Solution Manual for Intermediate Algebra for College Students 9th

Edition Angel Runde 0321927354 9780321927354

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MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the one alternative that best completes the statement or answers the question.

Determine whether the expression is a polynomial. If the expression is a polynomial, state whether it is a
monomial, binomial, or trinomial. If the expression is not a polynomial, indicate why not.
1) 15 1)
A) monomial B) not polynomial, no
variables
C) binomial D) trinomial

2) -6x 2)
A) not polynomial, no exponent on the
variable
B) monomial
C) trinomial
D) binomial

3) -12a 7 3)
A) monomial B)
binomial
C) not polynomial, lacks other terms D)
trinomial

4) 9y4 - 1 4)
A) binomial
B) not polynomial, no variable in second
term
C) monomial
D) trinomial

5) -20z + 6 5)
A) not polynomial, no variable in second
term
B) binomial
C) monomial
D) trinomial

6) 15s5 + 3s + 2 6)
A) binomial B)
monomial
C) not polynomial, no variable in last term D)
trinomial

7) 10yz - 4z 2 C
A) not polynomial, first term contains 2 different variables y )
and z m
B) binomial o
1
 nomial 7)
D) trinomial

8) 20y5 + 2y4 + 4 8)
A) binomial B) trinomial
C) monomial D) not polynomial, no variable in last
term

9) x4/3 - x3 - 9 9)
A) binomial B)
monomial
C) not polynomial, 4/3 exponent D)
trinomial

2
 10)
10) 4x3 + 5x2 - 4x-2
A) not polynomial, -2 exponent B)
monomial
C) trinomial D)
polynomial

Write the polynomial in descending order of the variable x. If the polynomial is already in descending order, so
state.
Give the degree of the polynomial.
11) 18x4 + 8 11)
A) descending order, degree 5 4
B) 8 + 18x , degree 5
C) 8 + 18x4 , degree 4 D) descending order, degree
4

12) 13x - 2 12)

A) descending order, degree 1 B) -2 + 13x, degree 2
C) -2 + 13x, degree 1 D) descending order, degree
0

13) -9x + 7x4 - 8 13)

A) descending order, degree 6 B) 7x4 - 9x - 8, degree
5
C) descending order, degree 5 D) 7x4 - 9x - 8, degree
4

14) 2 - 3x3 - 13x4 14)

A) descending order, degree 4 B) descending order,
degree 8
C) -13x4 - 3x3 + 2, degree 7 D) -13x4 - 3x3 + 2, degree 4

15) 7x2 - 5x3 - 13x4 + 9 15)

A) descending order, degree 9 B) descending order, degree 4
C) -13x4 - 5x3 + 7x2 + 9, degree 10 D) -13x4 - 5x3 + 7x2 + 9,
degree 4

16) 4y5 - 4x3 - 8x + 10x4 16)

A) 10x4 - 4x3 - 8x + 4y5 , degree 13 B) 10x4 - 4x3 - 8x + 4y5 ,
degree 5
C) 4y5 + 10x4 - 4x3 - 8x, degree 13 D) 4y5 + 10x4 - 4x3 - 8x,
degree 5

17) 2xy3 - 8x2 + 8 - 13x3 17)

A) 2xy3 - 13x3 - 8x2 + 8 , degree 3 B) -13x3 - 8x2 + 2xy3 + 8,
degree 3
C) -13x3 - 8x2 + 2xy3 + 8, degree 4 D) 2xy3 - 13x3 - 8x2 + 8 ,
degree 4

3
Give the degree of the polynomial and identify its leading coefficient.
18) -8x3 - 4x4 + 18x5 + 12 18)
A) degree: 3; leading coefficient: 18 B) degree: 5; leading coefficient:
-8
C) degree: 5; leading coefficient: 18 D) degree: 3; leading coefficient:
-8

19) 3x2 - 2x3 - x4 + 9 19)

A) degree: 2; leading coefficient: 3 B) degree: 4; leading
coefficient: 3
C) degree: 4; leading coefficient: -1 D) degree: 4; leading
coefficient: 1

20) 8x2 y3 - 7x5 y6 + x11y 20)

A) degree: 12; leading coefficient: 8 B) degree:11; leading
coefficient: 8
C) degree: 11; leading coefficient: -7 D) degree: 12; leading
coefficient: 1

4
 21) 15x3 + 8w 2 - 8w - 3y4 + 4
A) degree: 4; leading coefficient: -3
15
C) degree: 4; leading coefficient: 15
-3
21)
B) degree: 10; leading coefficient:
D) degree: 10; leading coefficient:

22) 24xyz + 11x2 z - 21y2 z 3 + 7xy - x2 y2 z 2 22)

A) degree: 6; leading coefficient: 24 B) degree: 6; leading coefficient:
-1
C) degree: 5; leading coefficient: 21 D) degree: 6; leading coefficient:
7

23) 16q2 r2 + rs3 + 19qr3 s 23)

A) degree: 5; leading coefficient: 16 B) degree: 4; leading coefficient:
16
C) degree: 5; leading coefficient: 19 D) degree: 4; leading coefficient:
1

7 2
24) m 3 n 2 p4 - m 6 p2 - 24)
mn 3 p6
13 11
2 2
A) degree: 27; leading coefficient: - B) degree: 10; leading coefficient: -
11 11
7 7
C) degree: 9; leading coefficient: D) degree: 10; leading coefficient:
13 13

Evaluate the polynomial function at the given value.

