The Influences of Academic Underachievement in Literacy Among African American and

Congolese Students: A Narrative Ethnography

Dissertation Manuscript

Submitted to Northcentral University

School of Education

W
in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of

IE
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
EV

by

TANEA WINONA MCKEE

PR

La Jolla, California

January 2021



    

Approval Page
The Influences of Academic Underachievement in Literacy Among African American and
Congolese Students: A Narrative Ethnography

By

TANEA WINONA MCKEE

Approved by the Doctoral Committee:

EdD 06/11/2021 | 17:30:39 MST

W
Mel Finkenberg
Dissertation Chair: INSERT NAME Degree Held Date
IE PhD 06/11/2021 | 17:09:13 MST

Committee Member: Sylvia

INSERT Lyles
NAME Degree Held Date
EV

06/12/2021 | 14:46:36 MST

PhD
PR

INSERT NAME
Committee Member: MICHAEL SHRINERDegree Held Date
 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my Dissertation Committee Chair Dr. Finkenberg for being the

voice of reason and grounding throughout this entire journey. Just as I was ready to unravel, he

was always ready to spread the encouragement I needed to through his Aloha Spirit to keep from

coming unglued. I would also like to thank Dr. Lyles my Subject Matter Expert and Dr. Shriner

my Academic Reader for all the feedback that they provided and ensuring that the I had the

informational and technical aspects of this project in order.

I would like to thank the participants for taking their time in providing me with valuable

information to make this endeavor possible. Educators have a lot on their plates. And in this

W
pandemic, the load was even heavier. I will forever be grateful.
IE
I extend many thanks to Milwaukee Public Schools, especially Dr. Janessa Doucette for

all her assistance early in this process. I am a proud product of MPS. Much of who I am as both a
EV
student and an educator are a direct result of the work of MPS teachers.

I must thank my friends for all their support and encouragement as I traveled on this

journey. From those that listened to me vent to those that made me laugh through the frustration
PR

and the tears, thank you for believing in me and all your support. I am lucky to have the network

that I have.

I would like to thank my mother, children, and grandchildren for their support and being

the release when the pressure was high. Providing both laughter and quite time gave me the

balance I needed. I love you!

I dedicate this study to my daddy and grandmother for always challenging me to

supersede your achievements and providing room for me to have the audacity to be great. I wish

you both were here.

ii
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................... 6

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 7
Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................................. 8
Nature of the Study ................................................................................................................. 12
Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 13
Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 14
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................................... 16
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 18

Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 21

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 22

W
Influence of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and Slavery ....................................................... 29
Legal Fights for Equitable Education .................................................................................... 30
Milwaukee: A Brief History ................................................................................................... 32
Milwaukee: America’s Most Segregated City ........................................................................ 34
IE
MPS: Literacy Performance Data ........................................................................................... 36
The Great Influencer: School vs. Neighborhood .................................................................... 38
Sub-Saharan Africa: A Brief History of Western Influence ................................................... 39
EV
Education in the DRC ............................................................................................................. 46
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 47

Chapter 3: Research Method......................................................................................................... 52

PR

Research Methodology and Design ........................................................................................ 52

Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 57
Population and Sample ........................................................................................................... 57
Materials ................................................................................................................................ 59
Study Procedures .................................................................................................................... 60
Data Collection and Analysis.................................................................................................. 62
Assumptions ........................................................................................................................... 64
Limitations .............................................................................................................................. 65
Delimitations ........................................................................................................................... 66
Ethical Assurances .................................................................................................................. 67
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 69

Chapter 4: Findings ....................................................................................................................... 70

Trustworthiness of the Data .................................................................................................... 71

Results ..................................................................................................................................... 72
Evaluation of the Findings ...................................................................................................... 84
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 93
iii
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions .................................................... 95

Implications............................................................................................................................. 96
Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................................. 104
Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................................ 106
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 109

References ................................................................................................................................... 112

Appendices.................................................................................................................................. 119

Appendix A: Email to Organizations in the DRC ...................................................................... 120

