B1.

1 Carbohydrates & Lipids (Form & Function)

Guiding questions:
1. In what ways do variations in form allow diversity of function in carbohydrates and lipids?
2. How do carbohydrates and lipids compare as energy storage compounds?

B1.1.1 Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds
upon which life is based
 Most biomolecules are made from _________- chain 
______________ compounds
 Carbon can form ____________________________
 Covalent bonds are very strong
 Enabling carbon to form very ________ ________
___________________
 These are called ___________ _____________ (organic
chemistry) - Carbon based compounds, carbon chains
• Carbon can form single or double bonds with other carbon compounds
• Or other non-metallic elements
• Carbon compounds can be _________________, ________________
_______________
• Or form __________ or ____________ _____________

B1.1.2 Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link

monomers to form a polymer

 ________________ (make) of complex molecules (_______________) from

linking simpler molecules (_____________) to produce ______________
 _________________ REACTION  form water
 Require ________________ (_________)
 Also called _________________
 Eg: ________________, making DNA, making ___________, glycogen, fats

Draw two glucose molecules linking together to form Maltose (disaccharide) and label the glycosidic linkage
Macromolecules = BIG MOLECULES Monomers (small molecule)
Carbohydrates (cellulose, starch, glycogen)

Proteins
Lipids (triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids)
Poly-nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)

B1.1.3 Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions

• __________________ of complex molecules (polymers) into simpler molecules (monomers)
• ________________ REACTION  breakdown (use) water to form –H & –OH (hydroxyl) group
• ____________ ___________ (ATP)
• Also called __________________

Draw the hydrolysis of a peptide bond between 2 amino acids. You can just label the R group as R.

B1.1.4 Form & function of monosaccharides

• Most common _________________: ___________, ____________, ________________
• Glucose C6H12O6 is a single molecule of a _____________ (___carbon) sugar, one of the the most
basic unit of a carbohydrate = monosaccharide
• It is the most common monosaccharide that fuels ______________ (__________ source of energy).
• Draw structure of ⍺– D – Glucose & β – D – glucose * note the differences
Other HEXOSE sugars

_____________ (fruit)
• is a hexose sugar, but _____ carbon
in the ring
• commonly found in fruits and
honey
• It is the ______________ naturally
occurring sugar
_______________ is a sugar commonly found in milk and is the monomer for lactose.

Disaccharides
• two monosaccharide monomers linked together via a ______________ bond.
• This happens via a _________________ process (water form)
Monosaccharides Disaccharides (two covalently bonded monosaccharide)

Glucose +

Glucose +

Glucose + * (non-reducing sugar)

Pentose sugar
• Pentose sugar is a 5 carbon sugar ring
• Example ____________, ______________ in RNA, DNA
• ATP, a type of NTP (_____________ ___________) that is used as a
currency for _______________
 Properties of
How it is used
monosaccharides

Solubility

Transportability

Chemical
stability

Yield of energy
from oxidation

B1.1.5 Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds

• ______________ for
_________ ____________ as
they are __________, ______
____________ ________ and
___________ in water – will
not affect _______________.
• ________ to ________ &
__________ ⍺ - _________ by
condensation and hydrolysis
to _________ or _________ &
_________ as ___________
source

B1.1.6 Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants

Contrast the structure and functions of cellulose, amylose, amylopectin and glycogen.
Cellulose Amylose Amylopectin Glycogen

in plants Starch in plants in plants of animals

 A – Glucose
1 – 4 linkage
Unbranched
Branching chains Branching chains

Compact molecule,

10-30% of starch 70-90% of starch

Draw the 1-4 ⍺ – Glucose linkage & draw the 1-4 β – glucose. Note the inverted form.
1-4 ⍺–Glucose linkage

1-4 β–Glucose linkage

B1.1.7 Role of glycoprotein in cell-cell recognition

• ________________ – ____________
(monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bond
to form polysaccharide) + attached to ____________
• _______________ & _______________ play a role in
_________________, ________________ and can act
____________________________ such as
____________, antibodies, etc…
• Example: ABO ______________ are glycoproteins
• When the wrong blood group type is added into the
body (example AB into O), the body cells will
recognise the A & B ______________ as ___________
__________ on foreign cells, this producing ________
that attacks the antigens on AB red blood cells.
• There are no antibodies against H antigen because it is
the precursor of A & B antigen
B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids
• most lipids (________ _______ chains) are long chains of ___________________ molecules, making
them mostly ________________
• Thus, making them________________ in water = _________________ (water -fearing) properties
• May dissolve in ____________ _____________ but are only sparingly soluble in aqueous solution.
• Lipids in living organisms include fats, oils, waxes and ________________

