virtual encounters (Buhalis and Karatay, 2022a). Virtual interactions, particularly those that
encourage social engagement and immersion, can boost client happiness and loyalty
(Hudson et al., 2019; Gursoy et al., 2022). The desire of tourists to return to a place and their
enthusiastic recommendations often spread through word of mouth are signs of tourism
loyalty (Zhang et al., 2014). Flavian et al. (2019) stated that virtual experiences enhance
tourists brand perceptions and loyalty to destination. Ye et al. (2022) found that the quality
of virtual tourism platforms significantly enhanced visitor travel intention and satisfaction.
Tourist satisfaction and destination attraction were both found to be positively impacted by
immersion and happiness (Li et al., 2022). Immersive experiences enhance tourist’
satisfaction and revisit intention (Tsai, 2022). Similarly, the metaverse also facilitates the
hospitality experience and value co-creation (Buhalis et al. (2023b). Furthermore,
metaverse can enhance daily life by utilizing technology to make it more interesting and
enjoyable (Koo et al., 2022; Koohang et al., 2023). There is, however, a lack of research that
considers the loyalty and satisfaction of metaverse visitors.
Metaverse applications will continue to influence society, especially hospitality and tourism.
Therefore, it is crucial to comprehend how visitors interact and respond to metaverse
environments. The study investigates how metaverse tourist experience affects their
satisfaction and loyalty to the virtual destination. Following the stimulus (S) – organism (O) –
response (R) framework (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974b) and cognitive experiential self-
theory (CEST) (Epstein, 2008), a novel research model was developed to understand tourist
behavior within the metaverse. The research findings offer insights for retail, tourism, and
hospitality managers who wish to develop outlets in the metaverse for marketing and to
serve as future locations for tourist attractions.

2. Related concepts and hypotheses

2.1 Theoretical background
This study is theoretically grounded within CEST (Epstein, 2008) and the S-O-R framework
(Mehrabian and Russell, 1974a). CEST explains how individuals process information and

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 incorporate it into their decision making (Epstein, 2003). CEST is the synthesis of thought
and behavior patterns that influences how an individual develops attitudes and behaviors
(Epstein, 2008). Experiential theory suggests that individuals rely on emotions to guide
change rather than reason. The theory has been used to help individuals to adjust to
varying social or virtual environments and requirements. The theory argues that individuals
are significantly influenced by their perceived emotional experiences (Epstein, 2003).
Epstein claims that emotional experience functions much like a cognitive system. When an
individual has an enjoyable experience, they will establish cognitive and affective
judgments in response to specific environmental or experiential stimuli (Epstein, 2008). The
stimuli serves as the antecedent, while the organism serves as the intermediary between
the stimuli and behavioral response (Hsiao and Tang, 2021; Dong et al., 2021). This
research employs CEST and S-O-R to support the research model. As the metaverse is a
simulated world it can provide an immersive experience for users (Pandita et al., 2021). The
study will consider three metaverse experiential stimuli (i.e. immersion, enjoyment and
escapism), cognitive processing as an organism and satisfaction and loyalty are the
responses. The attributes will now be discussed.

2.2 Metaverse stimuli (S)

2.2.1 Immersion. Immersion describes a condition of total focus without external distraction
(Li et al., 2022). Zha et al. (2018) suggest that immersion describes a spatiotemporal
belonging in a world that is marked by intense present-moment participation. Kumar and
Komal (2022) characterized the immersive qualities of systems adjacent to “virtuality
varieties”, ranging from the entirely virtual to the entirely real. Avatar immersion and social
interaction with other avatars, surroundings, or products can enhance metaverse
experience (Koo et al., 2022). Immersion has emerged as a critical facet of consumer
experience within the metaverse (Lee et al., 2020). Helena et al. (2017) found that a virtual
tour of a mall might lessen shoppers’ discomfort with crowds, which may promote
satisfaction and loyalty in the form of recommendations and customer retention. Jung et al.
(2017) discovered that behavioral intentions to repeat VR tourism encounters were
impacted by immersion. It has also been found that increased immersion enhances
cognitive processing through the motivational process within virtual learning environments
(Parong and Mayer, 2021b). Petersen et al. (2022) argue that increased levels of immersion
in a virtual environment arouse positive emotions and enhance tourists’ cognitive thinking in
3 D virtual settings. Therefore, we argue:
H1. Perceived immersion in the metaverse is positively linked to cognitive processing.
2.2.2 Enjoymen.t Enjoyment refers to pleasure that is engendered from participation in an
activity or a relationship (Joe et al., 2022). Iisp et al. (2018) argue enjoyment is a key
component of VR tourism and affects tourists’ intention to visit virtual locations. Tourists are
increasingly participating in hedonistic virtual tourism activities (e.g. pleasure, enjoyment
and experience). When users enjoy the VR experience while playing video games, their
sense of cognitive processing promotes favorable behavioral responses for actual
experience (Dong et al., 2021). Igbaria et al. (1995) have also argued that the desire to use
digital technology is strongly correlated with perceived enjoyment. Gao and Bai (2014)
suggest that perceived utility and enjoyment affected individuals use of the internet and
discovered that both factors had a significant influence on internet usage. According to Joe
et al. (2022), ecstasy from technology boosts an individuals’ desire to use the metaverse in
their daily lives. Users who feel more dynamic and realistically a part of a virtual world have
reported a more joyful and immersive experience (Iisp et al., 2018). Perceived enjoyment in
VR games is also known to enhance cognitive processes and user satisfaction with the
virtual environment (Wu et al., 2019). Therefore, we argue:
H2. Perceived enjoyment in the metaverse is positively linked to cognitive processing.