Appendix B: MPS Application for Approval ............................................................................. 121

Appendix C: Dissertation Research Consent Form .................................................................... 122

Appendix D: Interview Questions .............................................................................................. 125

W
Appendix E: Essay Questions ..................................................................................................... 126
IE
EV
PR

iv
 List of Tables

Table 1 The greatest impact on academic achievement................................................................ 74

Table 2 The greatest challenge children face in their academic achievement. ............................. 75
Table 3 The greatest challenge teachers face in ensuring academic achievement. ...................... 76
Table 4 How parents can support their child’s academic achievement. ....................................... 77
Table 5 How parents can support teachers in ensuring their child’s academic achievement. ...... 78
Table 6 Greatest influence on students’ academic achievement. ................................................. 79
Table 7 How local school leaders can support students’ academic achievement. ........................ 80
Table 8 How local school leaders can support students’ academic achievement. ........................ 81
Table 9 How district/organizational leaders can support students’ academic achievement. ........ 82
Table 10 How district/organizational leaders can support teachers in ensuring students’ academic
achievement. ................................................................................................................................. 83
Table 11 Curriculum suggestions to improve student achievement. ............................................ 84

W
IE
EV
PR

v
 1

Chapter 1: Introduction

Education 2030: Framework for Action, also known as Sustainable Development Goal

(SDG) 4, is a part of the wider United Nations (UN) 17 SDGs that address global sustainable

development (UN, 2019). Developed at the World Education Forum held in Incheon, South

Korea during May 2015, Education 2030 was adopted in November 2015 at a high-level meeting

held at the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in Paris

(UNESCO, 2015). Adopted by the education community, as well as 184 UNESCO Member

States, Education 2030 became the new global educational policy coordinated by the United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), replacing the previous

W
Education for All (EFA) initiative (UNESCO, 2015). The overarching goal of Education 2030 is
IE
to ensure access to quality education for all by the year 2030 (UNESCO, 2015). UNESCO

developed seven target areas that would be achieved through three strategic approaches to meet
EV
the overarching goal of Education 2030 (UNESCO, 2015).

Education 2030 is not the first global education initiative. Education for All (EFA) was

the first comprehensive international education initiative to ensure all members of every society
PR

receives the benefit of an education (Hoel, 2014). Launched in 1990, members of the

international community such as the World Bank, UNESCO, national governments, and other

civil society groups collaborated to address how the basic learning needs of youth and adults

globally would be achieved by 2000 (Hoel, 2014). However, in 2000 these organizations along

with a total of 164 governments decided to extend the deadline for achievement to 2015 (Guo,

2014), and collaboratively developed six specific EFA educational goals (Benavot, 2016) to

achieve the EFA global educational objectives (Guo, 2014).

 2

The conversation in the research regarding educational provision and student

achievement under both EFA and now Education 2030 has generally centered on the developing

world. There has been little discussion of educational provision in the developed world,

especially regarding children of color and African American children specifically. There is also

no evidence of comparative education research between the developed and developing worlds,

especially in the context of comparing African American and sub-Saharan African children. For

nearly 30 years, global educational initiatives have focused on ensuring all members of the

global community have access to quality education, yet clear disparities in academic

achievement and educational provision in both the developing and developed worlds remain. The

W
lack of comparative educational research in the context of both African American and sub-
IE
Saharan African children leaves a gap in determining the overall global progress toward

achieving Education 2030. In comparing the educational provision for and academic
EV
achievement of both African American and sub-Saharan African children, a broader sense of

educational provision and student achievement can be obtained, leading to more effective and

inclusive educational reforms.

PR

According to Hanushek, Peterson, Talpey, and Woessman (2019), the achievement gap

between more affluent and poorer students in the U.S. has remained unchanged since 1966, the

year in which reducing poverty became the cornerstone of educational policy. While researchers

may argue that the achievement gap between the poor and more affluent has not grown between

1966 and today, it could be equally argued that the U.S. education sector has not improved

considering the achievement gap has not gotten smaller over the past five decades (Hanushek et

al., 2019). Similarly, Bowman, Comer, and Johns (2018) argued both economic and social issues
 3

serve as the foundation for the consistent achievement gap in the U.S., which the authors equate

in economic terms as a perpetual recession.

