Reproductive maturity of the egg

M1 — Hormones and
cells and develops
sexual
REPROD Their Function characteristics of
female. While
UCTIVE REPRODUCTIVE males produce little
HORMONES: amount of estrogen
HORMON needed for spem
cell maturity.
ES;) ● GnRH or
Gonadotropin
● Progesterone also
releasing hormone
a sex steroid
● Reproductive is secreted by the
hormone aids
hormones are hypothalamus of
estrogen for egg
chemical the brain which
cell maturity and in
substances that stimulates the
the thickening of
initiate sexual pituitary to release
endometrium or
development FSH and LH.
lining of the uterus.
essential for
It also promotes
human ● Luteinizing
the production of
reproduction. The Hormone or LH is
testosterone in
start of sexual released by the
men.
maturity happens pituitary gland in
during puberty the brain to aid the
● Testosterone is
stage and it is FSH in the maturity
the primary sex
determined by the of gametes (egg
steroid hormone of
amount of cells and sperm
men responsible
reproductive cells). Secreted by
for secondary sex
hormones released Pituitary gland.
characteristics and
in the brain. The
maturity of the
level of these ● Luteinizing
sperm cells. In
reproductive Hormone or LH is
female, little
hormones released by the
amount of
increases relatively pituitary gland in
testosterone is
as we reach the brain to aid the
needed to ensure
puberty. FSH in the maturity
healthy
of gametes (egg
reproductive
● Puberty is a life cells and sperm
tissues.
stage in which a cells). Secreted by
person reaches Pituitary gland.
_____________________
sexual maturity
_____________
● Estrogen is a
primary sex steroid
hormone in female
that stimulates the

M2 –
FEEDBACK
MECHANISM
IN THE
FEMALE
REPRODUCT
IVE SYSTEM
Sub-phases/Events:
The Menstrual Cycle
● The menstrual
cycle refers to the
monthly shedding
of uterine lining or
endometrium with
some blood which
is released through
the vagina for a
period of three to
five days. The
average menstrual
cycle is 28 days
long; however, a
cycle in some
women can be as
● 2. Luteal phase. In
short as 21 days or
as long as 39 days.
Phases of the
Menstrual Cycle
● 1.Follicular
phase. In this
phase, estrogen
level rises which
causes the lining of
the uterus to grow
and thicken. It is
also in this phase
that
the hormone, FSH and progesterone
causes a follicle (a levels drop and the
small sacs filled thickened lining of
with fluid in the the uterus is shed
ovary)to grow. during the
During Days 10 to
14, only one follicle
menstrual period.
This phase occurs
releases a fully on Day 15 to 28 of
mature
(ovum).
egg the menstrual
Cycle.
Here is the sequence
a. Menstruation - of events during the
it is the time when menstrual cycle:
the lining of the
uterus is shed out
through the vagina
if pregnancy has
not occurred. Most
women bleed for
three to five days.
b. Ovulation - is
the time when a
1. The pituitary gland
mature ovum or
controls and starts the
egg cell from the
cycle. It releases
ovary is released
hormones that
causes the egg in the
ovary to mature.
this phase,
2. The luteinizing hormone
progesterone level
(LH) initiates the
rises to help
prepare the
maturation of the follicles,
converts ruptured follicles
endometrium for
into corpus luteum and
pregnancy. If the
causes the secretion of
egg becomes
progesterone. The follicle
fertilized by a
stimulating hormone (FSH)
sperm and
assists in the
attaches itself to
maturation of the follicles
the uterine wall, the
and causes the secretion
woman becomes
of estrogen from the
pregnant.If the
follicles.
pregnancy does
3. The ovary itself releases
not occur,estrogen
a hormone called
estrogen, which causes of another pituitary gland
the substance decrease/ even
uterine lining to increase in (hormone). stop the production
thickness. The uterine of hormones. For
lining becomes thicker example, the high
so that the fertilized egg level of
can attach to it. The ovary progesterone
releases an egg cell on inhibits the further
day 14. release of LH.