25) Find P(-4) if P(x) = -8x - 1. 25)
A) 33 B) -31 C) 31 D) -
33

26) Find P(-4) if P(x) = 3x2 - 5x + 7. 26)

A) 75 B) -61 C) 35 D) -
21

27) Find P(-4) if P(x) = x2 - 7x - 3. 27)

A) 44 B) 41 C) 6 D)
21

28) Find P(-5) if P(x) = x2 - 6. 28)

A) 19 B) -11 C) 121 D)
25

29) Find P(-3) if P(x) = -2x2 + 4x. 29)

A) -17 B) -6 C) -18 D) -
30

1 49
30) Find P
3
5
if P(x) = -2x2 + 8x + 30)
3

49
A) B) - 1 C) - D) 1
9 9

31) Find P(-0.6) if P(x) = 0.4x2 + 4.2x + 2.1 31)

A) -2.355 B) 0.276 C) -0.087 D) -
0.276

6
Solve the problem.
32) The total cost in dollars for a certain company to produce x empty jars to be used by a 32)
jelly
producer is given by the polynomial equation C(x) = 0.4x + 13,000. Find the cost of
producing
100,000 jars.
A) $100,013 B) $13.40 C) $40,000 D)
$53,000

33) When a coin is dropped from a cliff of height 1741 feet, the height h of the coin from the 33)
ground (in
feet) t seconds after being dropped is given by h = -16t2 + 1741. How high is the coin above
the ground 5 seconds after being dropped?
A) 1331 ft B) 1375 ft C) 1355 ft D) 1341 ft

34) The volume of a cube is a function of its side, s, where V(s) = s3 . Find the volume of a cube 34)
if its side is 6 centimeters.
A) 18 cm 3 B) 216 cm 2 C) 18 cm 2 D) 216 cm 3

4
35) The volume of a sphere is a function of its radius, r, where V(r) = πr3. Find the volume 35)
of a
3
sphere if its radius is 15 inches. Use 3.14 as an approximation to the value of π. Round to
the
nearest tenth if necessary.
A) 7948.1 in.3 B) 1766.3 in.3 C) 14,130 in.3 D) 942
in.3

36) The area of a circle of radius r is given by the polynomial πr2, where π is an irrational number. 36)
Use
3.14 as an approximation of π, and find the area of a circle with radius 3 cm.
A) 9.42 cm 2 B) 27 cm 2 C) 18.84 cm 2 D) 28.26
cm 2

37) The number of different committees of 2 students where the 2 students are selected from a 37)
group
1 2
of n students is given by c(n) = (n - n). How many different committees of 2 students can
be
2
selected from a group of 9 students?
A) 1 B) 20 C) 9 D) 36

38) The number of ways that the first-, second-, and third-place winners in a singing competition 38)
can be selected from n finalists is given by P(n) = n 3 - 3n 2 + 2n. If there are 12 finalists, how
many ways can the first-, second-, and third-place winners be selected?
A) 1728 B) 1320 C) 479,001,600 D) 220

39)
The
7
 position of an object moving in a straight line is given by s = 3t2 - 2t, where s is in meters and t is 39)
the time in seconds the object has been in motion. How far will an object move in 8 seconds?
A) 104 meters B) 8 meters C) 64 meters D) 176
meters

40) The distance in feet it takes a car traveling at x mph to come to a full stop after hitting the 40)
brakes is given by 1.28x2 + 0.068x. Find the stopping distance for a speed of 30 mph. Round to
the nearest foot.
A) 1154 ft B) 2 ft C) 1145 ft D) 1172 ft

8
41) The polynomial -0.4t2 + 8t describes the average number of digits that participants in a 41)
memorization experiment were able to recall after t minutes. Find the number of digits
recalled after 9 minutes. Round to the nearest digit.
A) 80 digits B) 20 digits C) 60 digits D) 40 digits

42) A projectile is fired upward from the ground with an initial velocity of 200 feet per 42)
second.
Neglecting air resistance, the height of the projectile at any time t can be described by
the
2
polynomial function P(t) = -16t + 200t. Find the height of the projectile at t = 2
seconds.
A) 368 ft B) 436 ft C) 400 ft D) 336
ft

43) An object is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 18 feet per second from the top of a 586- 43)
foot building. The height of the object at any time t can be described by the polynomial
function
P(t) = -16t2 + 18t + 586. Find the height of the object at t = 3 seconds.
A) 460 ft B) -90 ft C) 592 ft D) 496 ft

44) Computer sales in the United States have increased since 1992. The function 44)
f(x) = 0.051x2 + 0.68x + 4.4 can be used to approximate the number of computer sales during
the years 1990-2000 where x is the number of years after 1990 and f(x) is the computer sales
(in millions). Approximate the number of computers sold in 1992. Round the answer to the
nearest tenth of a million.
A) 6 million B) 5.9 million C) 6.9 million D) 5.1 million

45) Total profit is defined as total revenue minus total cost. R(x) is the revenue from the sale 45)
of x
televisions and C(x) is the cost of producing x televisions. If R(x) = 270x - 0.9x2 and
C(x) = 8000 + 0.5x2 , find the profit from the sale of 80 televisions.
A) $27,040 B) $11,040 C) $20,640 D) $4640

9
Determine which of the graphs is the graph of the equation.
46) f(x) = 2x2 + 2x - 2 46)
A) B)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

C) D)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

47) f(x) = -2x2 + 3x + 2 47)

A) B)
5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
C) D)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

1
0
48) f(x) = 4x3 - 3x2 - 2x + 2 48)
A) B)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

C) D)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

49) f(x) = -6x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 49)

A) B)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
C) D)

5 y 5 y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5

1
1
Simplify.
50) (x2 + 8x - 6) + (6x + 4) 50)
A) 12x2 B) 6x2 + 8x - 2 C) 6x2 + 14x - 2 D) x2 + 14x -
2