While Hanushek et al. (2019) argued economic disparities serve as the foundation for the

achievement gap in the U.S., Bowman et al. (2018) provided an even deeper explanation

specifically citing how these economic disparities are rooted in racism, classism, and social

disadvantages which also feed into the disparities in academic achievement. Bowman et al.

(2018) argued African American students achieve lower test scores and grades compared to their

Asian, Latino, and White peers even when aligned for socioeconomic status, and are therefore

impacted by the achievement gap at a greater rate. One such U.S. city that illustrates the impact

W
of economic disparities, racism, classism, social disadvantages, and the achievement gap
IE
(Bowman et al., 2018) for African American students is Milwaukee, WI.

The State of Wisconsin has the highest rate of the incarceration of African American
EV
males and has been ranked as the worst state to raise African American children in the United

States (Loyd & Bonds, 2018). Wisconsin’s largest city, Milwaukee, has been consistently ranked

as the most racially segregated city and the worst city for African Americans in the United States
PR

(Loyd & Bonds, 2018). The epicenter for African American inequalities in Milwaukee is found

in the predominately African American and heavily policed zip code 53206, which is home to

the largest percentage of Wisconsin’s formerly incarcerated (Loyd & Bonds, 2018). This one

area located on Milwaukee’s Northside, has become the face for problems such as poverty,

violence, inadequate public services, and a crumbling education system not only for the State of

Wisconsin, but the United States in general (Loyd & Bonds, 2018).

While Milwaukee’s Northside has begun to spark discussions on race, violence, poverty,

and education on state and national levels; these conversations have negated the complimentary
 4

issues of capitalism, racism, and the structured institutions that sustain these complimentary

issues (Loyd & Bonds, 2018). Students in Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS) have struggled with

reading proficiency over the course of their academic careers (Jones, 2018). African American

students seemingly demonstrate the greatest difficulties based on the collective reading

performance data collected from the Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Examination (WKCE),

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and American College Test (ACT)

assessments (Jones, 2018). However, these gaps in academic achievement have not been

discussed within the broader context of the broader social, economic, political, and structural

concerns in Milwaukee.

W
On the other side of the world, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has a long
IE
history of political, economic, and violent conflicts (World Bank, 2005). The DRC is a relatively

young country, having just gained its independence from Belgium in 1960 (Office of the
EV
Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs-United States Department of State, 2018). The impact of

Belgian colonialism should be taken into consideration in the evaluation of the country’s social,

political, economic, and educational sectors. In the early 1990s, the World Bank and the
PR

International Monetary Fund (IMF) ended financial disbursements and bilateral aid, sending the

country into an economic tailspin (World Bank, 2005). As a result of economic instability, the

DRC experienced a decline in industries such as manufacturing and agriculture, the ability to

export goods, hyperinflation, and an overall decline in the standard of living (World Bank,

2005). An influx of refugees escaping civil war from Rwanda and Burundi exacerbated the

already stressful social, political, and economic conditions, which led to the outbreak of a civil

war in December 2002 (World Bank, 2005). The migration of people from rural areas to urban

areas throughout the DRC in search of resources such as health care and education, caused a
 5

greater strain on resources and led to extreme food insecurity (World Bank, 2005). According to

the Central Intelligence Agency (2019), ongoing conflict, lack of investment, and

mismanagement of the few available resources also contributed to food insecurity. The food

insecurity crisis in the DRC led to a malnutrition rate of almost 30% among children aged five

and under (Central Intelligence Agency, 2019).

