MEKELLE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCES,

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES (POST GRADUATE PROGRAM
IN HYDROGEOLOGY)
TITLE:

GROUNDWATER MODELLING AND OPTIMIZATION OF IRRIGATION WATER

USE EFFICIENCY TO SUSTAIN IRRIGATION IN RAYA VALLEY, ALAMATA SUB-
BASIN, NORTHERN ETHIOPIA

BY;

SELAMAWIT HABTE

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTEMENT OF EARTH SCIENCE

PRINCIPAL ADVISOR: TESFAMICHAEL G/YOHANIS (PHD)

CO-ADVISOR: ABDELWASSIE HUSSIEN (PHD)

MEKELLE, ETHIOPIA
NOV, 2016
TABLE OF CONTENT
Content page No

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................1

1.1 Background............................................................................................................................1
1.2. Problem statement.................................................................................................................3
1. 3. Objectives.............................................................................................................................4
1.3.1 General objective.............................................................................................................4
1.3.2 Specific Objectives..........................................................................................................4
1.4. Research questions................................................................................................................4
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................................................5
2.1 previous studies......................................................................................................................5
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIAL AND METHOD.......................................................................8
3.1 Description of the study area.................................................................................................8
3.2 Approaches and Methodology...............................................................................................9
3.2.1 Approaches......................................................................................................................9
3.2.2 Methods.........................................................................................................................10
Materials........................................................................................................................................15
Expected out put............................................................................................................................16
Significance of the study...............................................................................................................16
CHAPTER FOUR: WORK PLAN................................................................................................17
4.1 Activity plan.........................................................................................................................17
4.2 Budget plan..........................................................................................................................18
References......................................................................................................................................19
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Groundwater plays an important role in Ethiopia as a source of water for domestic, industrial and
agriculture uses. In rural areas, which cover more than 85% of the population of Ethiopia, the
problem of water shortage can be solved by proper development and utilization of groundwater.
The rural communities use groundwater to meet their demand for domestic and irrigation
because of its several inherent qualities; widespread and continuous availability, excellent natural
quality, draught reliability. It is an important and dependable source of water supplies in all
climatic regions including both urban and rural areas of developed and developing countries
(Todd, 2005). Though groundwater is dependable resource, the sustainability of groundwater use
is crucial.

To ensure the sustainable utilization of the resource and to give proper solution for water supply
problems in arid and semi arid areas, the first attempt is identification of the main aquifers,
which are located in different geological environments and variable climates. Secondly, proper
development and utilization of the resource is the most important aspect that has given a great
deal of consideration. Parallel to population growth, food demand of people and consequently,
the water demand of all sectors are also increasing, agricultural yield and productivity has been
increased to provide a sustainable development and food security of the increasing population.
These bring the need for effective and sustainable water resource utilization and countries to
implement water saving technologies in irrigation practices (Cakmak et al., 2006). Groundwater
use in Ethiopia has been limited to community water supply using shallow and dug wells and
unprotected springs. The use of the deep groundwater from boreholes for agriculture is almost
non –existent (Tamiru, 2006). However, at present the Federal Government of Ethiopia together
with the Regional Governments is trying to utilize the resource for irrigation purpose at different
location of the country. When the groundwater is used for irrigation, it is necessary to maintain
the groundwater reservoir in state of dynamic equilibrium over a period of time and the water
level fluctuations have to be kept within a particular range over the rainy and dry seasons.
Irrigation water increases crop yields and quality in semi-arid areas like Raya valley, Northern
Part of Ethiopia. It is essential especially during periods of erratic rain fall and drought. The
irrigation water efficiency has to be increased as much as possible. The right amount of irrigation
water has to be reached the right place at the right time in order to have effective irrigation.
Water efficiency of irrigation can be improved by making the right decision regarding to crop
selection, irrigation scheduling and irrigation methods. The actual irrigation system capacity, the
crop water demand is computed by Aqua crop model. This helps to reduce the amount of
irrigation water pumped and avoid excessive energy use. Quantification of the actual irrigation
water demand also provides critical information to the farmers, local groundwater conservation,
Irrigation and regional water planning groups.
Raya valley is one of the resource-endowed parts of the Tigray region in terms of groundwater,
fertile land, livestock potential and agro-climatic conditions. It is located at the western edge of
the Danakil basin that consists of a number of small closed basins separated by volcanic
mountains. The basin fill is mainly composed of unconsolidated material, which includes gravel
and coarse sand with some pebbles and cobbles as colluvial deposits at the foot of the
escarpment and medium to coarse alluvial materials along the intermittent river and finer valley
centre deposits (RVDP, 1997).
In the study area the need for groundwater use in the irrigation scheme exists, because rainfall
and surface resources, due to their seasonal variability and scarcity, may not meet the irrigation
requirement of the study area. However, most of the previous studies have been concerned more
with resources development to meet users need with little attention to the groundwater resources
management. Therefore, safe groundwater abstraction and proper groundwater management is
crucial for sustainability of the resources and quantification of the current rate of natural
groundwater recharge is basic prerequisite for efficient groundwater management. And this is
even more important in semi-arid regions where such resources are often the key economic
development (Simmers, 1988). It will be especially critical where large and concentrated
demands for groundwater both for irrigation and for domestic supply exist as in the case of Raya
valley. Thus proper understanding of natural recharge and groundwater flow system is necessary
and there is a need for means of quantifying and assessing the effect of continued extraction of
the resources in the area (Anderson and Woessner, 1992).
In this thesis, numerical groundwater modeling of Raya valley, Alamata sub-basin using
VISUAL MODFLOW-version 3.0.0.163 for steady state condition has given higher priority in
addition to optimization of irrigation water use efficiency in the area. Therefore clear
understanding of the response of the aquifer is crucial for better management of groundwater
resources.