51) (8y + 12) + (5y2 - 4y + 12) 51)

A) 5y2 + 12y - 24 B) 17y6 C) 5y2 - 4y + 24 D) 5y2 + 4y+
24

52) (5x2 - xy - y2) + (x2 + 11xy - 12y2 ) 52)

A) 6x2 + 10xy - 13y2 B) 6x2 + 10xy +
11y2
C) 6x2 - 12xy + 13y2 D) 6x2 - 12xy +
11y2

53) (11x2y - 3xy + 4) + (-10x2 y + 8xy - 7) 53)

A) 21x2 y + 11xy + 11 B) -x2 y - 11xy +
11
C) x2y + 5xy - 3 D) 5x3y2 - 3

54) 8z - (18 - 3z) 54)

A) 11z - 18 B) 5z - 18 C) 11z + 18 D) 5z +
18

55) (22y + 9) - (-13y2 - 11y + 55)

9) A) 13y2 + 33y - 18 B) 13y2 + 11y
C) 13y2 + 33y D) -13y2 + 11y + 18

56) (16y2 + 2) - (-12y4 - 8y2 + 56)

2) A) -12y4 + 8y2 + 4 B) 12y4 + 24y2 C) 12y4 + 24y2 - 4 D) 36y6

57) (6x2 + 8x - 3) - (2x2 + 6x - 57)

6) A) 4x2 + 14x + 3 B) 4x2 + 2x - 9 C) 4x2 + 2x + 3 D) 4x2 + 14x - 9

58) (10x2 + 4x - 3) - (2x2 - 7) 58)

A) 8x2 + 4x + 4 B) 12x2 + 4x + 4 C) 12x2 + 11x - 3 D) 8x2 + 11x - 3

59) (9a + 8b - 5c) - (3a - 5b - 59)

2c) A) 6a + 13b - 3c B) 6a + 3b - 3c C) 12a + 3b - 7c D) 6a + 13b - 7c

60) (3m + 10m 3 ) - (-9 - 6m - 3m 3 ) 60)

A) 13m 3 + 9m - 9 B) 13m3 + 9m + 9 C) 7m 3 + 9m + 9 D) 7m 3 + 9m
-9

61) (9a 2 b - 11ab + 6) - (4a 2 b + 5ab - 5) A

)
1
2
 5a2 b + 16ab - 11 B) 5a 2b + 16ab + 11 61)
C) 5a2 b - 16ab + 11 D) 13a 2 b - 16ab +
11

62) (9m 2 + 4mn - 5n 2 ) - (5m 2 - 7mn + 9n 2 ) 62)

A) 14m 2 - 3mn + 4n 2 B) 4m 2 - 3mn -
14n 2
C) 4m 2 + 11mn - 14n 2 D) 4m 2 + 11mn +
4n 2

1
3
63) (3.8x3 - 7.2x2 - 4) - (9.2x3 - 3.0x2 + 4) 63)
A) -5.4x3 - 4.2x2 - 8 B) -5.4x3 - 4.2x2 +
8
C) -5.4x3 - 10.2x2 - 8 D) 13x3 - 4.2x2 - 8

2 2 2 4 1 3
64) - x2 + x- + - x2 - x+ 64)
3 5 3 5 5
4

16 4 22 1 1
A) x2 - x-5 B) - x2 + x+
3 5 15 5 12
19 1 22 1 1
C) - x6 + D) - x4 + x2 +
15 12 15 5 12

10 2 5 1
65) - x2 y + - - x2 y - 65)
11 3 11
6

5 2 1 5 2 5 5 2 1 5 2 5
A) - x y+ B) x y+ C) x y+ D) - x y+

11 2 11 6 11 2 11 6

66) (26y + 15) - [-3y2 - (13y - 15)] 66)

A) -3y2 + 13y + 30 B) 3y2 + 39y - 30 C) 3y2 + 39y D) 3y2 +
13y

67) (3w2 - 3w) - [(w 2 + 5w) - (6w 2 - 2w)] 67)

A) 8w2 - 10w B) -4w2 - 10w C) -4w2 - 6w D) 8w2 -
6w

68) (1.5x3 + 7.1x2 + 4.9) + (6.4x - 2.5) - (3.8x2 - x - 9.3) 68)

A) 1.5x3 + 10.9x2 + 5.4x - 6.9 B) 12.2x6 + 11.7
C) 1.5x3 + 3.3x2 + 6.4x + 11.7 D) 1.5x3 + 3.3x2 + 7.4x +
11.7

69) Subtract (x - 6) from (10x + 8) 69)

A) 10x + 14 B) 10x + 2 C) 9x + 14 D) 9x +
2

70) Add 6x2 y - 3xy + 7 and -5x2 y + 5xy - 4 70)

A) 11x2 y + 8xy + 11 B) 2x3y2 + 3
C) -x2 y - 8xy + 11 D) x2 y + 2xy +
3

1
4
 71) Subtract (14a 2 b - 13ab) from (20a 2 b - 9ab) 71)
A) 34a 2 b - 22ab B) 6a 2 b - 22ab C) 6a2 b + 4ab D) 34a 2 b +
4ab

72) Subtract -4s2 - 3s + 2. from -s2 - 6s + 5 72)

A) 3s2 + 3s + 3 B) 5s2 - 3s + 7 C) -5s2 - 9s + 7 D) 3s2 - 3s +
3

Simplify. Assume that all exponents represent natural numbers.