B1.1.9 Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reaction

• Lipids are _______________ combined with ___________ ________ _________ __________
• So there are also known as ___________________
• It is a _____________________ reaction
• A covalent bond called ____________ _______________ is formed between the fatty acid and
glycerol molecules
• while ____________________, the main component in cell membrane is _____________ + _____
fatty acid chains + one ________________ __________

Draw the condensation reaction between glycerol & fatty acid (triglyceride)

B1.1.10 Differences between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Saturated fatty acid Monounsaturated fatty acid Polyunsaturated fatty acid

Number and position of double

bond can vary

Describe the differences between cis- and trans- fatty acids.

Cis - isomer fatty acids Trans- isomer fatty acid
 Hydrogen at Hydrogen at
Will at bond Form carbon chain
Have a Packed
Lower And ( ) Higher and ( )
Found in Found in – produce in industry through
a process called (not natural)

Energy Storage in Plants & Endotherms

Fluidity of phospholipid in membranes are affected by temperature for exothermic animals. Most of their
diet (algae and marine organisms) also contain more unsaturated fats. Oil is also more buoyant than fat.

Oil Fats

More More hydrocarbon

Less More tightly packed due to

melting point melting point

Often exist as in room temperature Often exist as in room temperature
Often found in Often found
(also found in fishes that live in cold temp)* tend to store energy as

or and some around the organs.

Plants in general do not This might be important evolutionarily as food
might not

Seeds need

Eg: fish oil* Eg;

B.1.1.11 Triglycerides in adipose tissue for energy storage and thermal insulation
 Lipids are used as _____________ ___________ __________ of
_______________ in humans while ___________________
(polysaccharides) are for _________ ___________ storage
 Because fats __________ ________ ______ _____ ______________
compared to carbs
 Lipids that are used are __________________ – stored in
specialised ________________ tissue under the skin / around some
organs
 Triglycerides are ____________ ____________
______________, making it suitable to maintain
 ____________ __________ ___________ and insulate against the cold for ______________
animals
 Lipids other functions:
o ____________________ in _____ ______________
o ___________ signalling – _____________
o ________________ ___________ (_________ __________) in _______________ cells
o Protect organs

Carbohydrate Lipids

B1.1.12 Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and

hydrophilic regions
• Lipids are hydrophobic & non-polar (no charge/unequal
sharing of electrons)
• Plasma membranes are made from phospholipid
• That has a _____________ ______________ “head”
(which is ________________ – attracted to water)
• And ________ _______________ “tails” - fatty acid
chains (which are _______________ – repelled by water /
lipophilic – attracted to lipids
• Substances with one part hydrophilic and one part
hydrophobic are described as ____________________
(amphi = both, eg: amphibian)
• When put into water, the phospholipids will arrange themselves in a way that the __________
_______________ _______________ (towards _____________), while the ______________
_________ face ______________ ___________ ___________ ______________ & away from water.
• Because of this, phospholipids often arranged naturally into
continuous double layers, and that is the basis of cell
membrane : __________________ _______________

B1.1.13 Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the

phospholipid bilayer
• __________________ steroids such as _________________
and ________________ (a type of oestrogen) molecules
 • are __________________ and are able to pass through the hydrophobic region (fatty acid tails) of
the _____________ ______________ ________________ and into the cell
• To directly _________________ ___________________ of DNA & protein synthesis
• _________________ the need to __________________ to _____________ on the cell membrane
or _________________ through _____________ _____________/ _____________ to enter the cells

B1.1 Carbohydrates & Lipids (Form & Function)

Guiding questions:
3. In what ways do variations in form allow diversity of function in carbohydrates and lipids?
4. How do carbohydrates and lipids compare as energy storage compounds?