1.2. Problem statement

Even though the Raya valley, Alamata Sub-basin, is rich in fertile soil for agricultural
production, the lowland area has low rainfall which is insufficient for higher agricultural
production. Due to erratic rainfall distribution in the area, the farmers often fail to satisfy the
required soil moisture conditions for growing crops. Consequently, the area was affected by
drought in a number of times (REST, 1996). Now a day, using groundwater is growing
continuously and increasingly being used as a main source of water for irrigation. However,
there is no control or management of groundwater resources, hence developing ground water
model is essential.
The Raya valley has a potential land to irrigate however; the current irrigated land is less than the
potential. Due to high energy cost for pumping water from wells and problem of on-farm water
management, there is a need to optimize water use efficiency and maximize crop yield.
Therefore, considering the above mentioned problem in to account, this research is aimed to
model groundwater and optimize irrigation water use efficiency to sustain irrigation in the study
area.
1. 3. Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of this research is to model groundwater and optimize irrigation water use
efficiency to sustain irrigation in Raya valley, Alamata sub-basin, Northern Ethiopia.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

1. To quantify the recharge and abstraction of groundwater.
2. To analyze the impacts or drawdown of wells under different well operation scenarios.
3. To optimize the groundwater resource use and improve irrigation water use efficiency.

1.4. Research Questions

 What is the recharge and abstraction of groundwater in the study area?

 What are the impacts or drawdown of wells under different well operation scenarios?
 What are the possible scenarios to optimize the use of groundwater resource?

1.5 Significance of the Study

To enhance the livelihood of the people in Raya Valley, Alamata Sub-basin, groundwater is
believed to play a great role compared to the other sources of water in the area. Different
hydrological and hydrogeological studies conducted in Raya Valley showed the available
potentiality of groundwater without considering its limitedness. Groundwater does not recycle as
fast as the surface water. Groundwater turnover vary from years to millennia, depending on
aquifer location, type, depth, properties, and connectivity (Victor, 2006). Unregulated
groundwater use, can lead to the catastrophe of the commons, with the eventual depletion of the
resource and ruin to all, where groundwater is extracted at a rate faster that it can be replenished.
The effects of excessive groundwater development tend to become apparent gradually, with time
often measured in decades. This show, an area with high groundwater reserve can be exhausted,
if it works beyond its capability, because it is finite resource. Therefore to ensure sustainability
of groundwater Alamata Sub-basin, this study will provide the following major significances: It
will create clear understanding, about better understanding of Groundwater flow system, to
evaluate possible management strategies to alleviate existing problems in groundwater flow
system and frequently applied to determine the effects of increased water withdrawal, it will
clarify the main causes that can lead to groundwater depletion and measures that can make the
resource sustainable.