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2.2.3 Escapism. Individuals may wish to escape what they see as a life of tedium through
tourism (Loureiro et al., 2021). Consumers who engage in escapism have an immersive and
dynamic experience that gives the impression of visiting another location (Pine and James,
1998). This research proposes that escapism acts as stimuli for cognitive processing
(organism). Research suggests that virtual environments can be engrossing enough for
users to adopt a virtual identity (i.e. an avatar) and forget their true identities (Melancon,
2011; Zhao et al., 2022). Therefore, the metaverse is seen as a means of escape from the
current confines of the users reality, which may affect general behavior (Um et al., 2022).
The study contends that escapism influences an individual’s emotions and cognition
(Epstein, 2008). During a virtual experience the sense of escapism provokes ideas
(cognitive processing) and a sense of control over the virtual environment (Loureiro et al.,
2021). The metaverse can offer users a sensation of escape by enabling them to travel
virtually. Therefore, we argue:
H3. Perceived escapism in the metaverse is positively linked to cognitive processing.

2.3 Cognitive processing organism (O)

Following CEST (Epstein, 2008), this study hypothesizes that enjoyment, escape and
immersion may have cognitive and emotional impacts on tourist behavior. The evaluation of
hedonic and experiential stimuli determines the emotional state of users (Aelee et al., 2018).
Therefore, the sensations of immersion, escapism and enjoyment engendered by the
metaverse platform result in cognitive processing and an understanding that the experience
within the metaverse or virtual platforms will be satisfying (Loureiro et al., 2021). Cognitive
processing refers to the level of mental processing and elaboration a visitor engages in
during a visit interaction (Hollebeek et al., 2014; Raptis et al., 2018). The cognitive and
emotional model developed by Oliver (1993) suggests that tourists’ satisfaction and
retention are positively impacted by cognitive perceptions. Zhang et al. (2014) have also
argued that visitors’ cognitive expressions, such as their intention to return to a place or
suggest it to others has an impact on loyalty. Visitors tend to develop satisfaction and loyalty
under the premise that they feel a sense of escapism, immersion and enjoyment during their
tour in the metaverse (Chang et al., 2014). It has also found that immersion, escapism and
enjoyment as stimuli enhance tourists’ cognitive processing in the virtual environment
(Parong and Mayer, 2021a). Virtual experiences positively influence cognitive processing in
virtual tourism settings (Kuldas et al. (2014). Therefore, satisfied tourists are more likely to
use metaverse or VR applications before physically visiting the destinations. There is
increasing interest in understanding the psychological processes involved in a person’s
metaverse tourist experience. The pleasant experience of a virtual destination (metaverse)
can enhance tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty (Loureiro et al., 2021). Therefore, we argue:
H4. Cognitive processing is positively linked to tourist satisfaction.
H5. Cognitive processing is positively linked to tourist loyalty.