73) (6x2r - xr - 1) + (x2r + 11xr + 3) 73)
A) 6x2r + 11xr + 3 B) 5x4r - 12x2r -
4
C) 7x2r + 10xr + 2 D) 7x4r + 12x2r +
4

1
5
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temporary carrier. Finally, another class of Pelagic fishes come to the
surface of the ocean during the night only; in the day time they
descend to some depth, where they are undisturbed by the rays of
the sun or the agitation of the surface-water: such are Brama, the
Sternoptychidæ, Scopelus, Astronesthes; fishes, the majority of
which are provided with those extraordinary luminary organs that we
find so much developed in the true Deep-sea fishes. Indeed, this last
kind of Pelagic fishes forms a passage to the Deep-sea forms.
Pelagic fishes, like shore fishes, are most numerous in the
Tropical Zone; and, with few exceptions (Echinorhinus, Psenes,
Sternoptychidæ, Astronesthes), the same genera are represented in
the tropical Atlantic as well as in the Indo-Pacific. The number of
identical species occurring in both these oceans is great, and
probably still greater than would appear from systematic lists, in
which there are retained many specific names that were given at a
time when species were believed to have a very limited range. The
Pelagic fauna of the tropics gradually passes into that of the
temperate zones, only a few genera, like Cybium, Psenes,
Antennarius, being almost entirely confined to the tropics. All the
other tropical genera range into the temperate zones, but their
representatives become scarcer with the increasing distance from
the equator. North of 40° lat. N. many genera have disappeared, or
are met with in isolated examples only, as Carcharias, Zygæna,
Notidanus, Myliobatidæ, Dactylopterus, Echeneis, Nomeus,
Coryphæna, Schedophilus, Seriola, Temnodon, Antennarius,
Sternoptychidæ, Astronesthes, Exocoetus, Tetrodon, Diodon; and
only one genus of Sharks, Galeocerdo, approaches the Arctic circle.
Some few species, like Antennarius, Scopelus, are carried by
currents near to the northern confines of the temperate zones; but
such occurrences are accidental, and these fishes must be regarded
as entirely foreign to the fauna of those latitudes. On the other hand,
some Pelagic fishes inhabit the temperate zones, whilst their
occurrence within the tropics is very problematical; thus, in the
Atlantic, Thalassorhinus, Selache, Læmargus, Centrolophus, Diana,
Ausonia, Lampris (all genera composed of one or two species only).
Beside the Shark mentioned, no other Pelagic fishes are known from
the Arctic Ocean.
 We possess very little information about the Pelagic fish-fauna of
the Southern oceans. So much only is certain, that the tropical forms
gradually disappear; but it would be hazardous, in the present state
of our knowledge, to state even approximately, the limits of the
southward range of a single genus. Scarcely more is known about
the appearance of types peculiar to the Southern temperate zone;
for instance, the gigantic Shark (Rhinodon), representing the
Northern Selache, near the coasts of South Africa, and the
Scombroid genus, Gastrochisma, in the South Pacific.
The largest of marine fishes, Rhinodon, Selache, Carcharodon,
Myliobatidæ, Thynnus, Xiphiidæ, Orthagoriscus, belong to the
Pelagic Fauna. Young fishes are frequently found in mid-ocean,
which are the offspring of shore-fishes normally depositing their
spawn near the coast. The manner, in which this fry passes into the
open sea, is unknown; for it has not yet been ascertained whether it
is carried by currents from the place where it was deposited
originally, or whether shore-fishes sometimes spawn at a distance
from the coast. We may remember that shore-fishes inhabit not only
coasts but also submerged banks with some depth of water above,
and that, by the action of the water, spawn deposited on these latter
localities is very liable to be dispersed over wide areas of the ocean.
Embryoes of at least some shore-fishes hatched under abnormal
conditions seem to have an abnormal growth up to a certain period
of their life, when they perish. The Leptocephali must be regarded as
such abnormally developed fish (see p. 179). Fishes of a similar
condition are the so-called Pelagic Plagusiæ, young Pleuronectoids,
the origin of which is still unknown. As mentioned before, Flat-fishes,
like all the other Anacanths, are otherwise not represented in the
Pelagic fauna.
 Figs. 109 and 110.—Antennarius
candimaculatus, a pelagic fish, from the
Indian Ocean.
 CHAPTER XXI.

THE FISHES OF THE DEEP SEA.