1.6 Thesis Structure

This thesis paper has seven chapters. In chapter one, the introductory part that includes
background of the study, problem statement, scope of the study, objective of the study, research
questions, and significance of the study respectively. Chapter two, deals with literature review
on groundwater modeling, groundwater recharge and groundwater abstraction and review of
previous studies in the area are discussed respectively. Chapter three describes the study area in
terms of location, topography, drainage, soils, land use and land cover, geology and
hydrogeology as well as the general methodology of the study. Chapter four Analysis and
Model input data preparation. Chapter five Groundwater Modeling of Alamata sub-basins.
Chapter six presents the results and discussions on the research findings as per the objective of
the research. Chapter seven covers conclusions and tentative recommendations part.
 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Groundwater Modeling

A groundwater model may be defined as a simplified version of the real groundwater system that
Approximately simulates the excitation- response relations of the groundwater system. The real
system is very complicated and difficult to use it directly for the purpose of planning and making
management decisions. The simplification is introduced in the form of a set of assumptions that
express our Understanding of the nature of the system and its behavior. These assumptions will
tend to smooth out the Effect of various heterogeneities. Because the model is a simplified
version of the real system, there exists no unique model for a given groundwater system (Bear,
1979).
There are several ways to classify groundwater flow models, models can be transient or steady
state and one, two, or three spatial dimensions. Steady state flow occurs when at any point in a
flow field the magnitude and direction of the flow are constant with time (Anderson and
Woessner, 1992).
Groundwater models are an attempt to represent the essential features of the actual groundwater
system by means of a mathematical counterpart (Todd & Mays, 2005). These models have a
capacity to test and quantify the consequences of various errors and related model-based
forecasts. Groundwater models according to Todd are physically based mathematical models
derived from Darcy’s law and the law of conservation of mass. Various established solution
techniques based upon either finite difference or finite element approximations, or a combination
of both, are available for solving the governing equations of the model. The accuracy of the
solutions (model predictions) is dependent upon the reliability of the estimated model parameters
and the accuracy of the prescribed boundary conditions.
Computer program or code solves a set of algebraic equations generated by approximating the
partial differential equations (governing equation, boundary conditions, and initial conditions)
that form the mathematical mode (Anderson and Woessner, 1992). With the introduction of
computers and their application in the solution of numerical models, physical models and
analogy have become laid off as tools for predicting future groundwater regimes. The selection
of the appropriate model to be used in any particular case depends on the objective or objectives
of the investigation and the available resources. The later include time, budget, skilled
manpower, high capacity computers and codes (Bear, 1979). The finite difference method
requires a rectangular element shaped discretization of the aquifer and the finite element method
consists of a triangular discretization. Discretization is the process of subdividing the Continuous
hydro geologic units into discrete segments or cells. Finite element method is easy to define the
boundaries of irregularly shaped aquifers and to ensure that node points coincide with
monitoring wells or varies types of geographic features. The mathematical basis for finite
element methods is more complex than for the finite difference method (Todd & Mays, 2005).
Selecting the appropriate conceptual model for a given problem is one of the most important
steps in modeling process. The key data requirements in the process of conceptualization include
data about hydrostratigraphic units, surface water bodies, physical and hydraulic boundaries,
recharge and discharge zones. The most common numerical methods to solve flow problems are
finite differences and finite elements. Finite-difference grids are easy to understand and require
less input data than finite element grids (Anderson and Woessner, 1992). The finite difference
method, as applied in the computer code MODFLOW, was used in this study. The code is based
on the physical theory of groundwater movement Darcy’s law and the continuity equation. The
program supports seven additional packages, which are integrated with the original MODFLOW
(Chiang and Kinzelbach, 2001).
Once the conceptual model is translated into a numerical model in the form of governing
equations, with associated boundary and initial conditions, a solution can be obtained by
transferring it into a numerical model and writing a computer program (code) for solving it. This
includes, design of grid, setting boundary and initial conditions and preliminary selection of
values for aquifer parameters. The input parameters include model grid size, layer elevations,
boundary conditions, hydraulic conductivity, recharge, and additional model input for steady
state condition. Model calibration consists of changing values of model input parameters in an
attempt to match field conditions within some acceptable criteria (Anderson and Woessner,
1992). Sensitivity analysis is useful in determining which parameter or parameters most
influence the model results. These parameters will be emphasized in the future data collection
attempting to improve model accuracy.
2.2 Groundwater Recharge

Groundwater recharge can be defined in general sense as the drawdown flow of water reaching
the water table, forming an addition to the groundwater reservoir (Lerner et al ., 1990). In semi-
arid area regions, assessment of groundwater recharge is the one of the key challenges in
determining the sustainable yield of aquifers a recharge rates are generally low in comparison
with average annual rainfall or evapotranspiration, and thus difficult to determine precisely
(Yongxin and Beekman, 2003).

