SCI Q3 REVIEWER
- If sperm levels are high, nutrients for the
HORMONES - chemical messengers.
• travel through your bloodstream to
tissues or organs.
• Affects Growth and development,
Metabolism, Sexual function,
Reproduction, Mood
Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
-“master” hormone a tropic hormone
produced by the hypothalamus.
-it causes the release of FSH & LH in the
male or female reproductive system.
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
- Produced in the anterior pituitary, FSH
proves active in both male and female
reproductive systems.
- stimulates the growth of follicle cells
Luteinizing Hormone
- released by the anterior pituitary in
response to the action of GnRH.
- Luteinization is the release of a mature egg
from the ovary during ovulation
- Formation of corpus luteum
FEMALE HORMONES
• Pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) are
released from the anterior pituitary gland
and act on the ovaries to develop follicles
• Ovarian hormones (estrogen and
progesterone) are released from the
ovaries and act on the uterus to prepare
for pregnancy
Estrogen – responsible for the secondary
sex characteristics, sex drive and ovulation.
Progesterone - builds up the lining of the
uterus called the endometrium
HORMONES IN MALE
1. Testosterone
- Made in the testes, produces and System
maintains secondary sexual - “tropic”
characteristics, responsible for sex drive.
- Works with FSH to stimulate
production of sperm
- The Cleveland Clinic notes that low level
of testosterone will result to low level of
sex drive and some hormone - hormone levels stay relatively constant
replacement results to risk of prostate
cancer and atherosclerosis. At Puberty Why are hormones important?
testosterone level rise.
Secondary Characteristics: broad shoulders,
deep voice, facial hair, larger muscle,
increased bone density, and ejaculation
2. Follicle- stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Initiates sperm production, pituitary
gland
3. Luteinizing Hormone
- assist spermatogenesis and initiates
testosterone production in the test
4. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone
- causes the release of FSH and LH
-testosterone production is regulated by
negative feedback
5. Androgen
- are male sex hormones that increase at
puberty.
- develop into a sexually mature adult who
can reproduce.
6. Inhibin
- produced by cells in the testes that are
responsible for monitoring the health
and maturation of sperm
- prevents the secretion of GnRH.
sperm scarce, the testes release inhibin.
Role of Hormones in the Male Reproductive
hormones, cause other
hormones to release.
- depends upon the action of many
different hormones or chemicals,
produced by various body glands and
enter systemic circulation.
throughout their reproductive years.
- In female reproductive system,
hormones assist the growth and
maturation of egg cell.
- The FSH and LH stimulate the growth of
about 15 to 20 eggs in the ovaries, each
in its own "shell," called follicle and
stimulates the ovaries to produce
estrogen and progesterone, help to
develop and maintain female sex
characteristics and play a role in the
menstrual cycle, fertility, and pregnancy
- In male reproductive system, FSH is
necessary for sperm production
(spermatogenesis), and LH stimulates
testis to produce testosterone, which is
needed to make sperm.
- The production of sperm cells and the
release of semen can also be regulated by
other hormones.
- These hormones keep the reproductive
system properly functioning.
- For example, the prostate glands,
bulbourethral gland and seminal vesicle.
Chemicals from these glands nourish the
sperm cells and help them mature.
Q3W2 Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback Mechanism in Males
Events during the menstrual cycle:
What is the most common change that
take place in girls as they go through
puberty?