4. The egg cell moves
through the oviduct
(fallopian tube) and enters _____________________
the _____________
uterus. Meanwhile, the Positive
uterine lining continues to Feedback
thicken. ● During days 12-
5. When the egg cell is not 14, estrogen
provides positive
M3 —
fertilized, it will not attach
to the uterus. Hence, feedback to the
hypothalamus and
NERVOUS
the thick uterine lining is
no longer necessary. As a pituitary gland. This
causes a rapid rise
SYSTEM
result, the cells of the
thickened uterine lining in the
break down, and together production of
estrogen by the Major Divisions and
with the unfertilized egg Parts of the Nervous
cell and some blood, they ovaries and leads
to ovulation. System
get released through the
vagina, in a process ● The positive
feedback is the ● The Central
called menstruation.
effect of LH on Nervous System
6. After the menstruation,
estrogen. More LH (CNS) is a division
the cycle starts again.
leads of the nervous
to more estrogen system whose
release. main function is to
Feedback Mechanisms
analyze, integrate,
in the Female
Negative and process
Reproductive System
Feedback various sensory
● In a negative information input
A feedback
feedback from within and
mechanism is the
mechanism, when outside the body,
process through
there is an and then give
which the level of
increased level appropriate
one substance
of hormone, the instructions for a
(hormone)
hypothalamus and coordinated
influences the level
 response or output speech, and
to these stimuli. emotions.
● CEREBELLUM -
● The Peripheral back of brain,
Nervous System under the
(PNS) is a division cerebrum that is
of the nervous responsible for
system containing voluntary muscle
all the nerves and movements,
ganglia that lie posture, balance,
outside of the and coordination. ● Spinal Nerves –
central nervous ● BRAIN STEM -
system. Its primary middle brain: the
role is to relay relay center that
information connects the brain
between our brain to the spinal cord
and the rest of our and controls ● Cranial Nerves –
body. automatic functions
and involuntary
The Parts and muscle movements
Functions of Central such as breathing,
Nervous System: digestion, heart
rate, and blood
a. brain - an organ pressure and
located within the relaying sensory
skull that functions messages (hot, b. Autonomic
as organizer and pain, and loud).
distributor of
information for the b. Spinal Cord -
body. It has three serves as channel
main parts: for signals between
the brain and the
● CEREBRUM - rest of the body
large, front of brain and controls simple
that performs musculoskeletal
higher functions reflex without input
like thoughts from the brain.
(reasoning,
learning) and The Parts and Functions
actions of Peripheral Nervous
(coordination of System:
movement), ● Sympathetic
interpreting touch, a. Somatic Nervous
vision, hearing, System – Primarily
sense the external
environment
(through hearing,
touch, and sight)
and controls
voluntary muscle
activities. It has two
main parts: spinal
nerves and cranial
nerves.
The nerve that
carry motor and
sensory signals
between the spinal
cord and the body.
The nerve fibers
that carry
information into
and out
of the brain stem to
regions of the head
and neck.
Nervous System –
Primarily senses
and monitors the
conditions of the
internal
environment and
controls involuntary
activities such as
heartbeat, blood
flow, breathing, and
digestion. It has
two subdivisions:
Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic
Nervous Systems.
Nervous System –
It is activated when
 the body is in a system to while the central
dynamic role (full of communicate with purpose of
energy) or stress the rest of our Peripheral Nervous
and other body. System is to follow
emergency the command of
situations. It Central Nervous
controls the body’s System.
automatic
response to Role of the Nervous
danger, preparing System in Regulating
● Cell body –
the body for stress- Feedback Mechanisms
contains the
related activities to Maintain Homeostasis
nucleus of the
(e.g., increasing
neuron/nerve cell
the heart rate and ● Homeostasis –
● Dendrites – carry
breathing, dilating refers to the ability
nerve impulses
of the pupils and of a system or
toward the cell
the blood vessels, living organism to
body.
sweating, having adjust its internal
● Axons – carry
goosebumps, etc.) environment to
nerve impulses
allowing the body maintain a stable
away from the cell
to access energy equilibrium.
body.
reserves to either ● Hypothalamus - is
● Synapse – a small
fight off the threat a portion of the
gap at the end of
or to run away to brain particularly
neuron that allows
safety. concerned with
signal to pass
● Parasympathetic homeostasis; it
from one neuron to
Nervous System– influences the
the next.