Among the groundwater recharge estimation method are: the water table fluctuation method,
chloride mass balance method, one dimensional soil water flow model, inverse modeling and
groundwater balance method. The water table fluctuation method is an indirect method of
deducting the recharge from the fluctuation of the water table (Sharda et al., 2006). The chloride
mass balance method is based on the assumption of conservation of mass between the inputs of
the atmospheric chloride and the chloride flux in the subsurface (Yongxin and Beekman, 2003).
The one dimensional soil water flow model in the unsaturated soil is mathematically formulated
based on the Richard ‘equation that combines Darcy’s low with the mass conservation equation.
Inverse modeling is a technique by which model input is estimated from the model output. Using
inverse modeling, recharge and hydraulic conductivity values are usually estimated
simultaneously. The problem of estimating aquifer parameters with the aid of numerical model
that uses limited observation and prior information is often referred to as inverse modeling. The
fundamental benefit of inverse modeling is its ability to auto calibrates optimal parameter values
for an aquifer region that produce the best fit between observed and simulated hydraulic heads
and flows (Lakshemi Prasad and Rastogi, 2001). The groundwater balance method is based on
the general Hydrological principle in which the amount of water entering a control volume
during a defined time period (inflow), minus the amount of water leaving the volume during the
time period (outflow), equal the change in the amount of water stored(S) in the volume during
that period. As discussed by Simmers et al ., (1997), quantifying the current rate of recharge is a
basic prerequisite for efficient groundwater resource management and is practically vital in arid
regions where such resource are often the key to economic development. Groundwater recharge
quantification is fraught with problems of varying magnitude and hence substantial uncertainties.
It is therefore desirable to always apply and compare a number of independent approaches.

2.3 Groundwater Discharge

Understanding the amounts of water and where the water enters and leaves the saturated
groundwater system is a prerequisite to evaluating groundwater availability. Discharge includes
all pathways through which water leaves the groundwater system. In the basin-fill aquifers of
Raya Valley, groundwater discharge occurs in three principal ways:
1) Natural discharge of water from the groundwater system to surface water bodies (streams,
springs and wetlands);
2) Natural discharge of water from the groundwater system to plants through evapotranspiration
to the atmosphere (particularly in wetland ecosystems where phreatophytic plants exist and the
water-table is close to the land surface); and
3) Artificial withdrawal of groundwater by pumping wells for various uses.

Groundwater is discharged to surface water features (streams, rivers, springs, and wetlands) as it
leaks out of the system or is discharged by pumping from wells. Most groundwater in the study
area discharges to streams and wetlands in Gerjelle and Timuga areas with the pattern of gaining
and losing stream reaches generally controlled by hydraulic head (water-level elevation). When
the basin-fill aquifer is intersected by a stream, groundwater flows into the stream when the
hydraulic head in the basin-fill aquifer is higher than the water level in the stream or river.
Groundwater can also flow into streams from springs and wetlands where water is seeping out of
the ground above the stream. The amount of stream flow contributed by groundwater is referred
to as base flow. Hydraulic head in the basin-fill aquifer varies over time, providing variable
amounts of flow to streams, springs, and wetlands. Flow rates can vary following storms,
seasonally, or on longer timescales in response to decadal precipitation patterns or long-term
aquifer declines. Because there is low precipitation during winter months, stream flow during
this period consists almost entirely of base flow.
2.5 Previous Studies
The study by the German consult in 1977 under the Kobo-Alamata Agricultural Development
Project (KAADP) is undertaken in the area between Kobo and Alamata towns covering part of
the Alamata sub basin. This study has concluded that the geological conditions in the east and
west of the valley floor are similar and hence the sub surface water inflow and outflow into and
from the valley are equal. But the reconnaissance study of the Raya Valley Agricultural
Development Project (RVADP, 1998) has disproved the conclusions by KAADP (1977) by the
fact that the western plateau and mountains and the valley fill basin are hydraulically
independent ground water systems because the western plateau groundwater is discharged on the
escarpments via springs rather than as sub-surface inflow into the valley fill basin whereas the
eastern mountains act as sub surface dam.

The conceptual ground water model of the KAADP (1977) is modified in the study of the
RVADP (1998). In the hydrogeology report the RVADP (1998) the Raya Valley is sub-divided
into two sub-basins called Alamata sub-basin and Mohoni sub-basin. The hydrogeology study
was conducted to evaluate the groundwater resources potential of Raya Valley plain alluvial
aquifer by reviewing previous studies, water point’s inventory, water quality analysis,
geophysical investigation and conducting pump test on the existing wells. Based on the available
previous data and data collected during the study, RVADP (1998) obtained the following results.