2.4 Metaverse tourist satisfaction and loyalty

Long-term corporate performance depends on the capacity to maintain and foster customer
satisfaction and loyalty (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2019). Satisfaction is an influential indicator of
the efficiency and effectiveness of an information system. As Wang et al. (2019) discovered
that satisfaction is the foremost element of customer loyalty. Consumer loyalty is often
generalized to include tourists, who may choose to return or recommend a destination after
their positive experience there (Zhang et al., 2014). Elizabeth et al. (2019) found that tourist
loyalty can be demonstrated by a strong commitment to a specific destination to revisit or
spread positive word of mouth. Research has also found that higher levels of satisfaction
and consumer perception have a significant impact on customer retention and the intention
to promote good word of mouth (Nilashi et al., 2022; Elizabeth et al., 2019). Businesses

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 must ensure high levels of satisfaction by offering great service to create long-term
relationships and client loyalty, because repurchase intentions are influenced by consumer
satisfaction (Dash et al. (2021). Similarly, Li et al. (2022) also endorsed that if tourists are
pleased with tour facilities, there is a higher likelihood of reusing these services. The degree
of satisfaction investigated in this study therefore refers to satisfaction with metaverse travel
applications. Therefore, we argue:
H6. Metaverse tourist satisfaction has a constructive impact on tourists’ metaverse
loyalty.

2.5 The moderating role of tourist involvement

Tourist involvement is related to tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty (Lu et al., 2015).
Research has revealed consumer involvement as a moderator has a significant effect on
consumer behavior and purchase intentions (Biswas et al., 2021). A destination is viewed
as a set of amenities that either delight or disappoint visitors. From the perspective of
tourists’, Hao et al.’s (2019) study describes that visitors’ positive and negative feelings
affected their overall happiness and loyalty. CEST suggests that loyalty and satisfaction can
be influenced by how tourists’ minds perceive their experiences. In the same way that
happy feelings increase enjoyment, negative emotions lessen it and encourage hostility (Tlili
and Amara, 2016). Hosany and Prayag (2013) stated that the level of tourist involvement
depends on their perceived emotions. According to Japutra (2022), if the destination is
capable of facilitating tourists’ needs, these travelers will have greater involvement and
display loyalty toward the destination. Individuals with a high level of association in a given
destination were reported to be highly satisfied and loyal to that destination (Santos et al.,
2022). Heesup and Sean (2017) found that tourist involvement as a moderator significantly
influences customer expectations and satisfaction. Figure 2 depicts the research framework
and hypothesis:

Figure 2 Conceptual model

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 H7a. Tourists’ involvement moderates the impact of cognitive processing on tourist
satisfaction.
H7b. Tourists’ involvement moderates the impact of cognitive processing on tourist
loyalty.

3. Research methods
3.1 Sample and data collection method
The sample population were metaverse users from a private university in Malaysia. A
questionnaire was distributed online via Google Forms to the students. As advised by
Adcock (1997), we considered four key variables when determining the sample size: the
population standard deviation, the experiment’s desired power to detect the hypothesized
effect, and the significance level of the target audience. Most students were from China,
and they were well-versed in the Chinese metaverse XiRang (Lands of Hope). Academics
have found that it is more acceptable to use student samples while collecting data
(Sternthal et al., 1987). Similarly, a quantitative paradigm helps to quantify dependable,
accurate and thorough correlations (Cassell and Symon, 1994). Therefore, primary data
were gathered by creating questionnaires that had two main components, such as
demographics and major statements about the constructs used in this study. In Appendix,
the measurement items for the constructs are thoroughly explained. The study’s
respondents were screened and a total of 350 replies were collected from the online survey.
After removing incomplete, missing or doubtful questionnaires, 329 surveys were used in
the final analysis. In total, 55% of the study respondents were female, and 64% were 18 to
30 years old. Additionally, 94% of the respondents had experience in the metaverse; 54% of
respondents held a bachelor’s degree; 50% of respondents used the metaverse to play
games; 27% used the metaverse for travel; and 18% used the metaverse for entertainment
purposes. Table 1 summarizes the demographic profiles of the respondents.

Table 1 Respondents’ descriptive statistics

Respondents (N ¼ 329) Frequency %

Gender
Male 149 45
Female 180 55
Age in years
18 to 30 211 64
31 to 40 78 24
41 to 50 33 10
51 and above 7 2
Education
Middle 8 2
High 25 8
Bachelor 179 54
Postgraduate 117 36
Use of metaverse
No 21 6
Yes 329 94
Purpose of your metaverse usage
Playing games 165 50
Traveling 88 27
Entertainment 58 18
Other 18 5
Source: Authors’ own creation

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 4. Results
4.1 Common method bias
We used Harman’s single-factor test to evaluate CMB. Fuller et al. (2016) suggest
Harman’s single factor is more reliable and valid for large data sets. The outcomes revealed
an extracted total variance of 26.673%, which is within the accepted threshold of 50%,
indicating a relatively low level of CMB.