It maintains body action of medulla
● Nerve impulse – is
functions and oblongata, the
the way nerve cells
restores the body autonomic nervous
communicate with
to normal or system, and the
one another. It is
relaxed mode pituitary gland
an electrochemical
when the threat
signal moving
has been resolved.
along neuron either
in response to a
The Nerve Cell stimulus or as an
● The nerve cell or instruction from the
the neuron, is the brain.
basic unit of the ● In general, the ● Negative
nervous system. primary purpose of feedback loops –
There are about 86 Central Nervous a type of feedback
billion neurons System is to in which a change
working together process and in the stimulus in a
within the nervous analyze information given direction
 causes change in impulses are sent
the opposite through the M4 —
direction;the nervous system
system’s output which trigger Protein
acts to reduce the responses to bring
process to lessen the system back Synthesis
the output,bringing into the normal
a system back to
its level of normal
range of
functioning.
and
●
functioning.
Positive feedback
● When change
occurs in a system
Mutations
loops – a type of or environment, the
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
feedback in which receptors sense
ACID (DNA)
a change in the changes in the
● located in the
stimulus in a given system, sending a
nucleus of a cell
direction causes signal to the control
● double helix
additional change center (in most
ladder-like
in the same cases, the brain),
structure
direction; enhances where it generates
● the building blocks
or accelerates the a response that is
of DNA are the
output of a system signaled to an
nucleotides (each
created by an effector. The
composed of a
activated stimulus effector (muscle or
phosphate group),
to further increase a gland) will then
a deoxyribose
the output. carry out the
sugar and four
required response
nitrogenous bases
● The nervous to bring it back to
adenine (A),
system is the major normal or increase
guanine (G),
control system of the output of the
thymine (T) and
homeostasis. It system.
cytosine (C).
monitors,
across the helical
responds, and
structure follows
regulates all _____________________
the base sequence
systems in the _____________
pairing adenine-
body.
thymine (A-T) and
Receptorsconstantl
guanine-cytosine
y monitor
(G-C)
conditions and
watch for changes.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
When a body
(RNA)
system leaves a
● located in the
set point and falls
cytoplasm of the
outside its normal
cell
range, electrical
● single stranded identical DNA
structure molecules that
● contains ribose contain the same
sugar genetic information
● its four nitrogenous as the parent cell.
bases are adenine
(A), guanine (G), After the replication of
uracil (U), and DNA, protein synthesis
cytosine (C) takes place. This process
● RNA does not ● Prior to cell division occurs in the cell’s
contain the base (mitosis or ribosomes and involves
thymine (T), meiosis), DNA is the nucleic acids DNA and
instead it contains copied during RNA. It follows two major
a similar base interphase. The processes – transcription
uracil (U) the base making of exact and translation.
sequence pairing is copies of DNA is
adenine-uracil (A- called DNA ● Transcription – is
U) and replication. The the process of
guaninecytosine structure of DNA copying the DNA
(G-C). provides a information coding
mechanism for for a protein into an
● MAJOR TYPES making accurate mRNA molecule.
INCLUDES (RNA) and identical ● Translation –
copies as the involves ribosomes
a. mRNA – carrier of original molecule. and tRNAs that
the information synthesize the
from DNA to the Let us now describe the polypeptide chain
ribosomes. process of DNA (protein) using the
b. tRNA – translator replication, transcription genetic information
of the genetic and translation in encoded in
message carried protein synthesis. an mRNA molecule
by the mRNA from the DNA
through protein molecule.
synthesis.
c. rRNA – serves as
the attachment site
of mRNA and tRNA
and for
protein synthesis ● DNA Replication
and forms the is the process by
structural which a double-
component of stranded DNA
ribosome molecule is copied
to produce two
MUTATION numerical types of structural
mutation takes mutations in
● Mutation is a
place. chromosomes:
change in the
translocation,
genetic material. It
● The addition or inversion,
may affect sets of
deletion of the deletion and
chromosomes
chromosome duplication.
entire
number is called
chromosomes, or
aneuploidy. ● Translocation –
genes. It can occur
transfer of genetic
in two different
● Monosomy – is material between
types of cells: sex
the deletion of two
cells and body
chromosome from nonhomologous
cells. Only
the normal chromosomes that
mutations in sex
chromosome involves a single
cells are passed on
number. break in each of
to offspring.
● trisomy – is the the two
addition of one chromosome.