The social, political, and economic instability in the DRC negatively impacted the

education sector, in which some areas of the country were not able to recover (World Bank,

2005). The lack of infrastructure and looting by the military damaged many schools, especially

in rural areas (World Bank, 2005). The instability on all fronts also created new groups of

W
vulnerable children, such as child soldiers and orphans (World Bank, 2005). Due to the overall
IE
history of instability in the DRC, it would be reasonable to question how the education sector

could have managed to continue, yet alone move toward expansion and improvement. Despite its
EV
tumultuous history, the DRC’s education sector has experienced some success in terms of school

enrollment rates, student-teacher ratios, and below average rates of children who have never

attended school (Herdt & Titeca, 2016). However, upon the completion of primary school, 47%
PR

of students in the DRC achieved reading proficiency compared to 67% of primary students

across sub-Saharan Africa (Herdt & Titeca 2016). In the rural areas, 23% of rural sixth grade

students able to read single-word text (Herdt & Titeca, 2016).

The DRC and the city of Milwaukee parallel, not only in the context of social, political,

and economic structures, but also in the academic achievement of the students. These structural

parallels occur despite differences in global geographical location and levels of wealth.

Identifying the paralleling influences that social, political, and economic structures have on the
 6

education sectors in both regions broadens the possibilities for the development of more effective

educational reforms that aim to ensure Education 2030 is accomplished.

Statement of the Problem

The problem is that upon the completion of primary school, only 47% of students in the

DRC achieved reading proficiency compared to 67% of primary students across sub-Saharan

Africa (Herdt & Titeca, 2016), and only 7% of African American students in MPS demonstrated

proficiency in reading (Jones, Christian, Rice, & SREE, 2016). The collective reading

performance data collected for students in MPS indicates that African American students have

struggled with reading proficiency over the course of their academic careers (Jones, 2018).

W
While Education 2030 aims to ensure access to quality education for all by the year 2030
IE
(UNESCO, 2015), both African American students in the United States and African students in

sub-Saharan Africa are lagging academically.

EV
While it seemed as though the DRC had been outperforming its sub-Saharan peers in

educational provision due to a consistent annual increase in school enrollment rates, below

average rates of children who have never attended school, and below average student to teacher
PR

ratios, the quality of education provided in the country was poor overall (Herdt & Titeca, 2016).

Continually, based on the reading data obtained from the WKCE from 2011, only15% of

students in MPS achieved a level of proficiency (Jones et al., 2016). Similarly, 15% of fourth-

grade students achieved a proficient level on the reading section of the of the NAEP in 2011,

with only 7% of African American students demonstrating proficiency (Jones et al., 2016). In

2013, fourth grade reading proficiency on the NAEP remained at 15% overall, with 9% of

African American students demonstrating proficiency (Jones, 2018). Based on the data,

comparing the educational provision for and academic achievement of African American and
 7

sub-Saharan African children expands the possibilities for the development of more

comprehensive, inclusive, and effective educational reforms that aim to ensure Education 2030 is

accomplished.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this narrative ethnography was to learn the paralleling primary causes of

academic underachievement in literacy among African American children in MPS and

Congolese children in the DRC, through the perceptions of those who work or have worked with

these children directly, the educators. This research is important to the field of education

primarily due to the global education initiative Education 2030, which aims to provide all global

W
citizens with access to quality education by the year 2030 (UNESCO, 2015). However, the lack
IE
of educational research regarding African American and sub-Saharan African children leaves

gaps in determining the overall global progress toward achieving Education 2030. Additional
EV
information is necessary from those that are directly responsible for the educational provision

and student achievement of these children to bridge these gaps in the existing research, therefore

requiring additional research.

PR

Participants included nine current educators, five from MPS and four from the DRC. The

underachievement of African American students though the analysis of test score data in MPS

and African students in the DRC served as the units of observation, while the educators served as

the unit of analysis. Educators spoke to the factors that present challenges in the academic

achievement of African American students in MPS and Congolese students in the DRC based on

their observations and direct contact with these students. Sample sizes in qualitative research

should be large enough to allow for the unveiling of new information and understandings, while

small enough to allow for a deep analysis of the data (Vasileiou, Barnett, Thorpe, & Young,
 8

2018), as well as data saturation. Participants were selected using convenience sampling due to

challenges in gaining access to the populations of study (Phua, 2004), especially for the DRC.