• Menstruation is one of the normal
changes that takes place in girls as they
go through puberty.
• Once a girl begins menstruating, she
knows that her body is prepared to have
a baby
How to Calculate Menstrual Cycle
• the average menstrual cycle is every 28
days. anywhere between 24 and 35 days,
are considered normal as well.
• average woman will experience about
480-500 periods in their lifetime.
Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)
• a condition that many women suffer
from during the course of their
menstrual cycle.
• bloating, feeling irritable, being more
tired than usual
Why should you care on how to calculate
menstrual cycle?
• to know when to expect monthly flow.
• to get pregnant and to be able to track
their ovulation.
• to make sure everything is okay each
month.
OVULATION AND FERTILIZATION
• The lining of the uterus gets thick in
case the egg is fertilized.
• If sperm cells meet the egg as it travels
down the Fallopian tube, the sperm can
fertilize the egg cell, and a new life will
begin. This is called conception.
• The fertilized egg will attach itself to the
thickened lining of the uterus and start to
grow into a baby.
• Lining is needed for the growing baby, if
the lining does not flow out of the body
there is no period.
• If the egg has not been fertilized by sperm,
conception has not taken place.
• The lining of the uterus is not needed for
the egg to grow in, so the lining sheds off
and leaves the body through the vagina.
This is called menstrual flow.
1.pituitary controls and starts the cycle.
2.pituitary gland releases hormones that
cause the egg in the ovary to mature. The
LH initiates the maturation of the follicles,
converts ruptured follicles into corpus
luteum and causes the secretion of
progesterone. The FSH assists in the
maturation of the follicles and causes the
secretion of estrogen from the follicles.
3. Ovary releases estrogen, which causes the
uterine thickens its lining so that the
fertilized egg can attach to it.
4. The ovary releases an egg on day 14.
Assume that no sperm is present.
5. Egg moves through the oviduct and
enters the uterus. Meanwhile the uterine
lining continues to thicken.
7. The egg has not been fertilized; therefore,
it will not attach to the uterus.
8. The thick uterine lining is no longer
necessary, so the cells of the thickened
uterine lining break off and leave the vagina.
The unfertilized egg is lost, and some blood
is lost too. Loss of cells from the uterine
lining, blood, and egg is menstruation.
Day-To-Day event of menstrual cycle
Day 1 to 12: Follicular Phase
+ Begins on the day you begin to bleed and
continues until the day you ovulate.
+ Hormones course through the body and
prepare the ovaries to release follicles.
+ One of those follicles will grow rapidly
and turn into the ovum – or the egg that is
released during the ovulatory phase.
+ The follicle secretes estrogen, and that
helps build up the lining of the uterus.
Day 13 to 15: Ovulatory Phase
+ egg is released into the fallopian tube.
+ Once it is released, there is a 24–48-hour
which it could be fertilized by male sperm.
+ Cervical mucus increases during this, to
help the sperm swim up to the egg.
+ If egg is not fertilized, the lining begins to
break down and the next phase begins.
Day 16 to 28: Luteal Phase
+ Here, the body is still preparing to get
pregnant at first, releasing the proper
hormones and waiting for fertilization.
+ When it doesn’t happen, the body begins
to break down the uterine lining.
+ This leads to having your period – your
period is actually your body shedding the
uterine lining that was prepared for
pregnancy but never used.
Follicular – starts on day 1 of the cycle, and
ends around day 14 with ovulation
Ovulation – occurs mid-cycle, around day
14, following a surge of LH
Luteal phase – starts from ovulation until
the start of menstruation
* Menarche * Menopause
FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• A process through which the level of one
substance influences the level of another
substance.
• Negative feedback affects the
production of hormones in the menstrual
cycle.
•High levels of one hormone may inhibit
the production of another hormone.
increase in FSH indicate a reduction of
good quality eggs and embryos for
fertilization while high LH during non-
ovulation times in the menstrual cycle may
mean you are in menopause
Q3W3 Nervous System Working Together with
Endocrine System
Homeostasis
system to its normal state.
- Both the nervous system and endocrine
system plays a vital role in the regulation of
body functions.
- A state reached when each part of the body
functions in equilibrium with other body
parts.
- Maintained by feedback mechanism
- Process through which the level of one
substance influences the level of another
substance.
Feedback Mechanism
• When body receives messages from
the body about an internal change in one
of its systems, it works to restore the
• The levels of hormones in the body are
controlled by feedback.
• It is important that the hormones in our
body is kept at the right level.
Negative Feedback
• Negative feedback is the primary
mechanism through which your
endocrine system maintains homeostasis
• Secretion of a specific hormone s
turned on or off by specific physiological
changes (similar to a thermostat)
• EXAMPLE: body temperature
Positive Feedback
- Positive feedback is when a
response to an event increases the
likelihood of the event to continue.
- An example of positive feedback is
milk production in nursing mothers.
As the baby drinks her mother's milk,
- the hormone prolactin, a chemical
signal, is released.
-The more the baby suckles, the more
prolactin is released, which causes
more milk to be produced.
- Other examples of positive feedback is
contractions during childbirth.
-When constrictions in the uterus push
a baby into the birth canal, additional
contractions occur.
Failure of Homeostasis
• Many homeostatic mechanisms such as
these work continuously to maintain
stable conditions in the human body.
• Sometimes the mechanisms fail.
• When they do, the cells may not get
everything they need, or toxic wastes may
accumulate in the body.
• If homeostasis is not restored, the
imbalance may lead to disease or death.
Conclusion
• The endocrine system plays an
important part in homeostasis.
• To achieve homeostasis, the nervous
and endocrine systems maintain a
normal range of the following:
– Body temperature
– Amount of water in the body
– Amount of metabolic wastes in cell
– Blood calcium level
– Hormones in the blood
Q3W4 Mutations
What Are Mutations?
- Changes in the nucleotide sequence of
DNA
- May occur in somatic cells (aren’t passed
to offspring)
- May occur in gametes (eggs & sperm) and
be passed to offspring
Are Mutations Helpful or Harmful?
- Mutations happen regularly
- Almost all mutations are neutral
Gene Mutations
- Chemicals & UV cause mutations
- Many mutations are repaired by enzymes
- Some type of skin cancers and leukemia
result from somatic mutations
- Some mutations may improve an
organism’s survival (beneficial)
o Nondisjunction - Failure of Sachs disease, Huntington disease,
chromosomes to separate during hemophilia, and some cancers.
meiosis Causes gamete to have too
Disorder Examples:
many or too few chromosomes
Cri-du-chat
Disorders:
- Deletion of material on 5th chromosome
- Down Syndrome – three 21st
- Characterized by the cat-like cry made by
chromosomes
cri-du-chat babies (cat cry syndrome)
- Turner Syndrome – single X
chromosome Down Syndrome
- Klinefelter’s Syndrome – XXY
- Chromosome 21 does not separate
chromosomes
correctly. They have 47 chromosomes
instead of 46.
- Children with Down Syndrome develop
slower, may have heart and stomach
illnesses and vary greatly in their degree of
intelligence.
Edwards Syndrome