4.2 Data analysis results

Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) was used to evaluate the
proposed model. To assess the measurement model, the constructs’ validity and reliability
were examined. Factor loadings were assessed using Cronbach’s alpha (CA) and
composite reliability (CR). The fact that each of the constructs’ CA and CR values were
beyond the advised level (>0.6) served as evidence of the scale’s reliability (Hair et al.,
2021). The values of the average variance extractions (AVE) were more than 0.5, showing
that the concepts listed in Table 2 were valid and convergent.
The Heterotrait-Monotrait (HTMT) correlation ratio was used to investigate discriminant
validity. As indicated in Table 3, the highest HTMT value discovered in this investigation was
0.514, which is less than the recommended threshold value of 0.90 (Hair and Alamer, 2022).
These findings (Tables 2 and 3) lead to the conclusion that all measures demonstrated
construct validity based on discriminant validity.

4.3 Hypothesis testing

A nonparametric technique called bootstrapping enables testing for the statistical
significance of several PLS-SEM outcomes. Bootstrapping involves creating subsamples
from the original data set using randomly chosen observations. The PLS path model is then

Table 2 Measurement model (convergent validity, reliability and multicollinearity)

Constructs Items Factor loadings VIF CA CR AVE

Cognitive processing COI 1 0.834 1.692 0.810 0.888 0.725

COI 2 0.881 2.077
COI 3 0.839 1.726
Metaverse tourist satisfaction MTS 1 0.855 1.915 0.830 0.899 0.747
MTS 2 0.886 2.152
MTS 3 0.851 1.773
Enjoyment ENJ 1 0.894 2.626 0.841 0.894 0.680
ENJ 2 0.873 2.275
ENJ 3 0.800 1.853
ENJ 4 0.721 1.489
Escapism ESC1 0.689 1.306 0.727 0.843 0.644
ESC2 0.884 1.625
ESC3 0.823 1.517
Immersion IMN1 0.799 1.945 0.862 0.905 0.706
IMN 2 0.885 2.329
IMN 3 0.827 2.013
IMN 4 0.846 2.061
Metaverse tourist involvement MTI 1 0.773 1.599 0.833 0.889 0.667
MTI 2 0.864 2.244
MTI 3 0.792 1.696
MTI 4 0.835 1.914
Metaverse tourist loyalty MTL1 0.822 1.573 0.779 0.872 0.694
MTL2 0.814 1.552
MTL3 0.862 1.858
Source: Authors’ own creation

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 Table 3 Discriminant validity assessment Heterotrait-Monotrait ratio (HTMT)
Constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 Cognitive processing
2 Enjoyment 0.486
3 Escapism 0.514 0.483
4 Immersion 0.385 0.319 0.374
5 Tourist involvement Satisfaction 0.046 0.036 0.014 0.067
6 Tourist involvement Loyalty 0.046 0.036 0.014 0.067 0.053
7 Tourist involvement 0.158 0.376 0.274 0.378 0.058 0.058
8 Tourist loyalty 0.344 0.403 0.315 0.425 0.089 0.089 0.221
9 Tourist satisfaction 0.443 0.521 0.468 0.401 0.063 0.063 0.424 0.536 –
Source: Authors’ own creation

estimated using the subsample. The method is repeated until a substantial number of
random subsamples – typically 5,000 – have been produced. This study used a 5,000
bootstrapping resample algorithm to compute the variance R-squared, path coefficients
and levels of significance (t-values) of the dependent and mediating variables to ascertain
the validity of the suggested correlations. In our study model, all the proposed hypotheses
were accepted, as shown in Figure 3 and Table 4. We also checked the model fit index by
considering the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and normed fit index
(NFI). Both SRMR < 0.082 and NFI > 0.96 were acceptable as per the suggested criteria
(Hu and Bentler, 1999).
The three elements of the metaverse, IMN (b ¼ 0.175, t ¼ 3.577, p < 0.05), ESC (b ¼ 0.258,
t ¼ 5.007, p < 0.05) and ENJ (b ¼ 0.255, t ¼ 5.298, p < 0.05) had a significant influence on
COP. Moreover, COP (b ¼ 0.326, t ¼ 7.057, p < 0.05) had a significant relationship on MTS.
Similarly, COP (b ¼ 0.140, t ¼ 2.792, p < 0.05) and MTS (b ¼ 0.367, t ¼ 7.392, p < 0.05)
also had a significant relationship with the MTL. Hence, H1 to H6 were supported to test the
moderation effect of MTI in the relationship between COP with MTS and MTL. Results
indicate that the direct effect of the moderator MTI on MTS (b ¼ 0.266, t ¼ 6.502, p < 0.05)
and MTL (b ¼ 0.306, t ¼ 7.187, p < 0.05) was significant, which proves that H7a and H7b
were also accepted. Figure 4 presents the moderation effects.