Participants were asked to describe their perceptions regarding what has significant influence on

student achievement and ensuring students receive a quality education through both interviews

and two essay questions. A combination of narrative inquiry and narrative ethnography

approaches was used to collect experiences through stories as told by the participants (Creswell

& Poth, 2018) via email and telephone. Data collection consisted of the collection of stories and

reporting of individual perceptions through interviews and essay questions and placing these

stories in chronological order where necessary (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This data was entered

W
into HyperRESEARCH software, which is designed for qualitative analysis (Researchware Inc.,
IE
2019), and coded to identify emerging themes. In the discussion of the research findings,

interruptions in the story telling process were also highlighted (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This
EV
narrative ethnographic study identified educators’ perceptions of the primary factors that impact

student achievement of African American children in MPS and African children in the DRC to

inform for more comprehensive, inclusive, and effective educational reform efforts in achieving
PR

Education 2030 globally.

Theoretical Framework

Developed in the mid-1970s by American groups of activists, legal scholars, and

practitioners, Critical Race Theory (CRT) served as a response to the conservative attack on the

progress made during the Civil Rights Movement and the failure of liberals to counterattack

(Christian, Seamster, & Ray, 2019; Simba, 2019). The continuation of racial inequality despite

the legal changes resulting from the Civil Rights Movements raised concerns among these

groups leading to the development of CRT as an explanatory framework explaining the change
 9

and continuity in the racial order and rejecting the race-neutral undertones of American laws

(Christian et al., 2019). According to CRT, white racism is a cultural force that has been

constructed socially, historically and hegemonically, and expressed through socially pervasive

myths/stories, laws and unwritten societal rules, and social and institutional characteristics of

prestige and power (Simba, 2019).

In a country where whites account for approximately 60.5% of the population and

African Americans account for only 12.5% of the population (W. Frey, 2018), it may be

considered logical to conclude that African Americans have been subjected to a society that has

been systemically designed by a white majority to benefit a dominate white social, economic,

W
and political class rendering the African American minority as an unwritten second class. The
IE
same may be concluded at local levels of state, county, and city. African Americans account for

6.7% of the population in the state of Wisconsin compared to 87.1% for whites (United States
EV
Census Bureau, 2018). Similarly, African Americans account for 27.2% of the population in

Milwaukee County, WI and 38.9% of the population in Milwaukee city, whereas whites account

for 64.3% and 45.8% respectively (United States Census Bureau, 2018). Although whites hold a
PR

narrower majority in Milwaukee city compared to county and state levels, the consistency of a

white majority at all levels national through city may possibly reinforce an unequal distribution

of social, economic, and political influence.

The racial demographic makeup of the DRC is on the opposite end of the spectrum in

comparison to the United States. DRC demographic data is not discussed in the context of race,

but Black African ethnicity. There are currently over 250 ethnic groups in the DRC, many of

which are Bantu (CIA, 2019). The four largest tribes are identified as the Mongo, Luba, Kongo

(all Bantu), and the Mangetu-Azande (Hamitic) (CIA, 2019). Even in 1959, during the end of the
 10

Belgian colonial era, the indigenous African population, most of which were Bantu, accounted

for over 13 million people while white Europeans only accounted for 115,157 people

(Drachoussoff, 1965). However, under the system of colonialism, social, political, and economic

power and control rests in the hands of the colonizer, not the colonized. Therefore, while CRT

was developed by American scholars and applied to social, political, and economic structures in

the United States, CRT may prove applicable to other countries in which one hegemonic group

has formed the social, political, and economic structures creating an underclass of people that are

subjected to such dominate structures as seen during colonialism. While the colonizers may have

left an area the influence of the structures the colonizer created may still be present, and those

W
belief systems may be ingrained in the indigenous people, which may manifest in symptoms of