Types of Mutations - Second most common trisomy 18

-Change in nucleotide sequence of a gene
- Mental and motor retardation and
Chromosome Mutations -May only involve a single nucleotide
numerous congenital anomalies
-May be due to copying errors, chemicals,
-Changing the structure of a chromosome - 99 dies in infancy Phenotype: clenched
viruses, etc.
-The loss or gain of part of a chromosome hands and overlapping fingers
Types of Gene Mutations:
Five types exist: Jacobsen syndrome
o Point Mutations - Change of a single
o Deletion - Due to breakage piece of a - Also called terminal 11q deletion disorder.
nucleotide. Includes deletion, insertion, or
chromosome is lost - Normal intelligence or mild retardation,
substitution of ONE nucleotide in a gene
with poor excessive language skills
Sickle Cell disease is the result of one - Most have bleeding disorder called “Paris-
nucleotide substitution. Occurs in the Trousseau Syndrome”
hemoglobin gene.
Klinefelter’s Syndrome
o Inversion - Chromosome segment o Substitutions
breaks off then Segment flips around - XXY, XXYY, XXXY, Male, Sterility, Small
o Insertion
backwards and Segment reattaches. testicles, Breast enlargement
o Deletions
o Frameshift - Inserting or deleting one Turner’s Syndrome
or more nucleotides. Changes the “reading
- X, XO, Female, sex organs don't mature at
frame” like changing a sentence Proteins
adolescence, sterility, short stature
built incorrectly.
o Duplication- XYY Syndrome
The fat cat ate the wee rat. Frame Shift (“a”
Occurs when a
added): The fat caa tet hew eer at. - Normal male traits, often tall and thin,
gene sequence is
Associated with antisocial and behavioral
repeated ❖ According to the National Human
problems
Genome Institute, most all disease has
o Translocation -
some sort of genetic factor. These Triple X syndrome
Involves two
disorders can be caused by a mutation in
chromosomes that - Trisomy X, Female, Little or no visible
a single gene, multiple gene mutations,
aren’t homologous differences, tall stature, learning
combined gene mutation and
Part of one disabilities, limited fertility
environmental factors, or
chromosome is
by chromosome mutation or damage.
transferred to
❖ Gene mutations have been identified as
another
the cause of several disorders including
chromosomes
sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, Tay-
Q3W4 Getting to Know the DNA and RNA
structures
What is DNA?
- Deoxyribonucleic acid is a molecule that
contains the biological instructions that
make each species unique.
- DNA, along with the instructions it
contains, is passed from adult organisms
to their offspring during reproduction.
What is the DNA double helix?
- Scientist use the term "double helix" to
describe DNA's winding, two-stranded
chemical structure. This shape which looks
much like a
twisted ladder
gives DNA the
power to pass
along biological
instructions with
great precision.
- DNA's unique structure enables the
molecule to copy itself during cell division.
When a cell prepares to divide, the DNA
helix splits down the middle and becomes
two single strands. These single strands
serve as templates for building two new,
double-stranded DNA molecules each a
replica of the original DNA molecule.
- In addition, when proteins are being made,
the double helix unwinds to allow a single
strand of DNA to serve as a template. This
template strand is then transcribed into
mRNA, which is a molecule that conveys
vital instructions to the cell's protein-
making machinery.
Where is DNA found?
▪ In organisms called eukaryotes, DNA
is found inside the cell called the nucleus.
▪ Because the cell is very small, and
because organisms have many DNA
molecules per cell, each DNA molecule
must be tightly packaged.
▪ This packaged form of the DNA is
called a chromosome.
▪ Humans and other complex organisms
also have a small amount of DNA in
mitochondria. Mitochondria generate the
energy the cell needs to function properly.
▪ In sexual reproduction, organisms
inherit half of their nuclear DNA from the
male parent and half from the female
parent. However, organisms inherit all of
their mitochondrial DNA from the female ➢ Transfer RNA (tRNA) supplies amino
parent. This occurs because only egg cells, acids to the ribosome to be assembled as
and not sperm cells, keep their
mitochondria during fertilization
What is DNA made of?
▪ DNA is made of chemical building
blocks called nucleotides.
▪ These building blocks are made of three
parts: a phosphate group, a sugar group
and one of four types of nitrogen bases.