 Recharge to the alluvial aquifers was estimated to be about 86 Mm3/year

 Total groundwater reserve of the valley alluvial aquifer 7.2 Bm3
 Almost all the water samples analyzed from the groundwater are excellently suitable for
irrigation
 Applying analytical mathematical method the exploitable groundwater potential is
estimated to be about 162 Mm3/year
 The central and eastern parts of the valley plain, considered to have low transmissivity. It
was concluded that the transmissivity of the Raya valley alluvial aquifer generally
decreases in west-east direction.
WWDSE and CECP (2006), describes the availability of groundwater and presence of investors
who use groundwater for irrigation purpose. But the report doesn’t show: total amount of land,
the types of crops that grow using groundwater resource in the study area, recharge amount,
water consumption of the crops, which are mentioned in the report, how much hectare they cover
and safe yield of the reservoir. Moreover, the WWDSE and CECP (2008), states the pump test
performed in the Raya area using one pumping and five observation wells which reveals that the
average transmissivity of the Mehoni and Alamata sub-basins are 1787, 545, 1435, 2304 m 2 /
day, respectively.

According to MoWR (2008), the surface water resources in the project area mainly depends on
intermittent streams and perennial rivers which originate from the highlands. The streams are
characterized by lower dry season flow and flash floods during the rainy season. There are also a
number of small springs in the southern part of the project area which flow throughout the year
and used for traditional irrigation schemes. The dry season flow of most of the streams is totally
abstracted by farmers for small traditional irrigation schemes far upstream of the proposed
irrigable areas. So it is not of direct interest for this envisaged irrigation project. The Raya valley
is drained by a number of streams. The annual total surface water resources generated from the
upland catchments is estimated at about 114 million cubic meter.

REST (1996), which covers the Alamata wereda, the Raya Azebo wereda, Enda mahoni wereda
and part of Ofla wereda, states that the river system of the Raya basin flows from the mountains
to the low land of the plain. The Sulula River, which is found in the Humoshet, drains the
excessive water of the Raya basin to the Danakil basin during the rainy season only. Some
disappear in the plain by percolation as a result of the absence of definite river course,
permeability of the plain and less flow velocity, which gives sufficient time for percolation when
there is no high flood. The report also states that the groundwater recharge of the valley is
estimated to about 100Mm 3 /year and the groundwater reserve is about 4233Mm 3.The
exploitable groundwater reservoir is 110Mm 3/year. The depth of the groundwater is variable: in
the south varies between 20-40 m variable, in the north it varies above 60m and in the central
part of the valley it is 20-60m variable. The flow direction of the groundwater is from west to
east at gradient ranging of 0.01-0.02.

Hagos, M.A., 2010 estimated the direct recharge to the Raya valley alluvial aquifer using
chloride mass balance method (CMB) and numerical groundwater model. Based on the average
precipitation in the valley between 1996 and 2005, calculated as 724mm/year, the annual
groundwater recharge was estimated to be 124 Mm3/year by chloride mass balance method
(CMB) and 126 Mm3/year using groundwater model. The result was similar to the amount
estimated by Dessie Nadew (2003) who calculated groundwater recharge to be 129 Mm3/year
by applying a water balance method. Based on this study the annual groundwater recharge of
Mohan sub-basin was estimated to be 38 Mm3/year and for Alamata sub-basin to be 86
Mm3/year.

Afework, (2010) focusing on quantitative characterization of the hydraulic parameters of the

Raya valley, describes the main recharge of the valley through the adjacent uplands of the
western margin where there exists high precipitation than the low-lying areas of the valley. The
researcher stated that qualitative determination of hydraulic parameters such as discharge,
drawdown and specific capacity of aquifers is one of the important steps in groundwater
important .But identification of the safe yield of aquifers, the source of recharge and the total
amount abstraction based on the demand and purpose are the most crucial part of groundwater
management for its sustainability.

Halefom (2006), states that the thickness of the aquifers of the Alamata sub basin become
shallower and shallower towards the western and eastern flank where as they get maximum
thickness at centre of the valley. According to the researcher, the annual groundwater recharge
to the Alamata sub basin due to direct precipitation is estimated at 31Mm 3 taking the area of
the plain as 402 Km 2 .