B1.1.1 Chemical properties of a carbon atom allowing for the formation of diverse compounds
upon which life is based
 Most biomolecules are made from carbon - chain 
organic compounds
 Carbon can form 4 covalent bonds
 Covalent bonds are very strong
 Enabling carbon to form very stable large compounds
 These are called ORGANIC Compounds (organic
chemistry) - Carbon based compounds, carbon chains
• Carbon can form single or double bonds with other carbon compounds
• Or other non-metallic elements
• Carbon compounds can be branched, unbranched chains
• Or form single or multiple rings

B1.1.2 Production of macromolecules by condensation reactions that link

monomers to form a polymer

 Synthesis (make) of complex molecules (macromolecules) from linking

simpler molecules (monomers) to produce polymers
 CONDENSATION REACTION  form water
 Require ENERGY (ATP)
 Also called ANABOLISM
 Eg: photosynthesis, making DNA, making protein, glycogen, fats
Macromolecules = BIG MOLECULES Monomers (small molecule)
Carbohydrates (cellulose, starch, glycogen)

Proteins
Lipids (triglycerides, steroids, phospholipids)
Poly-nucleic acid (DNA/RNA)
B1.1.3 Digestion of polymers into monomers by hydrolysis reactions
• Breakdown of complex molecules (polymers) into simpler molecules (monomers)
• HYDROLYSIS REACTION  breakdown (use) water to form –H & –OH (hydroxyl) group
• Release ENERGY (ATP)
• Also called CATABOLISM

B1.1.4 Form & function of monosaccharides

• Most common monosaccharide: Glucose, galactose, fructose
• Glucose C6H12O6 is a single molecule of a hexose (6 carbon) sugar, one of the the most basic unit of a
carbohydrate = monosaccharide
• It is the most common monosaccharide that fuels respiration (immediate source of energy).
• Draw structure of ⍺– D – Glucose & β – D – glucose * note the differences

Other HEXOSE sugars

Fructose (fruit)
• is a hexose sugar, but 5 in the ring
 • commonly found in fruits and honey
• It is the sweetest naturally occurring sugar

Disaccharides
• two monosaccharide monomers linked together via a glycosidic bond.
• This happens via a condensation process (water form)
• Maltose, lactose & galactose

Monosaccharides Disaccharides (two covalently bonded monosaccharide)

Glucose +

Glucose +

Glucose + * (non-reducing sugar)

Pentose sugar
• Pentose sugar is a 5 ring carbon sugar
• Example ribose, deoxyribose in RNA, DNA
• ATP, a type of NTP (nucleoside triphosphate) that is used as a
currency for energy

Properties How it is used

Solubility

Transportabilit
y

Chemical
stability

Yield of energy
from oxidation

Properties of monosaccharides
B1.1.5 Polysaccharides as energy storage compounds
• Polysaccharides for energy
storage as they are compact,
large molecular size and
insoluble in water – will not
affect osmotic pressure.
• Easy to add & remove ⍺ -
glucose by condensation and
hydrolysis to build or mobilise
& used as energy source

B1.1.6 Structure of cellulose related to its function as a structural polysaccharide in plants

Contrast the structure and functions of cellulose, amylose, amylopectin and glycogen.
Cellulose Amylose Amylopectin Glycogen

Cell wall in plants Starch in plants Starch in plants Liver of animals

Β - glucose A – glucose A – glucose A – Glucose
1 – 4 linkage 1 – 4 linkage 1-4 & 1-6 linkage 1-4 & 1-6 linkage
Unbranched Unbranched Branched Short, many branches
Straight and long Single coiled chain – Branching chains Branching chains
chains helix shape
Hydrogen bonds All molecules oriented 70-90% of starch Compact molecule, more
between chain provide same way causing it to easier to digest, less terminal glucose makes it
high tensile strength coil soluble but more easy to hydrolyse
10-30% of starch compact

Draw the 1-4 ⍺ – Glucose linkage & draw the 1-4 β – glucose. Note the inverted form.
1-4 ⍺–Glucose linkage
 1-4 β–Glucose linkage

B1.1.7 Role of glycoprotein in cell-cell recognition

• Glycoprotein – glycan (monosaccharides linked
together by glycosidic bond to form polysaccharide) +
attached to proteins
• Glycoproteins & glycolipids play a role in cell-cell
recognition, cell adhesion and can act cell signalling
molecules such as hormones, antibodies, etc…
• Example: ABO antigens are glycoproteins
• When the wrong blood group type is added into the
body (example AB into O), the body cells will
recognise the A & B antigens as foreign antigens on
foreign cells, this producing antibodies that attacks
the antigens on AB red blood cells.
• There are no antibodies against H antigen because it is
the precursor of A & B antigen

B1.1.8 Hydrophobic properties of lipids

• most lipids (fatty acid chains) are long chains of
hydrocarbon molecules, making them mostly non-polar
• Thus, making them insoluble in water = hydrophobic (water -fearing) properties
• May dissolve in organic solvents but are only sparingly soluble in aqueous solution.
• Lipids in living organisms include fats, oils, waxes and steroid