There are two types of
chromosome to the Example: the
mutations that can occur
normal movement of a
in sex cells:
chromosome segment of human
chromosomal mutation
number of an chromosome 22 to
and gene mutation.
organism. chromosome 9 that
● Down syndrome – results to myeloid
A. Chromosomal
is an example of leukemia.
mutation involves
numerical mutation
changes in sets of
(trisomy) that ● Inversion – when
chromosomes,
involves the two chromosomes
an entire
nondisjunction of break, the broken
chromosome, or
the 21st pair of ends reattach in a
parts of a
human reverse order. This
chromosome. The
chromosome. change in the
two types of
● When arrangement of
chromosomal
nondisjunction genes may result in
mutation are
involves an entire phenotypic
numerical and
set of changes that
structural.
chromosomes, it is usually are not
called polyploidy. damaging.
● When a
homologous
● Structural ● Deletion – the
chromosome or a
mutation occurs consequent loss of
pair of sister
when DNA one or more genes
chromatids fail to
structure changes. due to breaks in a
separate during
There are four chromosome.
mitosis or meiosis,
 Example: the loss amino acid as the through successive
of a segment of original codon. generation.
human Example: sickle-
chromosome 5 cell anemia
results to cri du EVIDENCE FOR
chat. ● Base Insertion or EVOLUTION
Deletion. This ● Fossils – offer
● Duplication – mutation is often strong proof that
when portions of more disastrous life on Earth in the
chromosomes are than a base past was different
present in multiple substitution to
copies. because it involves life found on Earth
insertion or today; fossils
deletion of a display
number of evolution.Fossils
nucleotides. include shells,
bones, teeth
embedded
commonly in rocks
but may also be
found in resins and
B. Gene Mutation ice.
_____________________
● Gene mutation ● AGE OF FOSSIL –
_____________
involves changes Paleontologists
in the sequence of decide the age of
nucleotide within fossils and they
a gene. There are
two general
M5 — usually categorize
them and decide if
categories: base
substitution and Biodiversi the organism lived
relative to each
base insertion or
deletion ty and other. They can
also estimate the

● Base Evolution initial age of the

fossil through their
Substitution/Point position in the
Mutation – This ● Evolution is the sedimentary
occurs when one process by which rocks where they
nucleotide living organisms are usually found.
is substituted with changed,
another that results developed, and ● GEOLOGIC TIME
in the mutated diversified from the SCALE –
codon coding for early stage of the Geologic Time
the same type of history of the Earth Scale is a
 sequence or
chronological order
of geologic
events in the
Earth’s history. It
also shows the
appearance of
various
kinds of organisms
in a particular
period of time on
Earth.
EVOLUTION EVIDENCE
THROUGH
COMPARATIVE
ANATOMY
Comparative anatomy
centers on the study of
comparing similarities
and differences in body
structures of different
species to determine
evolutionary relationships.
Organisms with the same
anatomical features are
assumed to be related
evolutionarily and found to
be from a common
ancestor. Similar body
parts may be
homologous or
analogous. Both provide
evidence for evolution.
● Note that the
● Homologous greater the
structures – are similarity of amino
structures with acids between
similar internal organisms the
framework, closer the
position, and relationship of the
embryonic organism.
development but Organisms that are
may perform similar in structure
different function possess similarities
and come from a in terms of the
common ancestor. biological level that
Ex, of could probably
homologous have the same
structure is the ancestor.
forelimb of
mammals. THEORIES OF
EVOLUTION
Jean- Baptiste Lamarck
Theories
(Theory of Need, Theory
of Use and Disuse,
Theory of Acquired
Character istics)
● Analogous
● Theory of Need –
structures – are
that organisms
similar structures
change in response
adapted to similar
to changes in their
function but are not
environment and
from a common
that animals
ancestor.
develop new needs
Ex, wings of birds,
because of the
bat, and insect
changes. Their
ability to survive
helped them
develop
characteristics
EVOLUTION EVIDENCE
necessary for them
USING GENETIC
to adapt in a given
INFORMATION
environment.