▪ Nucleotides are linked into chains, with
the phosphate and sugar alternating.
▪ The complete DNA instruction book,
or genome, for a human contains about
3 billion bases and about 20,000 genes
on 23 pairs of chromosomes.
What does DNA do?
▪ DNA contains the instructions needed
for an organism to develop, survive,
and reproduce.
▪ DNA contains the instructions needed
for an organism to develop, survive,
and reproduce.
▪ Each DNA sequence that contains
instructions to make a protein known
as a gene.
▪ Genes varies from 1,000 bases to 1
million bases in humans.
▪ Genes only make up about 1% of the
DNA sequence
▪ outside this 1% are involved in
regulating when, how and how much
of a PROTEIN is made.
What is RNA?
▪ Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is single
stranded.
▪ RNA strand has a backbone made of
alternating sugar (ribose) and
phosphate groups.
Types of RNA
➢ Messenger RNA (mRNA) brings
information from the DNA in the
nucleus to the protein manufacturing
area, the cytoplasm. In the cytoplasm,
the mRNA becomes the template of
information to make proteins.
➢ Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), ribosomes and
ribosomal proteins hold tightly into the
mRNA using its information to assemble
the amino acids in correct order.
protein. It brings the amino acids in the
cytoplasm to the ribosomes.
What is the 'Central Dogma'?
‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the
instructions in DNA are converted into a
functional product. 1ST Proposed in 1958 by
Francis Crick, discoverer of DNA structure
DNA instructions converted into the
functional product is called gene expression.
Gene expression has two key stages -
transcription and translation
Replication- The process of making copies.
When DNA replicates, two identical copies
of DNA molecules are produced, which are
the same as the original.
TRANSCRIPTION - The process where the
sequence of nucleotides in DNA directs the
order of nucleotides in messenger RNA.
TRANSLATION - The process of
converting the information in messenger
RNA into a sequence of amino acids that
make a protein.
* Each set of three nucleotides in the
mRNA is called codon.
How does DNA do it?
The main job of DNA is to make the
proteins that living things need to grow.
These are the steps for building a protein.
STEP 1 - Copy the DNA. The information
stored in a gene's DNA is transferred to a
similar molecule called RNA in the cell
nucleus. The DNA is unzipped and copied.
This is called transcription.
STEP 2 - Take the copy out of the nucleus.
The RNA carries a copy of the DNA out of
the nucleus and to the ribosomes.
STEP 3 - Translate the message.
STEP 4 - Fold the protein
Q3W5 Sources of Evidence for Evolution
EVOLUTION - genetic change in
population of organisms over time
Organisms inhabiting the earth have
changed overtime, their structures, traits,
and abilities allowed them to adapt and
survive in their environment. Data from the
fossil records, anatomy and morphology,
embryonic development and biochemistry
could be analyzed to demonstrate if
evolution of life on earth has taken place.
4 Types of Evidence that scientists have
gathered in support of evolution
Evidence from Fossil Records
Fossils- The preserved remains or traces
of an organism that is no longer living,
usually found in sedimentary rocks
What can fossils show?
Organisms have appeared and
disappeared, and have changed over time
Extinction of species
Transitional forms reveal links between
groups:
Archaeopteryx: between reptiles & birds
Eustheopteron: amphibious fish
Seymouria: reptile-like amphibian
Reveals ancient climate & environmental
conditions
Indicates development of life from
simple to complex
Indicates life began in water
Types of Fossils:
1. IMPRINT – thin, soft object (leaf, feather)
is buried and sediments later harden
2. MOLD – Buried organism disappears and
leaves an empty space
3. CAST – mold filled by minerals (replica
of organism)
4. PETRIFICATION – minerals replace hard
parts (bones, teeth, etc.) of organism
5. AMBER – entire organism fossilized in
tree sap
6. FROZEN – entire organism frozen in ice
7. TRACE – footprints, trails, etc.
Determining the age of Fossils/Relative
Dating
a
Relative dating is a method used to
determine the age of the rocks by
comparing them with the rocks in the
other layer.
The younger sedimentary rock layer is
assumed to be found on top and the
older rock is found at the bottom layer.
How can fossil age be determined?
- Depth of fossils help to determine their
age
Radioactive Isotope Dating