The knowledge of the existence of deep-sea fishes is one of the

recent discoveries of ichthyology. It is only about twenty years ago
that, from the evidence afforded by the anatomical structure of a few
singular fishes obtained in the North Atlantic, an opinion was
expressed that these fishes inhabited great depths of the ocean, and
that their organisation was specially adapted for living under the
physical abyssal conditions. These fishes agreed in the character of
their connective tissue, which was so extremely weak as to yield to,
and to break under, the slightest pressure, so that the greatest
difficulty is experienced to preserve their body in its continuity.
Another singular circumstance was, that some of the specimens
were picked up floating on the surface of the water, having met their
deaths whilst engaged in swallowing or digesting another fish not
much inferior or even superior in size to themselves.
The first peculiarity was accounted for by the fact that, if those
fishes really inhabited the great depths supposed, their removal from
the enormous pressure under which they lived would be
accompanied by such an expansion of gases within their tissues as
to rupture them, and to cause a separation of the parts which had
been held together by the pressure. The second circumstance was
explained thus:—A raptatorial fish organised to live at a depth of
between 500 and 800 fathoms seizes another usually inhabiting a
depth of between 300 and 500 fathoms. In its struggles to escape,
the fish seized, nearly as large or strong as the attacking fish, carries
the latter out of its depth into a higher stratum, where the diminished
pressure causes such an expansion of gases as to make the
destroyer with its victim rise with increasing rapidity towards the
surface, which they reach dead or in a dying condition. Specimens in
this condition are not rarely picked up; and as, of course,
comparatively few can by accident fall into the hands of naturalists,
occurrences of the kind related must happen very often.
Thus, the existence of fishes peculiarly adapted for the deep sea
has been a fact maintained and admitted for some time in
Ichthyology; and as the same genera and species were found at very
distant parts of the ocean, it was further stated that those Deep-sea
fishes were not limited in their range, and that, consequently, the
physical conditions of the depths of the ocean must be the same or
nearly the same over the whole globe. That Deep-sea fishes were
not of a peculiar order, but chiefly modified forms of surface types,
was another conclusion arrived at from the sporadic evidence
collected during the period which preceded systematic deep-sea
dredging.
However, nothing was positively known as to the exact depths
inhabited by those fishes until observations were made during the
voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger.” The results obtained by this
expedition afforded a surer and more extended basis for our
knowledge of Deep-sea fishes.
The physical conditions of the deep sea, which must affect the
organisation and distribution of fishes, are the following:—
1. Absence of sunlight. Probably the rays of the sun do not
penetrate to, and certainly do not extend beyond, a depth of 200
fathoms, therefore we may consider this to be the depth where the
Deep-sea fauna commences. Absence of light is, of necessity,
accompanied by modifications of the organs of vision and by
simplification of colours.
2. The absence of sunlight is in some measure compensated for
by the presence of phosphorescent light, produced by many marine
animals, and also by numerous Deep-sea fishes.
3. Depression and equality of the temperature. At a depth of 500
fathoms the temperature of the water is already as low as 40° Fahr.,
and perfectly independent of the temperature of the surface-water;
and from the greatest depths upwards to about 1000 fathoms the
temperature is uniformly but a few degrees above freezing-point.
Temperature, therefore, ceases to offer an obstacle to the unlimited
dispersal of Deep-sea fishes.
4. The increased pressure by the water. The pressure of the
atmosphere on the level of the sea amounts to fifteen pounds per
square inch of the surface of the body of an animal; but the pressure
amounts to a ton weight for every 1000 fathoms of depth.
5. With the sunlight, vegetable life ceases in the depths of the
sea. All Deep-sea fishes are therefore carnivorous; the most
voracious feeding frequently on their own offspring, and the toothless
kinds being nourished by the animalcules which live on the bottom,
or which, “like a constant rain,” settle down from the upper strata
towards the bottom of the sea.
6. The perfect quiet of the water at great depths. The agitation of
the water, caused by the disturbances of the air, does not extend
beyond the depth of a few fathoms; below this surface-stratum there
is no other movement except the quiet flow of ocean-currents, and
near the bottom of the deep sea the water is probably in a state of
almost entire quiescence.
The effect upon fishes of the physical conditions described is
clearly testified by the modification of one or more parts of their
organisation, so that every Deep-sea fish may be recognised as
such, without the accompanying positive evidence that it has been
caught at a great depth; and vice versa, fishes reputed to have been
obtained at a great depth, and not having any of the characteristics
of the dwellers of the deep sea, must be regarded as surface-fishes.
The most striking characteristic, found in many Deep-sea fishes,
is in relation to the tremendous pressure under which they live. Their
osseous and muscular systems are, as compared with the same
parts of surface-fishes, very feebly developed. The bones have a
fibrous, fissured, and cavernous texture; are light, with scarcely any
calcareous matter, so that the point of a needle will readily penetrate
them without breaking. The bones, especially the vertebræ, appear
to be most loosely connected with one another; and it requires the
most careful handling to prevent the breaking of the connective
ligaments. The muscles, especially the great lateral muscles of the
trunk and tail, are thin, the fascicles being readily separated from
one another or torn, the connective tissue being extremely loose,
feeble, or apparently absent. This peculiarity has been observed in
the Trachypteridæ, Plagyodus, Chiasmodus, Melanocetus,
Saccopharynx. But we cannot assume that it actually obtains whilst
those fishes exist under their natural conditions. Some of them are
most rapacious creatures which must be able to execute rapid and
powerful movements to catch and overpower their prey; and for that
object their muscular system, thin as its layers may be, must be as
firm, and the chain of the segments of their vertebral column as
firmly linked together as in surface-fishes. Therefore, it is evident that
the change which the body of those fishes has undergone on their
withdrawal from the pressure under which they live is a much
aggravated form of the affection that is experienced by persons
reaching great altitudes in their ascent of a mountain or in a balloon.
In every living organism with an intestinal tract there are
accumulations of free gases; and, moreover, the blood and other
fluids, which permeate every part of the body, contain gases in
solution. Under greatly diminished pressure these gases expand, so
that, if the withdrawal from a depth is not an extremely slow and
gradual process, the various tissues must be distended, loosened,
ruptured; and what is a vigorous fish at a depth of 500 or more
fathoms, appears at the surface as a loosely-jointed body which, if
the skin is not of sufficient toughness, can only be kept together with
difficulty. At great depths a fibrous osseous structure and a thin layer
of muscles suffices to obtain the same results for which, at the
surface, thickness of muscle and firm osseous or cartilaginous tissue