B1.1.9 Formation of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensation reaction

• Lipids are glycerol combined with three fatty acid chains
• So there are also known as triglycerides
• It is a condensation reaction
• A covalent bond called ester bond is formed between the fatty acid and glycerol molecules (the
green one)
• while phospholipid, the main component in cell membrane is glycerol + two fatty acid chains + one
phosphate group

Draw the condensation reaction between glycerol & fatty acid (triglyceride)
B1.1.10 Differences between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acid Monounsaturated fatty acid Polyunsaturated fatty acid

No double bond Only one C=C double bond More than one C=C double bond
Maximum number of hydrogens Length of hydrocarbon can vary Number and position of double
(for all) bond can vary

Describe the differences between cis- and trans- fatty acids.

Cis - isomer fatty acids Trans- isomer fatty acid

Hydrogen at same side of carbon double bond
Will bend at double bond
Have a kink in the chain, making it more fluid
Lower m.p. And b.p. (liquid)
Found in natural vegetable oil
Hydrogen at opposite side of carbon double bond
Form straight carbon chain
Packed more closely together
Higher m.p. & b.p. (solid)
Found in margarine – produce in industry through
a process called hydrogenation (not natural)

Energy Storage in Plants & Endotherms

Fluidity of phospholipid in membranes are affected by temperature for exothermic animals. Most of their
diet (algae and marine organisms) also contain more unsaturated fats. Oil is also more buoyant than fat.

Oil Fats

More unsaturated hydrocarbon More saturated hydrocarbon

 Less tightly packed due to bending of fatty acid
chains
Lower melting point
Often exist as liquid in room temperature
Often found in plants such as seeds & nuts
(also found in fishes that live in cold temp)*
Plants in general do not store energy as lipids but as
starch instead.
Seeds need oil as food storage during germination
before they can make their own food.
More tightly packed due to linear fatty acid chains
Higher melting point
Often exist as solid in room temperature
Often found in animals
Animals tend to store energy as solid fats in adipose
tissues under the skin or and some around the
organs.
This might be important evolutionarily as food
might not always be available. Fats also help to
maintain body temperature and insulate against
cold weather.

Eg: olive oil, sunflower seed oil, fish oil* Eg; cream, butter, lard (pork fat)

B.1.1.11 Triglycerides in adipose tissue for energy storage and thermal insulation
 Lipids are used as a long term storage of energy in humans while
carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are for short term storage
 Because fats store more energy per gram compared to carbs
 Lipids that are used are triglycerides – stored in specialised adipose
tissue under the skin / around some organs
 Triglycerides are poot heat conductors, making it suitable to
maintain stable body temperature and insulate against the cold for
endotherm animals
 Lipids other functions:
o Phospholipids in cell membrane
o Hormone signalling – Steroids
o Electrical insulator (myelin sheath) in neuron cells
o Protect organs

Carbohydrate
In liver
Short term energy storage
More effect on osmotic pressure
More readily digested, can be used for aerobic &
anaerobic
Store less ATP energy per gram
Water soluble, easier to transport
Lipids
Stored in adipose tissue under skin
Long term energy storage
Less effect on osmotic pressure
less readily digested, can only be used for aerobic
Store more ATP energy per gram
Not water soluble, difficult to transport
B1.1.12 Formation of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of the hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions
• Lipids are hydrophobic & non-polar (no charge/unequal
sharing of electrons)
• Plasma membranes are made from phospholipid
• That has a polar phosphate “head” (which is hydrophilic –
attracted to water)
• And two non-polar “tails” - fatty acid chains (which are
hydrophobic – repelled by water / lipophilic – attracted to
lipids
• Substances with one part hydrophilic and one part
hydrophobic are described as AMPHIPATHIC (amphi =
both, eg: amphibian)
• When put into water, the phospholipids
will arrange themselves in a way that
the head face outwards (towards
water), while the hydrophobic tails face
inwards towards each other & away
from water.
• Because of this, phospholipids often
arranged naturally into continuous
double layers, and that is the basis of
cell membrane : PHOSPHOLIPID
BILAYER

B1.1.13 Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the

phospholipid bilayer
• Non-polar steroids such as testosterone and oestradiol (a type
of oestrogen) molecules
• are hydrophobic and are able to pass through the hydrophobic
region (fatty acid tails) of the plasma membrane freely and into
the cell
• To directly control transcription of DNA & protein synthesis
• Without the need to bind to receptors on the cell membrane or
passing through protein channels/ carriers to enter the cells