Dessie Nedaw (2003) mentioned that some of the streams that flow towards Raya valley floor
are perennial on the highlands but when they reach to the valley floor, they diaper in the
unconsolidated materials. The approximated annual runoff is 176mm, which flow from the
western escarpment to the floor of the valley. The total volume of water that possibly leaves the
basin annually as surface runoff is about 60MCM. The researcher also mentioned that the runoff
coefficient of the mountains area ranges from 0.13 to 0.22 to estimate the annual run off for the
dam proposed by REST, (1998).

CHAPTER THREE: GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF

THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Description of the study area

3.1.1 Location

The study area is found in the southern zone of Tigray, bordered by Raya Azebo in the North,
Ofla in the west, the Amahara National Regional State in the south and the Afar National
Regional State, around 180km from the regional capital city Mekelle. Geographically, the study
area is located between UTME from 0550799 to 0580416 and UTMN from1343384 to 1381274.
Hydrologically it is found in western Denakil river basin and estimated to have area coverage of
1292.57 square kilometers.
Figure 3.1 location map of the area

3.1.2 Topography

Topographically, Alamata is divided into western highland and eastern lowland. The western
part (Tsetsera and Merewa) is categorized under the northern highlands of Ethiopia, having an
altitude range of 2000 to 3000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l). It is characterized by steep
slopes, gorges and undulating terrain having scattered flat lands used for grazing livestock and
farming. It covers 25% of the woreda. The topography of the area dominated by steep slopes has
induced erosion. The eastern lowland with its eight tabias is generally plain in topography with
an altitude ranging from 1450 to 1750 m.a.s.l. The plain landscape of this area makes the area
suitable for agriculture and it covers 75% of the woreda.

3.1.3 Climate
The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably with altitude. As part of Ethiopia highlands, Tigray
has generally a cool tropical semiarid climate. In general, seasons can be distinguished in Tigray
“belg” or small rain, which occurs from March to May and “kremt” main rain that occurs from
July to September. The rainfall amount in Tigray is highly dependent on the altitude. Mountain
areas are more humid and have a large rainy season than low land areas at the same altitudes.
The Woreda is characterized by bimodal rainfall pattern, with main rain occurring during the
kiremt season (from June to September) and a short rainy season called belg which falls between
Januarys to April.

3.1.4 Drainage

The proposed irrigation area is located in the flood plain of the Raya valley. The irrigation area is
divided into two sub basins, Alamata and Mehoni sub basins. Several streams that drain uplands
traverse the project area, particularly the Alamata sub basin, at shallow depths and flat slopes
(see Figure 1.9). The Alamata sub basin is dissected into four major parts by Harosha, Odas,
Hara, and Dayu Rivers that originate in the western highland parts of the Raya valley. The 25-
year return period discharge of these rivers is given in Table1.6 (adopted from MoWR final draft
of hydro meteorological report for Raya valley, 2008)

Table +Rivers that dissect the Alamata Sub-basin and their Q25 (discharge in
25 years return period)

Catchment/River Area, km2 Q25,m3/s

Harosha 33.9 57.3
Oda 18.2 38.7
Hara 63.6 85.2
Dayu 72.3 92.4
Figure 3.2 Drainage map of the area
3.1.5 Soils
The soils do not show extensive variation, and are limited to six main classes of chromic vertisol,
eutric cambisol, eutric nitisols, eutric rigosols, Haplic xerosols and Leptosols. These soils are
characterized by a dominance of the clay mineral, montmorillonite, which expands when wet and
contracts when dry, giving rise to wide surface cracks. It is deep to very deep, black to very dark
greyish colours. And it is suitable for agriculture.Well drained vertisols are identified around the
agricultural area of Alamata basin. These soils are more dominant to the adjacent sides of
Alamata to Bala around Selenwiha in association with eutric cambisols.

3.1.6 Land use and land cover

Appropriate land use policy and system of its practical application is an essential part of land use
management. However, the study woreda has no systematic and technically supported land use
system. According to the data taken from woreda.s rural development and agriculture offices, the
land use pattern for Alamata woreda includes; - cultivated land 34,503ha, grazing, 5,214ha,
forest land 7,816ha and others, 1,709ha.

3.1.7 Geology

3.1.7.1 Regional Geology

The geological units in Ethiopia fall into one of the following three major categories, the
Precambrian basement, Late Palaeozoic to early Tertiary sediments and the Cenozoic volcanic
and associated sediments (Mengesha et.al, 1996).