Figure 3 Structural model

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 Table 4 PLS bootstrapping results
Direct effect Coefficients SD t-stat p-values Results

Cognitive processing ! Tourist loyalty 0.140 0.050 2.792 0.005 Supported

Cognitive processing ! Tourist satisfaction 0.326 0.046 7.057 0.000 Supported
Enjoyment ! Cognitive processing 0.255 0.048 5.298 0.000 Supported
Escapism ! Cognitive processing 0.258 0.052 5.007 0.000 Supported
Immersion ! Cognitive processing 0.175 0.049 3.577 0.000 Supported
Moderating effect 1 ! Tourist satisfaction 0.266 0.041 6.502 0.000 Supported
Moderating effect 2 ! Tourist loyalty 0.306 0.043 7.187 0.000 Supported
Tourist involvement ! Tourist loyalty 0.206 0.044 4.655 0.000 Supported
Tourist involvement ! Tourist satisfaction 0.314 0.048 6.583 0.000 Supported
Tourist satisfaction ! Tourist loyalty 0.367 0.050 7.392 0.000 Supported
Notes: SRMR = standardized root mean square residual ¼ 0.082.  p < 0.05
Source: Authors’ own creation

Figure 4 Moderation effects

5. Conclusion and discussion

This study provides a model that extends the S-O-R paradigm with CEST by examining the
stimuli (immersion, escapism and enjoyment), the organism (cognitive processing) and
the responses (satisfaction and loyalty) of metaverse tourists. First, this study stated that the
metaverse can deliver distinctive and personalized tourism experiences that respond to the
varied and changing requirements of modern visitors.
Second, the findings show that visitors tend to absorb experiences cognitively before
responding. Data analysis demonstrates that these factors significantly affect cognitive
processing. This exemplifies how metaverse experiential stimuli could act as a spark for the
emergence of positive views toward virtual worlds. Cognitive processes are significantly
impacted by these characteristics. In a virtual environment, pleasurable feelings generate
favorable sentiment that increases visitor happiness and loyalty (Dash et al., 2021). As a
result, visitors to the metaverse are more satisfied and loyal to the destination.

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Third, this study used a moderator (i.e. tourists’ involvement in the metaverse) that
significantly moderated the association between cognitive processing, visitors’ loyalty and
satisfaction in the metaverse. It was concluded that the metaverse has transformed
conventional travel decision-making processes with virtual tours that are identical to real
tours within a destination. A virtual platform could be exciting or appealing if it provides a
more immersive and escapism experience. Positive experiences on the metaverse platform
stimulate cognitive processes in users, which result in visitor satisfaction and loyalty. Our
findings are align with research on simulated reality and user behavior (Arpaci et al., 2022;
Jung et al., 2017).

5.1 Theoretical implications

The prime aim of this study was to create and validate a theoretical model to explain the
factors that influence users’ reactions during a metaverse tour. The proposed paradigm
was supported empirically and yielded a few theoretical implications. First, metaverse can
offer unique and personalized tourism experiences that cater to the diverse and evolving
needs and preferences of contemporary tourists. Second, the S-O-R paradigm was
extended and expanded using metaverse experiential factors (e.g. immersion, escapism
and enjoyment) as stimuli and cognitive processing, as part of the organism. According to
the proposed model, the main influences on cognitive and emotional states are immersion,
escapism and enjoyment – all of which are described as immersive and dynamic
experiences. As the metaverse is as an immersive environment, this feature of the
experience serves as a cognitive process stimulant of tourists’ imagery while using the
platform. Similarly, Zheng et al. (2022) describe that when customers enter an environment,
they continuously gather and retrieve information from the surroundings to form a mental
image that facilitates cognitive processing for decision-making. The model also lends
credence to the idea that positive cognitive and emotional states, such as immersion,
escapism and enjoyment, are immediate effects of spending time in a metaverse context.
Third, the research contributes to S-O-R paradigm by including cognitive processing as
organismic state, because thoughts are refined and processed while visiting a virtual
location (Hollebeek et al., 2014). Finally, the research demonstrates the significance of
tourists’ involvement in metaverse destinations. As a result, the metaverse tourists’
involvement considerably modifies the association between cognitive processing and
tourist satisfaction and loyalty.