 Lamarck’s theory
● Theory of Use and and distinguish
Disuse - focuses somatic cells from ● Theory of Natural
on the idea that germ cells. Selection -
using the organ Weismann individuals in the
can either lead to proposed that population that
an increase in its changes in the have beneficial
size, position, or somatic cells, such traits and suited to
function while the as the elongation their current
disuse of some of giraffe’s neck, environment can
organs will cause it WEISSMAN easily adapt and
to be reduced or BARRIER STORY survive in the
disappear if it no - proposed that environment while
longer serves any changes in the those with weaker
function. somatic cells traits may not.
cannot be passed
● Theory of to the germ cells
Acquired and could not _____________________
Characteristics – affect the next _____________
states that the generation.
developed or
acquired behavior Charles Darwin, Theory
and characteristics (THEORY OF NATURAL
are inherited by the
offspring and
SELECTION)
M6 —
passed from one
generation to
Darwin developed his
Theory of Natural
Biodiversi
another. Selection after his voyage
around the world He
ty and
arrived at Galapagos
island and observed the
Ecosyste
finch species of bird which
has different beak m
Stability
structures for different food
types. He concluded that
the number of finch
population on an island What is biodiversity?
August Weismann, depends on the availability
Theory ( WEISSMAN of food supply. The ● The word
BARRIER) variety of bill sizes and biodiversity comes
shape was due to the from the Greek
● He was successful type of food that the finch word ‘bios’ which
in pointing out the is consuming. means life and the
inadequacy of Latin word
 ‘diversitas’ which species present in
means a variety or Is the Philippines a an ecosystem.
difference. diverse country? b. Species evenness
Biodiversity ● The Philippines is - refers to the
therefore generally considered as one relative proportion
means the variety of the 18 world’s of individuals
of life. mega diverse within the species
countries in an ecosystem.
● ecosystem – is an (Convention on Evenness also
area where Biological Diversity refers to how close
plants, animals, 2020). in numbers each
and other Megadiversity species is in an
organisms interact refers to the environment.
with nonliving countries with a
things, it contains high total number
biotic and abiotic of species
factors. including significant
● example of an percentage of
ecosystem with endemic species. It
low biodiversity is has two-thirds (2/3)
a desert. of the Earth’s
● Examples of the biodiversity.
ecosystem with Genetic Diversity
high biodiversity What are the Levels of ● Genetic diversity
are the tropical rain Biodiversity? refers to the variety
forests and the and the
coral reefs. There are three levels of combinations of
biodiversity – species, genes or
What is the Global genetic, and ecosystem inheritable
Biodiversity Count of diversity. characteristics
Species? within the
● Species diversity population. An
– is defined as the example of genetic
number of different diversity is the
species different varieties of
present in an banana: Cardaba,
ecosystem. Lakatan, Latundan,
There are two Saba, Senorita,
● Between 85% and constituents of Bulkan, Morado,
95% of all living species diversity: etc.
macroscopic a. Species richness
species are found - refers to the Ecosystem/Ecological
on number of different diversity
land; the remainder
mainly marine.
 ● Ecosystem/ using them. Their ● Fragmentation of
Ecological existence provides habitat – is the
diversity refers to services that keep separation of an
the variety of the ecosystem ecosystem into
ecosystems; healthy. small pieces of
habitats, niches, land. An example is
species interaction, Aesthetic value the building of
that are present in ● A lot of species roads along a
the provides visual or forest.
biosphere. artistic enjoyment, ● Pollution –
like forested changes the
The Importance of landscape, and the composition of air,
Biodiversity calming beauty of soil, and water.
– Preserving and natural parks; or Substances like
protecting biodiversity for they may be used pesticides and
the future generation is for spiritual industrial chemicals
important. In addition, meditation like the is ingested by
there are economic, Prayer Mountains; organisms once
aesthetic reasons for many choose to they drink water or
preserving enjoy outdoor eat organisms that
biodiversity. recreational contain toxic
activities – hiking, substances.
Direct Economic Value fishing, camping, ● Introduced
● Maintaining gardening, species – are
biodiversity has a photography, and nonnative species
direct economic many more. that were
value. Species are introduced
considered to have Factors that Threaten intentionally or
direct economic Biodiversity accidentally into
value if it provides ● Overexploitation the new habitat.
sources of food, – is the excessive
medicine, clothing, use of species that What is adaptation? How
shelter, and have economic do species adapt to their
energy. value. Animals changing environment?
were over hunted – Adaptation is any
Indirect or Non- for their meat, heritable trait that helps an
Consumptive Economic hides, and fur and organism survive and
Value these were sold reproduce in its new
● A species has an commercially. environment or changes in
indirect economic ● Habitat loss – can their current environment.
value if there are result from – Organisms can adapt
benefits produced destruction and to an environment through
by the organism disruption of biological, behavioral, and
without physically habitat. physiological adaptations.