are necessary.
The muciferous system of many Deep-sea fishes is developed in
an extraordinary degree. We find already in fishes which are
comparatively little removed from the surface (that is to depths of
100–200 fathoms), the lateral line much wider than in their
congeners or nearest allies which live on the surface, as in
Trachichthys, Hoplostethus, many Scorpænidæ. But in fishes
inhabiting depths of 1000 and more fathoms, the whole muciferous
system is dilated; it is especially the surface of the skull which is
occupied by large cavities (Macruridæ, deep-sea Ophidiidæ), and
the whole body seems to be covered with a layer of mucus. These
cavities collapse and shrink in specimens which have been
preserved in spirit for some time, but a re-immersion in water for a
short time generally suffices to show the immense quantity of mucus
secreted by them. The physiological use of this secretion is
unknown; it has been observed to have phosphorescent properties
in perfectly fresh specimens.
The colours of Deep-sea fishes are extremely simple, their
bodies being either black or silvery; in a few only are some filaments
or the fin-rays of a bright scarlet colour. Among the black forms
albinoes are not scarce.
The organ of sight is the first to be affected by a sojourn in deep
water. Even in fishes which habitually live at a depth of only 80
fathoms, we find the eye of a proportionally larger size than in their
representatives at the surface. In such fishes the eyes increase in
size with the depth inhabited by them, down to the depth of 200
fathoms, the large eyes being necessary to collect as many rays of
light as possible. Beyond that depth small-eyed fishes as well as
large-eyed occur, the former having their want of vision
compensated for by tentacular organs of touch, whilst the latter have
no such accessory organs, and evidently see only by the aid of
phosphorescence. In the greatest depths blind fishes occur with
rudimentary eyes and without special organs of touch.
Many fishes of the deep sea are provided with more or less
numerous, round, shining, mother-of-pearl-coloured bodies,
imbedded in the skin. These so-called phosphorescent or luminous
organs are either larger bodies of an oval or irregularly elliptical
shape placed on the head, in the vicinity of the eye, or smaller round
globular bodies arranged symmetrically in series along the side of
the body and tail, especially near the abdominal profile, less
frequently along the back. The former have not yet been
anatomically examined. The number of pairs of the latter is in direct
relation to that of the segments of the vertebral column, the muscular
system, etc. (meta*-meres); and two kinds may be distinguished
differing from each other in their anatomical structure. The organs of
one kind consist of an anterior, biconvex, lens-like body, which is
transparent during life, simple or composed of rods (Chauliodus);
and of a posterior chamber which is filled with a transparent fluid,
and coated with a dark membrane composed of hexagonal cells, or
of rods arranged as in a retina. This structure is found in
Astronesthes, Stomias, Chauliodus, etc. In the other kind the organ
shows throughout a simply glandular structure, but apparently
without an efferent duct (Gonostoma, Scopelus, Maurolicus,
Argyropelecus). Branches of the spinal nerves run to each organ,
and are distributed over the retina-like membrane or the glandular
follicles. The former kind of organs are considered by some
naturalists true organs of vision (accessory eyes), the function of the
latter being left unexplained by them.
Although, thus, these organs morphologically differ from each
other, there is no doubt that the functions of all have some relation to
the peculiar conditions of light under which the fishes provided with
them live; these fishes being either deep-sea forms or nocturnal
pelagic kinds. There are three possible hypotheses as to the function
of these organs:—
1. All the different kinds of organs are sensory, or, in other words,
accessory eyes.
2. Only the organs with a lenticular body are sensory, and those
with a glandular structure produce and emit phosphorescent light.
3. All are producers of light.
There are very serious objections to adopting the first view.
Scopelus and Argyropelecus possess not only perfectly developed,
but even large eyes, specially adapted for a nocturnal life; and
therefore accessory organs of vision must appear to be quite
superfluous to them. On the other hand, in Deep-sea fishes without
external eyes, which would seem to especially require these
metameric organs of sense, they are invariably absent. And, finally, it
is quite inconceivable that the glandular structures should have the
faculty of conveying impressions of light to the nervous centre. The
second supposition seems therefore to be nearer the truth; and is
supported by the fact that the glandular organs of Scopeli have
actually been observed to gleam with phosphorescent light, and by
the obvious morphological similarity of the organs with a lenticular
body and retina-like membrane to an organ of vision. We are,
moreover, justified, from an à priori consideration, in supposing that
in depths to which no sunlight descends, and which are illuminated
by phosphorescent light only, peculiar organs of vision would have
been developed. On the other hand, this supposition is opposed by
the fact that many fishes which dwell in those abyssal depths are
provided with large ordinary eyes (as the Trachypteri, the majority of
Macruridæ), and, therefore, that the ordinary organ of vision is quite
sufficient for seeing by phosphorescent light. Thus, whilst we must
admit that those compound organs may prove to be organs of sense,
we maintain at the same time that their morphological nature is not
opposed to the belief that they too, like the glandular organs, are
producers of light. It may be produced at the bottom of the posterior
chamber, and emitted through the lenticular body in particular
directions, with the same effect as light is sent through the convex
glass of a “bull’s eye.” This hypothesis seems to be less bold than
the other, which would require us to believe that vertebrate animals,
with a nervous centre specialised for the reception of the
impressions of the higher senses, should receive them through the
spinal chord.
[See Ussow, “Ueber den Bau der sogenannten augenaehnlichen
Flecken einiger Knochenfische.” St. Petersburg, Bullet. 1879.]
Whenever we find in a fish long delicate filaments, developed in
connection with the fins or the extremity of the tail, we may conclude
that it is an inhabitant of still water and of quiet habits. Many deep-
sea fishes (Trachypteridæ, Macruridæ, Ophidiidæ, Bathypterois) are
provided with such filamentous prolongations, the development of
which is perfectly in accordance with their sojourn in the absolutely
quiet waters of abyssal depths.
Some of the raptatorial Deep-sea fishes have a stomach so
distensible and capacious that it can receive a fish of twice or thrice
the bulk of the destroyer (Melanocetus, Chiasmodus,
Saccopharynx). Deglutition is performed in them not by means of the
muscles of the pharynx, as in other fishes, but by the independent
and alternate action of the jaws, as in Snakes. These fishes cannot
be said to swallow their food, but rather draw themselves over their
victim, in the fashion of an Actinia.
Before the voyage of H.M.S. “Challenger,” scarcely thirty Deep-
sea fishes were known. This number is now much increased by the
discovery of many new species and genera; but, singularly, no new
types of families were discovered: nothing but what might have been
expected from our previous knowledge of this group of fishes.
Modifications of certain organs, perfectly novel, and of the greatest
interest, were found, as we shall see in the “Systematic Part;” but the
most important results of this voyage are that the general character