Stockholm Syndrome.
IE
Parallel to CRT is the Stockholm Syndrome. Named after an infamous bank robbery
EV
turned hostage situation in Stockholm, Sweden in 1973, Stockholm Syndrome is a paradoxical

psychological phenomenon in which victims hold sympathetic or positive attitudes toward their

captors or may even adopt the same beliefs as the captor (Sundaram, 2019). In this power
PR

dynamic, the captor possesses the authority to place the victim(s) life in danger and may use this

use of power to force the victim to comply with demands, while the victim(s) may use their

compliance as a strategy for survival (Sundaram, 2019). Experts have argued victims are more

likely to develop Stockholm Syndrome when captors do not harm or abuse their captives, a

situation that is long in length before it is resolved or there is prolonged contact between the

captors and captives, or there was a high level of emotion involved during contact between

captors and captives (Sundaram, 2019). However, it is becoming increasingly accepted that

Stockholm Syndrome falls within the same category as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD),
 11

meaning that people suffering from Stockholm Syndrome may be suffering from an illness

because of repressed traumatic experiences (Adeniyi, 2018). The argument of Stockholm

Syndrome as an illness then broadens the scope of the causes of the syndrome beyond

captor/captive situations but also a myriad of other circumstances including but not limited to

emotional or physical abuse, incest, prisoner of war, cult memberships, and controlling or

intimidating relationships (Adeniyi, 2018). The more instances that have the potential to serve as

the cause of Stockholm Syndrome, the greater the rate of the manifestation of its symptoms such

as the victim sympathy, positive attitude toward the perpetrator, or even adoption of the same

beliefs as the perpetrator (Sundaram, 2019). This manifestation of symptoms may possibly result

W
in the impersonation of the perpetrator by the victim through the assumption of imitation of
IE
perpetrator behavior, therefore, transforming from the person threatened to the person making

the threat (Freud, 1966 as cited in Adeniyi, 2018).

EV
Because African American students in Milwaukee and African students in the DRC may

have parallel experiences with social, political, and economic inferiority due to inequitable

structures developed and sustained by a hegemonic group, it may be logical to conclude that the
PR

consequences of this inequality may manifest in similar fashions. Therefore, it would be

reasonable to deduce that African American students in MPS and Congolese students in the DRC

experience for poor academic performance due to inequitable social, political, and economic

structures as could be argued through the lens of Stockholm Syndrome as well. It would be

reasonable to deduce that due to the history of these inequitable social, political, and economic

structures both African Americans in Milwaukee and Africans in the DRC suffer from

Stockholm Syndrome in that both groups have continuously attempted to assimilate into systems

that were not designed for them but for and by a European (or European descent) hegemonic
 12

group. This continuous attempt to assimilate into systems that were not designed for them may

have arguably resulted in both African Americans and Africans assuming a role of perpetrator

through the imitation of the hegemonic group as seen in the maintenance of the educational

structures, provision, and assessment developed and executed by hegemonic groups globally.

Nature of the Study

This qualitative narrative inquiry study was designed to identify contributing factors for

the academic underachievement among African American children in MPS and African children

in the DRC as perceived by the educators responsible for teaching them. According to Creswell

and Poth (2018), the qualitative narrative inquiry study design collects experiences through the

W
stories as told by the participants and placing those stories in chronological order. While a
IE
quantitative design may have the potential to determine if specific strategies are effective in

reducing underachievement among African American and African children, it would fail in
EV
providing an exploration of the contributing factors for student underachievement, as well as

potential strategies or supports that could reduce the achievement gap from the perspective of

educators directly engaged with these students.

PR

Vasileiou et al. (2018) argued researchers implementing qualitative research designs

should utilize sample sizes that are large enough to allow for the unveiling of new information

and understandings, yet small enough to allow for deep analysis of the data. Participants included

nine current educators, five from MPS and four from the DRC. Stateside and the local division in

the DRC of the international organization, Teach Beyond, was contacted (see Appendix A) for

assistance in making connections to educators in the DRC. Due to the challenges in gaining

access to the populations of study, especially hard to reach participants from the DRC (Phua,

2004), convenience sampling was the sampling method employed for this study. Convenience
 13

sampling involves the selection of sample participants that are readily accessible to the

researcher conducting the research (Phua, 2004).