The brief description of the Major categories of the geological units is as follows (the
descriptions are adopted from (T. Alemayehu, 2006) and (T. Ayenew & T. Alemayehu, 2001)

3.1.7.1.1 Precambrian Rocks

They are the Basement Complex upon which all younger rock formations were deposited and
consist of the oldest rocks in the country. The Precambrian are found within the structural
discontinuities of various crystalline rocks occurring mainly both in the lower complex (high
grade gneiss, migmatites, granulites and metamorphic granitoids), in the upper complex, syn-
tectonic and post-tectonic granitoids. Structurally, since metamorphic rocks are subjected to
several orogenic episodes, they are strongly folded, foliated and fractured.

3.1.7.1.2 Paleozoic Rocks

The Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks are entirely sedimentary. The Paleozoic formations are
localized in the Ogaden and Tigray Regions. They are essentially constituted of Edagarbi tillites,
shales, silts and Enticho Sandstones. The Edaga Arbi Glacials constitute very heterogeneous
sediments and strong silty-clayey cement. The Enticho sandstone is a coarse calcareous
arenaceous and having in parts a conglomeratic nature.

3.1.7.1.3 Mesozoic Rocks

The deposition of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks is attributed to the transgression and regression of
the sea. They outcrop in the North-western plateau, mainly in Tigray, the Blue Nile Gorge,
South-eastern Ethiopia, Harrghe, Bale and southern Sidamo. These sedimentary rocks are Lower
Sandstone (Adigrat Sandstone), Abay Beds (Gohatsion Formation), Antalo Limestone, Agula
Shales or Mugher Mudstone and Amba Aradom Formation. In the Ogaden they include
Hamanlei Series mainly comprise of limestone, Kabridahar Series, Mustahil Limestone and
Belet Wein Limestone.

3.1.7.1.4 Tertiary and Quaternary Volcanics

Ethiopian volcanics are divided into two main Series: Trap Series (or plateau Series) and Rift
volcanics (Mohr, 1971; Mohr, 1983; Zanettin and Justin-Visentin, 1974; Zanettin, 1993) etc.
The earliest and most extensive groups of volcanic rocks are the Trap Series, erupted from
fissures during the early and middle Tertiary. The Plio-Quaternary volcanics are largely
restricted in the Rift valley. Substantial shield volcanoes consisting mainly of basalt lava
developed on the Ethiopian plateau during the Miocene and Pliocene (Kazmin, 1975).

Trap Series

They are the earliest and most extensive groups of volcanic rocks are the Trap Series, erupted
from fissures during the early and middle Tertiary. The summarized stratigraphy of volcanic
rocks is given below.
Ashangi group: consists predominantly of thick basalt lava flow trachytes and rhyolites with
interbedded pyroclastics erupted from fissures. They are injected by dolerite sills, acidic dikes,
and gabbro-diabase intrusions. The flows have variable thickness of 200- 1200m. The thickest
exposed sections occur close to the rift escarpment, suggesting that the main source was
associated with the rifting.

The Ashange basalts show similar proportion of tholeiitic and alkaline types while the Aiba
Formation is characterized by huge tholeiitic basalt pile (Justin-Visentin 1974, Zanettin and
Piccirillo, 1978). Aiba Formation passes into Alaje Formation; it starts with rhyolite/trachyte
flows. Alaji flood basalts are dominantly tholeiitic. The central Tarmaber basalt is largely
alkaline. The maximum thickness of Trap Series on the Ethiopian plateau is 3500m and is
represented by Semien Mountain. Most of the big mountains of the country belong to this group.

Magdala group (Upper Pliocene); Outcropped within the Ethiopian rift, on the escarpment and
nearby plateaus. The thickness of the unit increases away from the rift (Morton et al 1980).
Acidic rocks dominate including acid tuffs, mostly ignimbrites, pantelleritic rhyolites and
trachytes. They are interbedded with lavas and agglomerates of basaltic composition.

In Adwa and Axum Regiones, hyperalkaline silicic lavas are outcropped (Mohr, 1971) and lie
directly on stratiform basalt (Magdea group). In Korom, there is 1200m thick Ashange group
forming the lower part with the top more silicic 300m Magdala group.

Aden Volcanic Series - They are the youngest Quaternary volcanics. The rocks of this series are
obsidian flows, ignimbrite, pumice deposits associated with rhyolitic flows and domes,
pyroclastics surge deposits, basaltic lava flows and spatter cones. This series is almost all
exposed in parts of the Ethiopian Rift and is intensively affected by tectonism. Few outcrops
exist in the Lake Tana basin.

