2.

4 Curvatures & Torsions

2.4.1 Curvature and the Tb, N
b, B
b vectors of arc length parametrized curves

備註：在這節，我們有時候將 parametric curve 簡稱為 curve

Curvature (曲率)，即是曲線的彎曲程度。
怎麼樣去量化一條曲線 (在某處) 有多彎呢？可以由單位路程下方向改變的程度，至於方向的改變量，上一節學到能
夠代表方向的是曲線切向量，而切向量有無限多個，因此所選取的也要有一定的標準，自然會選單位切向量；而所謂的
路程，在固定起始點之下，就是起始點到該點的弧長了。
因此，綜合上述，曲率，可以定為單位切向量對於弧長的變化率了。

我們選的參數曲線希望好一點，能夠完全由 velocity vector 得到切線方向，因此要有 r̂ ′ (t) 6= 0 for all t 的性質，我們

給這樣性質的曲線一個定義：

Definition 2.12:

A smooth parametric curve r̂(t) : I ⊂ R → R3 is said to be regular if r̂ ′ (t) 6= 0 for all t ∈ I.

一個 regular curve ，由於它的 velocity 非 0 ，所以可以很自然地決定出方向，以跟它同向的單位向量作為代表。

Definition 2.13:
1
Let r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 be a regular parametric curve, and t0 ∈ I. The unit vector · r̂ ′ (t0 ), which is in the
kr̂ ′ (t 0 )k
direction of r̂ ′ (t0 ), is called the unit tangent vector of r̂ at r̂(t0 ), and denoted by Tb(t).

對於一個 regular curve ，給定了一個參考點後，對於曲線上的每一點，就自然能用從參考點到該點的那段曲線的弧長

來描述，這樣的描述方式，我們定義如下：

Definition 2.14:

A regular curve r̂(t) : I ⊂ R → R3 is said to be parametrized with respect to arc length or an

arc length parametrization if
Z t
kr̂ ′ (u)k du = t − t0 ∀ t ∈ I.
t0
for some t0 ∈ I

這個定義，要求曲線弧長能算得出來，所以我們需要 regular curve 。 在 section 2.2 中，我們有提到，積分

Rt ′
t0
kr̂ (u)k du 即為曲線 r̂ 的 r̂(t0 ) 到 r̂(t) 那部分的弧長，而 “這段弧長等於曲線的參數差 t − t0 ＂便是 “以弧長作為參
數＂的定義。

“一個參數是否為弧長參數＂，以下有個等價的性質，將定義的等式兩邊對 t 微分即可得到。

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 1/ 9

Proposition 2.18:

A regular curve r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is an arc length parametrization if and only if kr̂ ′ (t)k = 1 for every t ∈ I.

接著我們就可以定義曲率了，在我們之前的討論下它為“單位切向量對於弧長的變化率＂。

Definition 2.15:

Let r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 an arc length parametrized curve. The number kTb ′ (t)k is called the curvature of r̂ at r̂(t), and
denoted by κ(t).

由於單位切向量的長度恆為 1，所以 Tb · Tb 就恆等於 1，因此微分之後可得到 Tb′ 恆與 Tb 垂直，很自然地決定了曲線的

一個法向量 (三維空間中的曲線在一個點有無限多個法向量)，將它單位長化後 (它的長度即是 κ)，稱作曲線的單位法向
量。

Definition 2.16:

The vector Tb ′ (t)/κ(t) of an arc length parametrized curve r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is called the unit (principal) normal vector
b (t).
of the curve r̂ at the point r̂(t), and denoted by N

有了 tangent vector 和 principal normal vector 那麼就能夠決定出與它們都垂直的向量了，在兩個方向中，我們選

Tb × N
b 這個，因 Tb 跟 N
b 為互相垂直的單位向量，所以它們的外積長度為 1。

Definition 2.17:

The vector Tb(t) × N̂ (t) of an arc length parametrized curve r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is called the unit bi-normal vector of the
b
curve r̂ at the point r̂(t), and denoted by B(t).

Proposition 2.19:

Suppose r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is an arc length parametrized curve. Then the vectors Tb, N

b , B,
b and the curvature are

Tb(t) = r̂ ′ (t)
′′
b (t) = r̂ (t)
N
kr̂ ′′ (t)k
′ ′′
b = r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)
B(t) ′′
kr̂ (t)k
κ(t) = kr̂ ′′ (t)k

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 2/ 9

proof:

1◦

By definition, r̂ ′ (t) is a tangent vector of r̂ at r̂(t). Since r̂ is an arc length parametrization, kr̂ ′ (t)k = 1 for all
t ∈ I, and hence r̂ ′ (t) = Tb(t).

