R1 R3

VS +

-
Output

R2 R4

Wheatstone
Bridges
 The Wheatstone Bridge: Basic Concept
➢ Can measure very small changes in resistance ->
useful in RTDs and strain gauges.

➢ Bridges can be excited by direct current or

alternating current.

➢ Can operate on both null mode (balanced condition)

and deflection mode (unbalanced condition).

 R1 R3 
Eo = Ei  − 
Deflection Mode

 R1 + R2 R3 + R4 
(R1/R2) = (R3/R4) Null Mode

2
The Wheatstone Bridge: General Equations by Kirchhoff Laws

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage

Law:

Ei = I1R1 + I2R2
Ei = I3R3 + I4R4

Eo = I4R4 - I2R2
Eo = -I3R3 + I1R1

I1 = I2 and I3 = I4
Combining these equations gives
 R1 R3 
Eo = Ei  − 
 R1 + R2 R3 + R4  3
 The Wheatstone Bridge: Modes of Operations
➢ Balanced bridge (null mode): When the bridge is balanced, the output voltage is zero, and the
products of resistances in the opposite diagonal arms are equal.

➢ Unbalanced bridge: A bridge circuit that is in the unbalanced state is indicated by a voltage
across the output that is proportional to the amount of deviation from the balanced state.

4
 The Wheatstone Bridge: Equation for the Null Mode
➢ Balanced bridge (null mode): When the bridge is
balanced, the output voltage is zero, and the
products of resistances in the opposite diagonal
arms are equal.
➢ A balanced bridge implies Eo = 0 for all Ei

➢ This occurs when R1/(R1+R2) = R3/(R3+R4)

(R1/R2) = (R3/R4)

➢ If only one of the R’s resistance is unknown, this

equation can be used to find it
➢ Extremely slow → Poor dynamic response → Limited
to statis measurements
5
 The Wheatstone Bridge: Equation for the Deflection Mode

Unbalanced bridge (deflection mode): A bridge

circuit that is in the unbalanced state is indicated by a
voltage across the output that is proportional to the
amount of deviation from the balanced state.

 R1 R3 
Eo = Ei  − 
 R1 + R2 R3 + R4 

6
The Wheatstone Bridge: Equation for the Deflection Mode

If all R’s are initially the same:

>> Eo = Ei[(dR/R)/(4+2dR/R)]

 R1 R3 
Eo = Ei  − 
 1
R + R2 R3 + R4

7
 Wheatstone Bridge: Solved Example

Bridge: R2 = R3 = R4 = 25 ohm; Ei = 5 V R = Ro[1+ (T-To)]

 = 0.0005 /C
Amplifier: Gain = G Ro = 25 W and To = 20 C
Multi-meter range: -10 V to +10 V maximum 8
 Wheatstone Bridge: Solved Example

Estimate: [a] R at 67 ºC; [b] Eo(V) at 78 ºC;

[c] G to give Em = +8 V at maximum temperature condition of 78 ºC; [d] Em (V) at 60 ºC
9
 Wheatstone Bridge: Solved Example
[a] R = Ro[1+(T-To)]
>> R67 ºC = R20 ºC [1+0.0005(67-20)]
= (25)(1.0235) = 25.588 W

[b] R78 ºC = R20 ºC[1+0.0005(78-20)] = (25)(1.029) = 25.725 W

dR = R78 ºC – R20 ºC = 25.725 – 25 = 0.725 W

[C] All R’s are initially the same >> Eo = Ei[(dR/R)/(4+2dR/R)]

Thus, Eo = 0.145/4.058 = 0.0357 V

10
 Wheatstone Bridge: Solved Example

[c] Gain = amplifier output / amplifier input

= Em/Eo = 8/0.0357 = 224

[d] R60 ºC = R20 ºC[1+0.0005(60-20)] = (25)(1.02) = 25.5 W

dR = R60 ºC – R20 ºC = 25.5 – 25 = 0.5 W

Eo = Ei[(dR/R)/(4+2dR/R)] = 0.1/4.04 = 0.0248 V

Em = G Eo = (224)(0.0248) = 5.555 V

11
Example of a Complete Measurement Systems Using a Wheatstone Bridge

12
 More here

• Online Wheatstone Bridge Calculators

• http://www.electronics2000.co.uk/calc/wheatstone-bridge-
calculator.php
• http://www.calculatoredge.com/new/Wheatstone%20Bridge%20Calc
ulator.htm
• http://www.daycounter.com/Calculators/WheatStone-
Bridge/WheatStone-Bridge-Calculator.phtml