 The two key components
Types of Adaptation of ecosystem stability What is a population?
1. Structural are resilience and ● A population is a
Adaptations resistance. group of living
● Structural things of the same
adaptation is the ● Resistance – is an species living in a
physical features of ecosystem's ability certain area.
an organism that to stay stable when
help them survive confronted with a Factors that can cause a
in the environment. disturbance. change in population
● Resilience – is the size
2. Behavioral speed at which an 1. Birth rate: Number
Adaptations ecosystem of births
● Behavioral recovers from a 2. Immigration:
adaptation is the disturbance. Movement into a
change that affects population
the behavior of an – A stable ecosystem is 3. Death rate:
organism. one which will support and Number of deaths
maintain life. An 4. Emigration:
3. Physiological ecosystem becomes Movement out of a
Adaptations stable and has the ability population
● Physiological to maintain its structure
adaptation and function over long Populations grow when:
involves internal period of time, despite - the birth rate is greater
body processes to disturbances. than the death rate.
regulate
and maintain Populations decline
homeostasis or _____________________ when:
internal balance for _____________ - the death rate is greater
an organism to than the birth rate.
survive to its
immediate What is carrying
environment. M7 – capacity?
● Carrying capacity
ECOLOGICAL Populatio is the maximum
STABILITY population size a
● Ecosystem n Growth certain
stability can be environment can
described as the
resilience to
and support for an
extended period of
withstand changes
that may occur in
Carrying time.

the environment. Capacity

 food, water, light, parasitism, and
space, shelter, and interspecific and
access to mates intraspecific
are all limiting competition, are
factors. If an also limiting
organism, group, or factors.
population does
● exponential not have enough 4. Human factors –
growth or J- resources to the increase in the
shaped pattern sustain it, human population
because it is individuals will die is responsible for
gradually through starvation, placing many
increasing not desiccation, and limiting factors on
limited by the stress, or they will species that did not
resources. fail to produce historically exist.
● Logistic growth offspring. Deforestation is a
or an S-shaped global issue,
pattern) occurs in 2. Environmental causing decline
phase two because Conditions or and extinctions in
it will stabilizes. weather – Two of many populations.
the most prominent
Population Growth examples are 5. Diseases and
forms: temperature parasitism –
1. Exponential growth/ J- change and Diseases and
shaped precipitation. parasites have
2. Logistic Growth/ S- These are widely more opportunities
shaped affected by the to spread and
climate, and infect
seasonal changes individuals in larger
within the area. populations, such
Maintaining a as through
correct body contaminated water
temperature is supplies. disease
vitally important for and parasites and
Every ecosystem has almost all can also impair
“limiting factors”. These organisms to reproduction,
are things that affect the perform metabolic reducing the size of
size of a population in that functions the population.
ecosystem. effectively.
6. Natural disaster –
Examples of Limiting 3. Biotic factors – It is something that
Factors: Biotic factors such could happen no
1. Resources – as predation, matter the size of
Resources such as herbivory, the population. Like
 fires and other
natural disasters, b. Density-
odd weather, and dependent
clear-cutting limiting factors –
forests. factors whose
effect on a
7. Presence of population is
invasive species determined by the
– An invasive total size of the
species is an population. Ex,
organism that is biotic - diseases
not indigenous, or and parasites,
native, to a competition for
particular area. resources,
Invasive species predation,
can cause great emigration.
economic and
environmental
harm to the new
area.

2 categories of limiting
factors: _____________________
a. Density-independent _____________
factors
b. Density-dependent
limiting factors Created By:
SAMEDRA
a. Density-
independent
factors – factors
that limit the size of
a population, but
whose effect is not
dependent on the
population density
or number of
individuals per unit
area. Ex, abiotic
such as drought or
flood, fire, and
extreme
environmental
pollutants.