5.2 Managerial implications

The results also emphasize the importance of a memorable stimulus in the formation of
favorable affective and cognitive states in consumers. This study found that, tourists will
only return and recommend a virtual destination to others if they feel that it has a nice,
acceptable ambiance. Therefore, managers of metaverse platforms should be cognizant
that a virtual platform (such as a store, theme park, museum or classroom) may be merely a
replica of reality or a more immersive and interesting visitor experience. Customers may
think more critically, actively and be more interested in the virtual environment if the
scenarios are more engaging, memorable and surprising. In turn, this will increase the
activities undertaken when using the virtual platform by generating excitement, enjoyment
and positive emotions (i.e. happiness, satisfaction and loyalty). In the metaverse, it is crucial
to include components that can surprise tourists favorably and arouse curiosity without
evoking fear or negative emotions.

5.3 Limitations and future research directions

This study is the first to apply an extended organism mechanism to examine the effects of
immersion, escapism and enjoyment on tourist behavior in the metaverse. This study used a

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 cross-sectional research approach; however, future research could benefit from the
adoption of a longitudinal research design to investigate the temporal effects of metaverse
technology. The study focused on metaverse experiences and the behavioral responses of
metaverse tourists. Future studies should focus on the opinions of tourists and consider
suggestions and plans to revisit any specific metaverse destination, for example, a theme
park, museum or vacation spot. Furthermore, the future research should focus on
metaverse adoption in a particular industry or business in hospitality or tourism sector.
Finally, this study obtained data from students which indicates another limitation. Therefore,
future scholars and practitioners could focus on other respondents to furnish additional
empirical evidence to validate the current findings on a larger scale.

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 Appendix

Table A1 Measurement items

Immersion (Li et al., 2022)
1 The metaverse created a new environment that suddenly disappeared at the end of the show
2 At times, I was unaware of my surroundings
3 I’m completely immersed on what I’m doing on metaverse
4 I lost track of the reality of the outside world throughout the metaverse tour
5 My focus does not easily stray when I am on metaverse
Enjoyment (Li et al., 2022)
1 Interacting with the metaverse is enjoyable for me
2 I have a lot of fun in the metaverse
3 Using metaverse was captivating
4 Using metaverse did not bore me
Tourist satisfaction (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2019)
1 I am satisfied with the metaverse tour
2 I have enjoyed myself from the metaverse tour
3 I am positive in participating in the metaverse tour in the future
Escapism (Loureiro et al., 2021)
1 I liked the sense of “escapism” in the metaverse experience
2 The experience in the metaverse allowed me to forget some real-life problems
3 The metaverse experience allowed me to relax and relieve the stress of everyday life
Tourist involvement (Biswas et al., 2021)
1 I have a lot of interests in visiting tourist destinations in the metaverse
2 I feel attached when I visit tourist destinations in the metaverse
3 I got pleasure from visiting the destinations of in the metaverse
4 It is very special for me to visit tourist destinations in the metaverse
Cognitive processing (Loureiro et al., 2021)
1 While using the metaverse platform made me think more about it
2 I thought a lot about metaverse platform while I visited it
3 Visiting this metaverse stimulated my interest in knowing more about it
Tourist loyalty (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2019)
1 I will tell good experiences from the metaverse tour to other people
2 I will recommend the metaverse tour to other people
3 I will revisit and participate in the metaverse tour in the future

About the authors

Rana Muhammad Sohail Jafar is post-doctoral researcher at UCSI Graduate Business
School, UCSI University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Rana’s research domain is tourism
management, social media and digital commerce. He has several publications in various
Journals i.e., Technology in Society, Computers in Human Behavior, Industrial Management
and Data Systems and Journal of Cleaner Production.

Wasim Ahmad is a PhD and working as an Assistant Professor in Graduate Business

school, UCSI University, Malaysia. Wasim’s research domain is tourism management,
social media and digital commerce. Wasim has several publications in the Journal of
Computers in Human Behavior, Industrial Management & Data Systems and Journal of
Cleaner Production. Wasim Ahmad is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
wasimtouseef@hotmail.com

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