Carbon-14, Radiometric dating is a
method used to determine the age of
rocks using the decay of radioactive
isotopes present in rocks.
Measure the proportion of an isotope
relative to its more stable form (half-life)
Carbon dating is used to tell the age of
organic materials. Art collectors use
carbon dating to determine if a piece of
art work is genuine or not.
Comparative Anatomy and Structures
- Matching or extra/left over body parts
support the idea of common ancestors
o HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES – parts
with similar basic structure, but may
vary in function
o ANALOGOUS STRUCTURES –
structures that have the same function
(may look somewhat alike), but have
different structures and DO NOT have
a common descent
o VESTIGAL STRUCTURES – reduced
body parts (in comparison to the same
complex structure in other organisms)
that have little to no function;
remnant of an ancestor
Genetic Evidence
- Phylogenetic tree is a
branching diagram or showing
the evolutionary relationships among
various biological species or other
entities based upon similarities and
differences in their physical or genetic
characteristics.
- Patterns of embryological development
can indicate a common ancestry
- Fish, birds, mammals & reptiles all have
gills; only fish retain theirs
- Fish, birds, humans & reptiles all have
tails; but humans did not retain theirs
- Similarity of proteins, RNA & DNA
molecules
- The more closely related organisms are,
the more similar is the biochemical
makeup
- Indicates common ancestor
- Universality of genetic code – supports
evolution
- Similar chemistry & structure of
chromosomes among
Eukaryotes
- Chlorophyll is the same
basic molecule in all
photosynthetic organisms
Scientists have devised a number
of different ways to compare the
DNA of different organisms such
as: DNA Hybridization, DNA
profiling and DNA sequencing.
Why is the fossil record
incomplete?
1. Soft tissue rarely preserved
2.Movement of the earth’s crust has
obliterated or covered many fossils
3.Fossilization takes place only in certain
types of habitats and under favorable
conditions
4.Paleontologists have not dug up every
place on earth
Q3W6 Theories of Evolution
• Different organisms possess unique
characteristics. Some organisms may
look the same but have distinct
differences from each other, others may
not be related to one another, but they
have similar functional features and
characteristics.
• Evolution – theory that organisms have
changed over time.
Biological evolution refers to the
cumulative changes that occur in a
population over time.
These changes are produced at the genetic
level as organisms' genes mutate and/or
recombine in different ways during
reproduction and are passed on to future
generations.
Also, individuals inherit new
characteristics that give them a survival
and reproductive advantage in their local
environments
Scientists observed…
• Fossil evidence
• Many different species
• Variations (differences) within species
2 biologists believed organisms changed in
response to their environments:
French Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
British Charles Darwin
• Theory of Use and Disuse
-organs not in use will disappear while
organs in use will develop.
• Theory of Acquired Characteristics
-These acquired characteristics were
believed to be inherited by their
offspring’s and propagated by the next
generation of giraffes.
Charles Darwin
• Born in 1809 Age 22, went on voyage
on HMS Beagle as a naturalist
• Charles Lyell’s book influenced Darwin
-Lyell said Earth was millions of yo
• Observed fossils of marine animals on
mountains, etc.
In Galapagos Islands he observed
different beaks of finches.
• John Gould, another British naturalist
• Concluded finches were different species,
and were not on mainland of S. America
Artificial vs. Natural Selection
• Artificial - breeding for desired traits
• Natural – naturally “desired” traits are
bred more often
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
• On the Origin of Species (1859) by Means
of Natural Selection with help from
another scientist, Alfred Russel Wallace
• Variations (differences) occur among
members of the same species
• Inheritance of Traits - Traits are inherited
• Overproduction- Organisms produce
more organisms than can survive and
reproduce. This ensures that some
offspring will survive to reproduce
• Survival of the Fittest- Organisms with
traits that are better for adapting survive to
reproduce
• Natural selection – environment
determines which variations is selected