13
 Operational
Amplifiers

Gain = (Vout / Vin)

= - (Rf/Rin)
 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/pluginfile.php/943433/mod_oucontent/oucontent/48687/31cdf245/f411cd86/op-amp-t212_1-3-4.eps.jpg

16
 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)
➢ The op amp’s maximum output
voltage cannot exceed the supply
voltage range and is usually at least
1V less than either supply limit

➢ When the op amp’s output has

reached its positive or negative
maximum, the output has “railed”,
which should be avoided

https://www.analog.com/-/media/analog/en/landing-pages/technical-
articles/new-rail-to-rail-output-op-amps-bring-precision-
performance/figure1.png?w=900&la=en
1717
 Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps)
➢ The non-inverting input is referred to as the plus terminal, and the
inverting input as the minus terminal

https://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/pluginfile.php/943433/mod_oucontent/oucontent/48687/31cdf245/f411cd86/op-amp-t212_1-3-4.eps.jpg 1818
 Operational Amplifiers: Inverting Amplifiers
➢It is called Inverting because
the op-amp changes the phase
angle of the output signal
exactly 180 degrees out of
phase with respect to input
signal

Gain = (Vout / Vin)

= - (Rf/Rin)
19
 Operational Amplifiers: Inverting Amplifiers
➢The input is supplied to the
minus terminal

➢We provide negative feedback

across the op-amp circuit via
resistance R1 (AKA feed back
resistance, Rf)

➢The R1 resistor is the feedback

resistor (Rf) and the R2 resistor
is the signal input resistor.

Gain = (Vout / Vin) = - (Rf / Rin)

20
 Operational Amplifiers: Non-inverting Amplifiers
➢The input is supplied to the
positive terminal

➢We provide negative feedback

across the op-amp circuit via
the feed back resistance Rf
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Input-and-output-waveforms-of-the-LM-741-Op-Amp-
simplified-circuit-in-non-inverting_fig5_317423744/download

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_3.html

Gain = (Vout / Vin) = 1+ (Rf / R2)

21
 Operational Amplifiers: Voltage Follower (Unity-Gain Amplifier)
If Rf is set to zero, and R2 is set to
, then the gain of the amplifier
will be 1 (unity gain).

Gain = (Vout / Vin) = 1+ (Rf / R2)

22
 Operational Amplifiers: Voltage Follower (Unity-Gain Amplifier)
➢ The output voltage is the same as
the input voltage: same frequency,
amplitude and phase

➢ This configuration is called as unity-

gain amplifier or voltage
follower or buffer.

➢ The input impedance is very high,

so we can feed a weak signal to the
amplifier input without
withdrawing large current from the
weak signal and almost no current
flow from the weak signal to the
input pin. On the other hand, the
output impedance is very low, and
it will produce the same signal input
in the output.
23
 Operational Amplifiers: Voltage Follower (Unity-Gain Amplifier)
➢ Due to the high input
impedance, the input current
is ~ 0, so the input power is
also ~ 0.

➢ The voltage follower provides

large power gain across its
output. Due to this behavior,
it is used as a buffer circuit.

➢ Provides good signal

isolation, isolating a circuit so
that the power of the original
circuit is disturbed very little.

24
 Characteristics of Operational Amplifiers

▪ Very high input impedance

(>107 W)
Input impedance = Rin = (Vinput/Iinput) ->
very little current is drawn from the
input circuit + negligible current flows
between the op-amp inputs.

▪ Very low output impedance

(< 100 W)
Output impedance = Rout = Voutput/Ioutput
-> the output current is large + the
output voltage is independent of the
output current.

25
Characteristics of Operational Amplifiers
Gain-Bandwidth Product

➢ The amplifier gain affects the

frequency response because
the Gain X Bandwidth =
constant over most of the
range
➢ For example, this amplifier the
Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)
is 107
➢ At 100 kHz, the gain is 100, the
product is 107
➢ At 1 MHz, the gain is 10, the
product is 107
➢ At 100 kHz, the gain is 10, the https://www.planetanalog.com/wp-content/uploads/images-common-
planetanalog-2014-01-562347-1-Fig-01-Art-Kay.jpg
product is 106 26
Other Common Op-Amp Configurations

27
 Instrumentation
Amplifier (In-Amps)
➢Instrumentation Amplifiers (in-amps)
are very high gain differential
amplifiers which have a high input
impedance and a single ended output

➢Mainly used to amplify very small

differential signals from strain gauges
or thermocouples

➢Have a very good common mode

rejection ratio, CMRR (zero output
when V1 = V2) well in excess of 100
dB at DC.