2◦
′′
b (t) is the unit vector in the direction Tb′ (t).
By definition, N b (t) = r̂ (t) .
Since Tb(t) = r̂′ (t), we obtain N
kr̂ ′′ (t)k

3◦
′ ′′
b (t) r̂ (t) × r̂ (t) .
b = Tb(t) × N
It follow immediately from (1) and (2) that B(t)
kr̂ ′ (t)k

4◦

κ(t) = kTb′ (t)k = kr̂ ′′ (t)k.

Definition 2.18:
Let r̂ be an arc-length parametrized curve.

(1) The plane spanned by Tb(t) and N

b (t) is called the osculating plane of r̂ at r̂(t).

b (t) and B(t)

(2) The plane spanned by N b is called the normal plane of r̂ at r̂(t).

(3) The plane spanned by Tb(t) and B(t)

b is called the rectifying plane of r̂ at r̂(t).

Normal plane 的意義很明確，就是跟曲線的切線方向垂直的平面。

Osculating plane 意義上為局部最接近那條曲線的平面，它由 Tb 及 N
b 所生成，所以從 prop. 2.19 可看出，它跟曲線

已經近似到二次方了。

2.4.2 Torsions of curves

曲率是表現一條曲線在某處的彎曲程度 (也就是與直線的差異)；而以下要定義的“扭率＂(torsion) 則是表現曲線與平面

曲線的差異。 從上一個定義我們知道，最接近曲線的平面是曲線的 osculating plane ，那麼曲線的扭率，也就可以用
“這個平面隨弧長的變化率＂來表現，而脫離 osculating plane 的方向只有兩個，因此我們自然地將朝 bi-normal 方向脫離
的扭率定為正，朝 bi-normal 的反方向脫離的扭率定為負。

b ′ (t0 )k
因為 osculating plane 的變化，相當於 bi-normal vector 的變化，所以 torsion 在 r̂(t0 ) 處的大小可以定為 kB

至於方向，因為 r̂ ′ (t0 ) 跟 r̂ ′′ (t0 ) 都在 osculating plane 上，所以要看 r̂ ′′′ (t0 ) · B(t b 0 ) 的正負：因為
 
b = d r̂ ′′ (t) · B(t)
r̂ ′′′ (t) · B(t) b b ′ (t)
− r̂ ′′ (t) · B
dt

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 3/ 9

 b = 0 、r̂ ′′ (t) 與 N
其中 r̂ ′′ (t) · B(t) b (t) 同向，所以當 B
b ′ (t) 與 N
b (t) 反向時，會有 r̂ ′′′ (t) · B(t)
b > 0，而 torsion 定為正。
b
如果從 r̂′′′ (t) · B(t) b ′ (t) 會是如何呢？以下有個性質：
看不出偏離方向時 (等於 0 時)，那 B

Proposition 2.20:

b ′ (t) is parallel to N
Suppose r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is an arc length parametrized curve. Then B b (t) for every t ∈ I.

proof:

b = Tb(t) × N
Since B(t) b (t), after differentiating each side, we obtain

b ′ (t) = Tb′ (t) × N

B b (t) + Tb(t) × N
b ′ (t)

= Tb(t) × N
b ′ (t) (∵ Tb′ (t) is parallel to N
b (t)).

b ′ (t) is perpendicular to Tb(t).

⇒ B

b · B(t)
Since B(t) b = 1 for all t ∈ I, we have B
b′ · B
b = 0 for all t ∈ I.

b ′ is perpendicular to B(t).
Therefore B b

Since Tb, N
b, B
b are unit vectors that are pairwise orthogonal, we obtain that B
b ′ is parallel to N
b (t)

Definition 2.19:

b ′ (t) · N
The number −B b (t) of an arc length parametrized curve r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is called the torsion of the curve r̂ at

the point r̂(t), and denoted by τ (t).

b ′ (t) 為 0＂
從 prop. 2.20 也得到了“torsion 為 0 若且唯若 B ，真的表示 osculating plane 在那一刻沒有變化率，是符合
我們要的。

b ′ (t) · N
備註：也是有某些書本將 torsion 定為 B b (t) ，這兩個版本都有，而個人認為將扭轉方向朝 B
b 定為正的比較自然。

最後給個 torsion 的 formula：

Proposition 2.21:

Suppose r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is an arc length parametrized curve. Then the torsion of r̂ is

(r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)) · r̂ ′′′ (t)

τ (t) =
kr̂ ′′ (t)k2

proof:

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 4/ 9

 b = r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t).
∵ kr̂ ′′ kB(t)
d ′′ b + kr̂ ′′ (t)kBb ′ (t) = r̂ ′′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) + r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t) = r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t).
∴ kr̂ (t)kB(t)
dt
Taking dot product with N b (t) on each side, we obtain

′ ′′′ ′′
b (t) = [r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)] · r̂ (t) .
kr̂ ′′ (t)k · [−τ (t)] = [r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t)] · N
kr̂ ′′ (t)k

Since [r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′ (t) = −[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′′ (t), after dividing −kr̂ ′′ (t)k, we obtain the conclusion

[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′′ (t)

τ (t) = .
kr̂ ′′ (t)k2

2.4.3 The curvatures and Tb, N

b, B
b of general regular curves

對於不是以弧長當參數的曲線，要怎麼決定它們的曲率跟 Tb, N
b, B
b 向量？比較直接的方式，是找一個跟它描述同樣一條

曲線而且同方向的弧長參數，這個動作稱作“重新以弧長參數化＂(Re-parametrize with respect to arc length)。

備註：要嚴格證明這個弧長參數的存在性及唯一性，過程有些長，而且其中用到一點進階的工具，所以我們只看一小段接下來計算會用到的部分。

令曲線為 r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 ，給定一點 t0 ∈ I，則曲線從 r̂(t0 ) 到 r̂(t) 這段的弧長為

Z t
kr̂ ′ (u)k du
t0

將它記作 s(t)，則 s 是一個 I 映至 R 的函數，且值域為某個區間 J。

又因為 r̂ 是 regular ，kr̂ ′ k 恆大於 0，所以 s 是嚴格遞增，因此一對一，那麼便有反函數 s−1 將 J 映成 I，而將 r̂ 與
s−1 合成就會是想要的以弧長為參數的曲線。

Proposition 2.22:

Suppose r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is a regular parametrized curve. For a given t0 ∈ I, let s : I → R be defined by

Z t
s(t) = kr̂ ′ (u)k du + C,
t0

d
where C is a Constant. Then r̂(s−1 (t)) = 1 for all t ∈ J.
dt
proof:

Since the function u 7→ kr̂ ′ (u)k is continuous, by Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, s is differentiable and s′ (t) =
kr̂ ′ (t)k.

∵ r̂ is regular. ∴ kr̂ ′ (t)k 6= 0 for all t ∈ I.

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 5/ 9

 It follows that
d
r̂(s−1 (t)) = r̂ ′ (s−1 (t)) · (s−1 )′ (t)
dt
= r̂ ′ (s−1 (t)) · (s−1 )′ (t)
1
= r̂ ′ (s−1 (t)) ·
s′ (s−1 (t))
1
= r̂ ′ (s−1 (t)) · ′ −1 =1
kr̂ (s (t))k
for all t ∈ J.

從理論上是說明了確實可以將曲線重新以弧長參數化，然而從上面的結果來看，要寫出弧長函數 s 的反函數，並肥一
件容易的事，常常那個積分沒辦法處理，而且反函數也不見得能寫成好看的形式，因此我們要透過這兩個參數各階微分
的關係來求想要的曲率及 Tb, N
b, B
b 向量。

dr̂ ds dr̂ dr̂

在曲線上一個點，由於 = · ，而其中 為 Tb 所以有
dt dt ds ds
r̂ ′ (t) = s′ (t) · Tb(t) (1)

dTb ds dTb
所以將 (1) 式再對 t 微分，因為 = · ，所以會得到
dt dt ds
dTb
r̂ ′′ (t) = s′′ (t) · Tb(t) + s′ (t) · s′ (t) κ(t) N
b (t) (由 prop. 2.19 ， b)
= κN (2)
ds

將 (1) 式與 (2) 式做外積，因 Tb × Tb = 0̂ 以及 Tb × N

b =B
b ，故有

b
r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) = [s′ (t)]3 κ(t)B(t) (3)

b × Tb = N
將 (3) 式與 (1) 式做外積，由於 B b ，所以能得到

b (t)
[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] × r̂ ′ (t) = [s′ (t)]4 κ(t)N (4)

dB b ds dB b b
dB
將 (3) 式對 t 微分，因為 = · ，由 prop. 2.20 及 torsion 的定義，我們知道 b ，所以會得到
= −τ N
dt dt ds ds
d ′ 3 
b − [s′ (t)]4 κ(t)τ (t)N
b (t)
r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t) = [s (t)] κ(t) B(t) (5)
dt