of the abyssal fish-fauna, the abundance of fishes, and the exact
depths to which fishes may descend, have been ascertained.
However, the statements of the depths at which the fishes
collected by the “Challenger” were taken cannot be received without
some critical examination of each individual species. No precaution
was taken to keep the mouth of the dredge closed during its descent
or ascent, and therefore it is quite within the limits of probability that
sometimes fishes were accidentally enclosed within the dredge,
whilst it was traversing the surface strata. And this has happened
more than once; for it is quite certain that common surface fishes like
Sternoptyx and Astronestles, never ranged to a depth of 2500
fathoms. On the other hand, the majority of the fishes obtained offer
sufficient evidence from their own organisation that they live on the
bottom, and are unable to support themselves in the water at a
certain distance from the bottom or surface; and, consequently, that
they actually were obtained at the depth to which the dredge
descended.
As far as the observations go at present, no distinct bathymetrical
regions, which would be characterised by peculiar forms, can be
defined. The depths from 200 to 600 fathoms are inhabited by
numerous forms, still strongly reminding us of surface types. To this
fauna belong the few Chondropterygians of the deep sea, a
Sebastes and Setarches, a Beryx and Polymixia, a Cottus, etc.; but
they are associated with many others which descend to the greatest
depths. And before anything like a division into bathymetrical zones
can be attempted, the observations of the “Challenger” expedition
must be confirmed and supplemented by other series of similar
systematic observations. One of the most startling conclusions at
which we would have to arrive from the “Challenger” observations is,
that some of the species of Deep-sea fishes would range from a
depth of some 300 fathoms down to one of 2000 fathoms; or, in
other words, that a fish which has once attained in its organisation to
that modification by which it is enabled to exist under the pressure of
half a ton, can easily accommodate itself to one of two tons or more,
—a conclusion which is not in accordance with anatomical facts, and
which must be confirmed by other observations before we can adopt
it. But if the vertical range of Deep-sea fishes is actually as it
appears from the “Challenger” lists, then there is no more distinct
vertical than horizontal distribution of Deep-sea fishes.
The greatest depth reached hitherto by a dredge in which fishes
were enclosed is 2900 fathoms. But the specimens thus obtained
belong to a species (Gonostoma microdon), which seems to be
extremely abundant in upper strata of the Atlantic and Pacific, and
were therefore most likely caught by the dredge in its ascent. The
next greatest depth, viz., 2750 fathoms, must be accepted as one at
which fishes undoubtedly do live; the fish obtained from this depth of
the Atlantic, Bathyophis ferox, showing by its whole habit that it is a
form living on the bottom of the ocean.
The fish-fauna of the deep sea is composed chiefly of forms or
modifications of forms which we find represented at the surface in
the cold and temperate zones, or which appear as nocturnal pelagic
forms. The Chondropterygians are few in number, not descending to
a depth of more than 600 fathoms. The Acanthopterygians, which
form the majority of the coast and surface faunas, are also scantily
represented; genera identical with surface types are confined to the
same inconsiderable depths as the Chondropterygians, whilst those
Acanthopterygians which are so much specialised for the life in the
deep sea as to deserve generic separation, range from 200 to 2400
fathoms. Three distinct families of Acanthopterygians belong to the
deep-sea fauna, viz. Trachypteridæ, Lophotidæ, and Notacanthidæ;
they respectively consist of three, one, or two genera only.
Gadidæ, Ophidiidæ, and Macruridæ are very numerous, ranging
through all depths; they constitute about one-fourth of the whole
deep-sea fauna.
 Of Physostomi, the families of Sternoptychidæ, Scopelidæ,
Stomiatidæ, Salmonidæ, Bathythrissidæ, Alepocephalidæ,
Halosauridæ, and Murænidæ are represented. Of these the
Scopeloids are the most numerous, constituting nearly another
fourth of the fauna. Salmonidæ are scarce, with three small genera
only. Bathythrissidæ include one species only, which is probably
confined in its vertical as well as horizontal range; it occurs at a
depth of about 350 fathoms in the sea of Japan. The
Alepocephalidæ and Halosauridæ, known before the “Challenger”
expedition from isolated examples only, prove to be true, widely-
spread, deep-sea types. Eels are well represented, and seem to
descend to the greatest depths.
Myxine has been obtained from a depth of 345 fathoms.
It will be useful to append a complete list of Deep-sea fishes, with
the depths as ascertained by the dredgings of the “Challenger:”—
List of Deep-sea Fishes.
Fathoms.
Chondropterygians—
Raja 565
Scyllium 400
Centroscyllium 245
Centrophorus 345–500
Acanthopterygians—
Pomatomus (? down to) 200
Sebastes 275
Setarches 215
Beryx 345
Melamphaes (? beyond) 200
Polymixia 345
Nealotus
Nesiarchus
Aphanopus
Euoxymetopon
Lepidopus 345
Gempylus
Anomalops
? Antigonia
Diretmus
 Cottus 565
Bathydraco 1260
Oneirodes
Melanocetus johnsonii 1850
„ bispinosus 360
Himantolophus
Chaunax 215
Ceratias 2400
Halieutichthys
Dibranchus 360
Trachypteridæ
Lophotes
Notacanthus rissoanus 1875
„ bonapartii 400
Anacanthini—
Melanonus 1975
Lotella marginata 120–345
Physiculus 345
Uraleptus
Læmonema
Haloporphyrus australis 55–70
„ lepidion 345–600
„ rostratus 600–1375
Chiasmodus niger 1500
Sirembo grandis 1875
„ macrops 375
„ messieri 345
„ ocellatus 350
„ brachysoma 350
Acanthonus armatus 1075
Typhlonus nasus 2440
Aphyonus gelatinosus 1400
Rhinonus ater 2150
Bathynectes laticeps 2500
„ compressus 1075–2500
„ gracilis 1400
Pteridium
Macrurus (12 species) 120–700
Coryphænoides norvegicus
„ serratus
„ nasutus 345–565
„ villosus 345
„ rudis 500–650
 „ æqualis 600
„ crassiceps 520–650
„ microlepis 215
„ murrayi 1100
„ serrulatus 700
„ filicauda 1800–2650
„ variabilis 1375–2425
„ affinis 1900
„ carinatus 500
„ longifilis 565
„ altipinnis 565–1875
„ asper 500–1875
„ leptolepis 350–2050
„ sclerorhynchus 1090
„ denticulatus 275–520
Malacocephalus 350
Bathygadus cottoides 520–700
„ multifilis 500
Sternoptychidæ—
Argyropelecus 1127 [?]
Sternoptyx 0–2500 [?]
Polyipnus 255
Gonostoma denudatum
„ microdon 500–2900 [?]
„ elongatum 360–800
„ gracile 345–2425
Chauliodus 565–2560
Scopelidæ—
Bathysaurus ferox 1100
„ mollis 1875–2385
Bathypterois longifilis 520–630
„ longipes 2650
„ quadrifilis 500–770
„ longicauda 2550
Chlorophthalmus agassizii 215
„ nigripinnis 120
„ gracilis 1100–1425
Scopelus engraulis 255
„ antarcticus 1950
„ antarcticus
„ mizolepis 800
„ dumerilii 215
„ macrolepidotus 520–630
 „ crassiceps 675–1550
„ macrostoma 2350–2425
„ microps 1375
Odontostomus hyalinus
Odontostomus humeralis 500
Nannobrachium nigrum 500
Ipnops murrayi 1600–2150
Paralepis
Sudis
Plagyodus
Stomiatidæ—
Astronesthes niger 2500 [?]
Stomias boa 450–1800
„ barbatus
„ ferox
Echiostoma barbatum
„ micripnus 2150
„ microdon 2440
Malacosteus niger
„ indicus 500
Bathyophis ferox 2750
Salmonidæ—
Argentina
Microstoma
Bathylagus antarcticus 1950
„ atlanticus 2040
Bathythrissidæ—
Bathythrissa dorsalis 345
Alepocephalidæ—
Alepocephalus rostratus
„ niger 1400
Platytroctes apus 1500
Bathytroctes microlepis 1090
„ rostratus 675
„ macrolepis 2150
Xenodermichthys 345
Halosauridæ—
Halosaurus owenii
„ affinis 565
„ macrochir 1090–1375
„ mediorostris 700
„ rostratus 2750
Murænidæ—
 Nemichthys scolopacea
„ infans 500–2500
Cyema atrum 1500–1800
Saccopharynx
Synaphobranchus pinatus 345–1200
„ bathybius 1875–2050
„ brevidorsalis 1075–1375
„ affinis 345
Nettastoma parviceps 345
Cyclostomata—
Myxine australis 345