Participants were asked to describe their perceptions of the academic underachievement

in literacy of and educational provision for African American and Congolese children, including

challenges and recommendations to improve literacy education. This data was collected through

interviews with participants by telephone, electronic communication, and the participants’

completion of two essay questions. The narrative approach was used to collect the experiences of

the participants through the stories as told from their perspective (Creswell & Poth, 2018) via

electronic communication and telephone calls. Data collection consisted of the reporting of

W
individual perceptions through the collection of individual stories of the nine participants via the
IE
interviews and essay questions, then placing those experiences in a chronological order through

the collection of interview transcripts and researcher notes/journals (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The
EV
data was analyzed with the use of the qualitative analysis software, HyperRESEARCH

(Researchware Inc., 2019), and coded to identify emerging themes. Any interruptions in the story

telling process were highlighted in the discussion of the research findings (Creswell & Poth,
PR

2018).

Research Questions

The research questions for this study are as follows:

RQ1

What are educators’ perceptions of the primary factors that lead to the academic

underachievement in literacy for African American students in MPS and Congolese students in

the DRC?
 14

RQ2

What are educators’ perceptions of the primary factors that lead to the academic

underachievement in literacy for African American students in MPS and Congolese students in

the DRC that influence curriculum development and instructional strategies?

Significance of the Study

Global educational initiatives have been developed and implemented since the initial

development of EFA in 1990 (Hoel, 2014). The implementation and execution of EFA goals was

a vast undertaking involving partnerships with a myriad of global entities such as civil society

W
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), parliamentarians, associated schools, private

sector businesses and organizations, media companies, and UNESCO clubs and chairs
IE
(UNESCO Executive Board, 2013). While UNESCO was charged with coordinating EFA goals

through these partnerships and outlined 12 strategies for the implementation of the six EFA goals
EV

in the National EFA 2015 Reviews Guidelines (UNESCO, 2013), the partners themselves were

instrumental in the execution and achievement of the EFA goals (Edwards, Okitsu, da Costa, &
PR

Kitamura, 2017).

While the intention of EFA was to ensure all members of every society receives the

benefit of an education (Hoel, 2014), only 52% of the countries achieved the goal of universal

primary education with emphasis on ethnic minorities, girls, and marginalized children (Benavot,

2016). Ten percent came close to achieving this goal, while 38% remained far or very far from

achieving the goal. Benavot (2016) also cited while 90% of children are enrolled in primary

education globally, the number of children out of school in countries experiencing conflict grew

to 36%. The lack of attention given to marginalized children has left the world’s poorest of

children five times less likely to complete primary education (Benavot, 2016). The final goal
 15

charged countries to improve the quality of education, while ensuring measurable learning

outcomes (Benavot, 2016). Benavot (2016) also noted that while the number of countries that

have executed at least one national learning assessment has increased from 70 to 142 since 2000,

250 million children globally still lacked basic literacy skills.

In 2015, Education 2030, also known as SDG 4, replaced the previously implemented

EFA (UN, 2019). Education 2030 is a part of the wider UN’s 17 SDGs that address global

sustainable development (UN, 2019). Having learned from the lessons over the previous 15

years, the development of Education 2030 focused on ensuring representation of both Member

States and the educational community through a highly consultative and collaborative process

W
(Sachs-Israel, 2016). Through the development of Education 2030, a new and universally
IE
relevant global education agenda was created (Sachs-Israel, 2016). This new global educational

agenda not only addressed the unachieved goals of EFA goals, but also more recent
EV
developments and challenges in education (Sachs-Israel, 2016).