將 (5) 式與 (2) 式做內積，因 Tb, N

b, B
b 為兩兩垂直的單位向量，所以得到

[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′ (t) = −[s′ (t)]6 (κ(t))2 τ (t) (6)

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 6/ 9

 將 (1) 式單位長化可得 Tb(t) 、將 (3) 式單位長化可得 B(t)
b b (t) 、將 (3) 取 norm 可得 κ(t)
、將 (4) 式單位長化可得 N
，將 (6) 式整理後可得 τ (t)。

結果整理為以下定理：

Theorem 2.23:

Suppose r̂ : I ⊂ R → R3 is a regular parametrized curve. Then the curvature, Tb, N

b, B
b vectors, and the torsion are as

following:

r̂ ′ (t)
Tb(t) =
kr̂ ′ (t)k

′ ′′ ′
b (t) = [r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)] × r̂ (t)
N
k[r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)] × r̂ ′ (t)k
′ ′′

′ ′′
b = r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)
B(t)
kr̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)k

kr̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)k

κ(t) =
kr̂ ′ (t)k3

[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′′ (t) [r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′′ (t)
τ (t) = ′
=
kr̂ (t)k kκ(t)k
6 2 kr̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)k2

(證明就如上述 (1) 到 (6) 式了)

Example 1:

Let r̂(t) = (t + 83 t3 , t2 , 2t3 ). Find the curvature κ(t), torsion τ (t), and the vectors Tb, N
b, B
b of the curve r̂.

solution:

First we calculate the following terms:

r̂(t) = (t + 83 t3 , t2 , 2t3 ).

⇒ r̂ ′ (t) = (1 + 8t2 , 2t, 6t2 ).

⇒ r̂ ′′ (t) = (16t, 2, 12t).

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 7/ 9

 ⇒ r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) = (12t2 , −12t, 2 − 16t2 ) and r̂ ′′′ (t) = (16, 0, 12).



⇒ r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) × r̂ ′ (t) = (−4t − 40t3 , 2 − 200t4 , 12t + 120t3 ) = 2(1 + 10t2 ) − 2t, 1 − 10t2 , 6t ,


and r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) · r̂ ′′′ (t) = 24

By theorem 2.23, we obtain

(1 + 8t2 , 2t, 6t2 )  1 + 8t2 2t 6t2 

Tb(t) = = , , ,
k(1 + 8t2 , 2t, 6t2 )k 1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2

kr̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)k

κ(t) =
kr̂ ′ (t)k3
√
400t4 + 80t2 + 4 2
= 3 = ,
(1 + 20t2 + 100t4 ) 2 (1 + 10t2 )2

b (t) = r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) × r̂ ′ (t)
N

r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t) × r̂ ′ (t)
(−2t, 1 − 10t2 , 6t)
=
k(−2t, 1 − 10t2 , 6t)k
 −2t 1 − 10t2 6t 
= , , ,
1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2

′ ′′
b = r̂ (t) × r̂ (t)
B(t)
kr̂ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)k
′
 6t2 −6t 1 − 8t2 
= , , ,
1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2 1 + 10t2

and

[r̂ ′ (t) × r̂ ′′ (t)] · r̂ ′′′ (t) 24 6

τ (t) = ′ ′′
= = .
kr̂ (t) × r̂ (t)k 2 4 2
400t + 80t + 4 (10t + 1)2
2

都用“找到對的方向再單位長化＂來算，計算上會簡化很多。 算完之後可以檢查一下，那三向量是否互向垂直以及長度為 1

Example 2:

Let r̂(t) = (2t, t2 + 2, cos t). Find the osculating plane of the curve at (2π, π 2 + 2, −1).

solution:

Note that r̂(t) = (2π, π 2 + 2, −1) if and only if t = π.

We calculate the following vectors:

r̂ ′ (π) = (2, 2t, − sin t) = (2, 2π, 0),

t=π

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 8/ 9

 and r̂ ′′ (π) = (0, 2, − cos t) = (0, 2, 1).
t=π

微分完先帶點再做外積，計算量會比較小

⇒ r̂ ′ (π) × r̂ ′′ (π) = (2π, −2, 4) = 2 (π, −1, 2).

b
Therefore the vector B(π) is parallel to (π, −1, 2).

b 求出來，我們其實只需要知道 B
不必真的把 B b 的方向。

Since the osculating plane of r̂ at (2π, π 2 + 2, −1) is the plane passing through (2π, π 2 + 2, −1) and perpendicular to
b
B(π), π(x − 2π) − (y − π 2 − 2) + 2(z + 1) = 0 is an equation for this plane.

2.4 Curvatures & Torsions page 9/ 9