28
Other Common Op-Amp Configurations: Integrators and Differentiators

29
Other Common Op-Amp Configurations: Active Low-Pass filters

30
Other Common Op-Amp Configurations: Log and Exp operations

Exp(x)
Log(x)

31
Other Common Op-Amp Configurations: Summing Amplifiers

Summing Amplifier: Output is sum of -Vi*Rf/Ri

32
 Literature and Examples

1. http://www.kyowa-ei.co.jp/english/products/gages/pdf/howsgw.pdf

2. http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~tarporn/311/HandOut/BridgePPT.pdf
3. http://educypedia.karadimov.info/library/lect13.pdf
4. http://me.queensu.ca/Courses/215/Mech215-Lab4-StrainGauges.pdf

33
Analog Filters
(passive)
 Analog Filters
• A filter removes a signal’s unwanted frequency components.

However, a filter alters both the magnitude and the phase of the signal

36
Analog Passive Filters

Vi R Vo

37
Analog Passive Filters

38
Analog Passive Low-Pass Filter

Low Pass Filter:

Passes low-frequencies
Removes high-frequencies

39
Analog Passive High-Filter
High Pass Filter:
Passes high-frequencies
Removes low-frequencies

40
 Analog Filters: Terminology

➢In frequencies, a decade corresponds to a ratio of 10 between two frequencies

➢An octave corresponds to a ratio of 2 between two frequencies

Analog Filters: definition of terms and Bode plots

The Bode Plot or frequency response curve of a low-pass filter 42

 Analog RC Low-Passive Filters
R

Vi C Vo

1
vo = vi
1 + jCR

The time constant, , is RC

43
 Analog RC High-Pass Filters: Equations
C

Vi R Vo

jCR
vo = vi
1 + jCR

44
 Given: Vi = 5 Volt, 40 degree, freq = 100 Hz
1 C= 100 uF
vo = vi R = 100 Ohm; low pass filter

1 + jCR Fc = 1/(2*pi*R*C) = 1/(2*3.14*1000*100E-6)

= 15.9 Hz

Vi = 5 cos40 + 5 sin40 j

Vo = (5 cos40 + 5 sin40 j)/

(1 + j*2*3.14*100*100E-6*100)

Vo is <<5 Volt, phase ~-50

Example on a Low-Pass Filter
 Analog RC Filters: Second-order Low Pass Filter (two-pole filter)

➢A second-order filter uses two passive first-order filters

connected in series or "cascaded" together
47
Analog RC Filters: Second-order Low-Pass Filter

Bode Plot
48
 Analog RC Filters: Example
➢ A low-pass RC filter with a resistance of 93 W is designed to have a
cutoff frequency of 50 Hz. Determine the capacitance of the filter in
units of F.

➢ The cutoff frequency, fc, equals 1/(2RC). So, C in F equals 106 *

1/(2  Rfc) = 34 F.

49
 Analog RC Filters: Example
➢ A Low Pass Filter circuit consisting of a resistor of 4.7 kΩ in R

series with a capacitor of 47 nF is connected across a 10 V

sinusoidal supply. Vi C Vo

➢ Calculate the output voltage (Vout ) at a frequency of 100 Hz

and again at frequency of 10 kHz.

50
 Analog RC Filters: Example
➢ What is the time constant (in seconds) of a low-pass filter having a
resistance of 2 k W and a capacitance of 30 F?

– The time constant, , is RC. So,  = 2 *103*30*10-6 = 60 * 10-3 =

0.06 s.

51
Analog RC Filters: Example

52
 Analog Filters: definition of terms and Bode plots
A. The magnitude ratio is the ratio of:
1. Maximum over minimum input
2. Maximum input over maximum output
3. Output amplitude over input amplitude
B. The magnitude ratio:
1. Is one or smaller then one
2. Is always larger then one
3. Is always less then one
C. For a low pass filter, at frequencies much
less than the cut-off frequency, the magnitude ratio is:
1. Nearly one
2. Nearly zero
3. Infinity
D. For a low-pass filter, at frequencies much
less than the cut-off frequency, the phase shift
between the output and input signals is:
1. Nearly zero
2. Nearly one
3. Infinity
53