With the development of these global education initiatives, much of the attention is

seemingly centered on the developing world, with little attention given to the developed world,
PR

particularly the United States. While there is global data that illustrates student academic

performance of students in sub-Saharan countries, there is a seemingly lack of global

performance data regarding children of color in the United States, particularly African American

children. The United Nations Democracy Fund (2016) found 60% of rural youth and 80% of

rural women in the DRC were illiterate, affecting their ability to actively participate in the

political process, especially in the context of voting. The lack of literacy skills in the DRC are

not exclusively contained to the rural areas. Herdt and Titeca (2016) noted that only 47% of

students in the DRC achieved reading proficiency upon the completion of primary school. While
 16

there is seemingly little performance data illustrating the performance of African American

students in the global educational reports, there are many other sources of performance data that

can be evaluated to assess the student academic performance of African American students.

According to Bloomquist (2017), African American 12 graders scored 30 points below their
th

white peers on the 2015 administration of the reading section of the NAEP. The performance gap

has widened between African American and White students since 1992, and it is estimated that

African American students will perform four years behind their White peers by the 12 grade
th

(Bloomquist, 2017). It is concluded that both African American and sub-Saharan African

students respectively have experienced difficulties in literacy achievement as individual groups

W
of students. However, what is lacking from the current research is an exploration of the
IE
paralleling influences shared between African American and sub-Saharan students in the context

of literacy achievement.
EV
Current educational research tends to evaluate educational issues in silos, failing to

highlight how issues may intersect or how similar groups may parallel. On the surface, there may

be a seemingly wide difference between African American and sub-Saharan African students.
PR

However, these students may parallel more so than assumed in a wide variety of experiences.

Parallels in experiences may highlight the influences for poor academic performance, and

therefore may be able guide the direction of educational provision and reform efforts.

Definitions of Key Terms

American College Test (ACT)

The ACT is a multiple-choice, college entrance examination that assesses students in

English, reading, mathematics, science, and a writing which is optional (ACT, 2019).
 17

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a country located in central Africa that

became an official colony of Belgium in 1908 but gained independence as the Republic of

Congo in 1960 (CIA, 2019).

Education 2030

Education 2030 is a collective global, education initiative designed to build inclusive,

equitable, and relevant educational systems for all learners (UNESCO, 2019).

Education for All (EFA)

Education for All (EFA) was a global education movement lead by UNESCO that aimed

W
to meet the educational needs of all children and adults by the year 2015 (Hoel, 2014).

Educational Provision
IE
Generally referred to in the context of providing state funded public education or free
EV
accessibility to compulsory education, which in some countries is considered a fundamental

constitutional right (Andreoli, Casalone, & Sonedda, 2018).

Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS)

PR

Milwaukee Public Schools is the largest public-school district in Wisconsin serving

75,081 students, over 80% of which were students of color, during the 2018-2019 school year

(MPS, 2019a).

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)

The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is an assessment that has

measured students’ knowledge and ability in various content areas across states and school

districts since 1969 (NCES, 2018).

 18

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are 17 interconnected goals that serve as a

blueprint for a sustainable future addressing global challenges such as poverty, inequality,

climate change, environmental degradation, peace and justice, and education (UN, 2019).

Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Examination (WKCE)

The Wisconsin Knowledge and Concepts Examination (WKCE) is a standardized test

that assesses students in grades 4, 8, and 10 in the content areas of Reading, Language Arts and

Writing, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies in accordance with the Wisconsin Model

Academic Standards (WMAS) (Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 2019).

W
Summary
IE
While there are numerous informative education research articles across various journals

that center on academic achievement, educational provision or the influences thereof, often there
EV
seems to be something lacking. There is seemingly a disconnect between theory and practice

within the field of international education, so much so that the terms comparative education and

international education are often used interchangeably (Dolby & Rahman, 2008). And, while
PR

Bray and Thomas’s (1995) theory of multilevel analysis is seemingly presented as the

cornerstone of comparative education research, and highly influential in international education

research, there is a repetitive sense that many researchers seemingly miss the mark in both a

general understanding of the theory as well as the application of the theory. Bray and Thomas’s

(1995) theory of multilevel analysis can be interpreted as an inclusive research process with

intentional attention given to the perspective of unit of analysis and methods to mitigate personal

biases. However, the tone of many of comparative or international education research articles

tend to lean heavily from a Western perspective.

Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.