Jean Lamarck’s Theory

• 1809 he proposed his theory of evolution
• Theory of Need
-states that organisms change in
response to their environment.
-Their ability to survive helped them
develop characteristics necessary for
them to adapt in a given environment.
-Giraffe neck theory
Q3W7 ECOSYSTEM: BIODIVERSITY
6 Kingdoms of life
Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista,
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria
Biodiversity- refers to the variety of life on
Earth at all its level, from genes to
ecosystem, and encompasses the
evolutionary, ecological, and cultural
processes to sustain life. Is a measure of
variation at the genetic, species, and
ecosystem level.
* Philippines is regarded as one of the 17
known megadiverse countries has the
richest diversity of species and a remarkable
abundance of endemic species
* Endemic species refers to those organisms
that exist only in one geographic region
Benefits of Biodiversity
• increases the stability of ecosystem.
• increases resilience of ecosystems
providing them with more strength to
recover back after something happens.
• benefits agriculture.
• provides an environment rich with
medicines and related products.
• benefits the economy by generating
money through tourism and recreation.
Types of Biodiversity
Threats to Biodiversity
+ Habitat loss and deforestation
+ Population growth + Climate Change
+ Pollution + overexploitation
+ epidemic and infectious diseases
+ Poaching + invasive species
+ conservation conflicts
Survival and Adaptation
• Survival- the state or fact of continuing to
live or exist
•Adaptation - is a mutation or genetic
change, enabling organisms or species to
survive.
Type of Adaptation
o Structural Adaptation- Physical Change
o Behavioral Adaptation- behavior or
response to environment changes
o Exaptation-adaptation that is improved
or co-opted for use different to original
o Vestigial Structure- superseded by more
useful traits or change to environment
How does biodiversity affect stability of an
ecosystem?
“Biodiversity benefits people in many ways.
It can be of economical, ecological, and
aesthetical value. It also affects the stability
of an ecosystem: the greater the
biodiversity, the more chances that stability
can be attained in an ecosystem.”
Population Growth and Density
What is Population?
-Is a group of organisms belonging to the
same species which can interbreed with
one another and occupy an area at a
particular time
-Ex. school of tilapia, gang of tamaraw
Factors that cause population to change
INCREASED IN POPULATION
+ Birth rate or Natality-number of births in
a population
+ Immigration-when individual enter the
population
DECREASED POPULATION
+ death rate or mortality- number of deaths
in population
+ Emigration- when individual moves out
the population
First, population size is influenced by the
per capita population growth rate, which is
the rate at which the population size
changes per individual in the population.
This growth rate is determined by the birth,
death, emigration, and migration rates in
the population. When the per capita growth
rate remains constant, the population can
experience exponential growth followed by
exponential decline.
Interestingly, Charles Darwin was one of the
first scientists to realize that high rates of
population growth can cause massive
mortality events he related this to
evolutionary changes in heritable traits. The
maximum per capita growth rate for a
population is the intrinsic rate of increase.
* The maximum population size of the
species that the environment can sustain is
the carrying capacity. It is determined by
the amount of available resources (food,
habitat, water).
* Population density refers to the number
of persons per unit area and is derived
simply by dividing the total area population.
Limiting Factors – is an abiotic or biotic
factors that restricts the number of
individuals in a population. Liebig’s Law of
the Minimum “growth is not controlled by
the total amount of resources available, but
by the scarcest resources”
Density-independent factors
-Occurrences in the environment that
limit population regardless of density
-Can be natural or human-made
-Unusual weather, natural disasters,
human activities.
Density dependent factors.
- Caused by the number of indv in an area
- Operates when population is large and
dense causing growth to slow or stop
- Competition, parasitism, predation,
crowding
Period of growth is called exponential
population growth
In logistic growth, population expansion
decreases as resources become scarce, and
it levels off when the carrying capacity of
the environment is reached
Q2W3 ADDITIONS Q2W4ADDITIONS Q2W1 ADDITIONS

Main components of nervous system - Female reproductive system

Brain, nerves, spinal cord Vagina: This muscular tube receives the
penis during intercourse and through it a
Nervous system
baby leaves the uterus during childbirth.
Axon- component of nerve cell that carry
Uterus: This organ holds and nourishes a
impulses away from the cell body
developing fetus, if an egg was properly
Cerebellum- in base of the brain, fertilized.
responsible for coordination, balance and
Ovaries: The female gonads, the ovaries
posture
produce ova. When one matures, it is
Cerebrum- largest part of human brain released down into a fallopian tube.
responsible for thought, language, senses,
Fallopian tubes: These small tubes transport
memory, and voluntary movement
ova from the ovaries to the uterus. This is
Neurons- microscopic nerve cell that where an egg waits to be fertilized.
make up the brain, spinal cord and nerves
Male reproductive system
AUG- Start codon
Brain stem- connects brain to the spinal
scrotum is the thick-skinned sac that
cord, responsible for breathing,
surrounds and protects the testes.
swallowing, heartbeat, and blood pressure
Testes Produce sperm (which carry the
Endocrine system
man's genes) and testosterone (the primary
Pituitary: It makes hormones that control male sex hormone)
several other glands such as the thyroid
urethra serves as a part of the urinary tract
gland, adrenal glands, ovaries and testicles.
that transports urine from the bladder and
Thyroid: Your thyroid is a butterfly- the part of the reproductive system through
shaped gland in the front of your neck. It’s which semen is ejaculated.
responsible for your metabolism and
Vas deferens is a coiled tube that carries the
causes storage of calcium in bones and
sperm out of the testes.
releases Calcitonin

Parathyroid: They control the level of

calcium in your body and normalize bone
growth.

Adrenal: these hormones help control

heart rate, blood pressure, and other
important body functions.

Pancreas: regulate blood sugar levels,

secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon,
somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide.

Ovaries: In women, the ovaries release sex

hormones called estrogen, progesterone.

Testes: In men, the testes (testicles) make

sperm and release the hormone
testosterone.