Fig. 111.—Chiasmodus niger; obtained in the North Atlantic at a

depth of 1500 fathoms; the specimen has swallowed a large
Scopelus (s); o, ventral fin.
 SYSTEMATIC AND DESCRIPTIVE PART.

The Class of Fishes is divided into four sub-classes:—

I. Palæichthyes.—Heart with a contractile conus arteriosus;
intestine with a spiral valve; optic nerves non-decussating, or only
partially decussating.
II. Teleostei.—Heart with a non-contractile bulbus arteriosus;
intestine without spiral valve; optic nerves decussating. Skeleton
ossified, with completely separated vertebræ.
III. Cyclostomata.—Heart without bulbus arteriosus; intestine
simple. Skeleton cartilaginous and notochordal. One nasal aperture
only. No jaws; mouth surrounded by a circular lip.
IV. Leptocardii.—Heart replaced by pulsating sinuses; intestine
simple. Skeleton membrano-cartilaginous and notochordal. No skull;
no brain.
FIRST SUB-CLASS: PALÆICHTHYES.

Heart with a contractile conus arteriosus;[30] intestine with a spiral

valve;[31] optic nerves non-decussating, or only partially decussating;
[32] skeleton cartilaginous or osseous.

This sub-class comprises the Sharks and Rays, and the Ganoid
fishes. Although based upon a singular concurrence of most
important characters, its members exhibit as great a diversity of
form, and as manifold modifications in the remainder of their
organisation as the Teleostei. The Palæichthyes stand to the
Teleostei in the same relation as the Marsupials to the Placentalia.
Geologically, as a sub-class, they were the predecessors of
Teleosteous fishes; and it is a remarkable fact that all those
modifications which show an approach of the ichthyic type to the
Batrachians are found in this sub-class. We divide it into two orders:
Chondropterygii and Ganoidei.