Rift volcanic
After the formation of escarpments, fissural volcanism was confined to the rifts, called Rift
volcanics. These new volcanic stage began with the emission of Malba rhyolitic ignimbrite (14-
11 Ma) and the voluminous Fursa flood basalts (12-9 Ma). There are two fold divisions of the
lavas of the Rift volcanic Series, an earlier alkaline-silicis series followed by scoraceous flood
basalts. Rift volcanics postdate the formation of the Rift System in Ethiopia, i.e. post Miocene or
Plio-Quaternary.
3.1.7.1.5 Tertiary and Quaternary Sedimentary Rocks
Though not extensive, there are some sandstone outcrops of Cenozoic age in the Afar and eastern
Ogaden. These are variegated sandstone (Jessoma Sandstone), biogenic massive limestone
(Auradu Series), gypsum, dolomite, cherty limestone and clays (Taleh Series), and fossiliferous
limestones with marly and clayey intercalations (Karkar Series) and the Red Bed (Garsat
Formation).

Stratigraphy
Summary of volcanic stratigraphy Kazmin et al (1980) in (Million years)
12-9 Myrs -Fursa basalts
26-22 Myrs -Tarmaber basalts
30-15 Myrs -Alaji basalts
32-28 Myrs -Aiba basalts

45-38 Myrs -Ashange basalts

3.1.8.2 Local geology

Geologically, Alamata area is constituted by volcanic rocks and alluvial deposits. The alluvial
deposit is covering almost all parts of the valley. Compositionally the alluvial material ranges
from clay to boulders and rock fragments. The alluvial deposits include sandy clay, sandy silt,
clay, silty sand, sandy gravel, gravel, bolder and rock fragments. As it is evident from previous
drilling log data, there is non uniformity in composition and grain size and thickness of the
alluvial deposit with in the valley. Even though the sorting is variable, the grain size of the
alluvial material has an increasing trend from the central valley towards the escarpment and the
thickness of the deposit has the reverse trend that is the alluvial deposit is thick at the center of
the valley and is thinner towards the hillsides.

3.1.7.2 .1 Basaltic agglomerate

This fragmental volcanic rock is found deposited in the middle of thick intercalated basaltic rock
covering average thickness approximately 30. This unit shows black color when it is fresh
greyish when altered. It has phanaretic texture and large proportion of rounded volcanic bombs.
It shows dull lusture.
3.1.7.2.2 Alluvial deposits
This formation is found in the place where the community hand dug well was selected, since the
type of project deserves such type of formation based on its strength.

Their coverage on majority of the catchment make the area acceptable for community hand dug
wells in such a way that the project is workable even manually

3.1.7 Hydrogeology
As it was found from the drilling activities from existing documents of the surrounding area the
hydro geological condition is best for shallow wells, even if numbers of factors are governing
this condition of a given basin. The main reason that that the ground water potential at shallow
level, of the area is good, is that the better hydraulic properties of the rock formations out
cropped in the area. The basin generally grouped as high productivity which is not more or less
recommended for extensive irrigation purpose.

The hydrolithlogical units of the catchment have been sub divided following similar units with
the geological set up. This is because of the fact that the geology is the determining factor
together with the observed structure for the hydrogeology of the area. Accordingly, the hydrolith
logical units are discussed here under this section.

3.1.7.1 Unconsolidated sediment aquifer

Unconsolidated sediments of recent age are found as an aquifer thickness of up to 20m
underlying by met volcanic rocks. In areas where coarser sediments are deposited these
sediments are saturated and permeable for the ground water movement to yield water freely to
wells. However deposits rich in clay also observed which have very low permeability and
productivity and serve as confining or semi confining layers. Their permeability and productivity
vary from place to place depending on their grain size, sorting and thickness.

3.1.7.2 Metavolcanic unit

This includes the phylite, quartzite and graphitic schist rocks that all have low primary porosity.
even though these unites are inherently impermeable, the geological structures such as faults,
fractures and lineaments are sufficiently fragmented and jointed to form ground water flow
system, and then can raise potential ground water bearing strata. The contact of the host rock
with the intrusive is anticipated to develop secondary porosity as a result of the intrusion effect.

3.1.7.3 Enticho sand stone

The tigray plateau which reaches up to an elevation of 2900m at atsbi is a desiccated plateau of
moderate relief and is composed of steeply dipping basement rocks and enticho sand stone.

At the base of this enticho sand stone there is springs and seepages, where it rests on the
basement of tsalite metavolcanics.

Figure 3.1 Hydrogeological map of the Raya valley

3.2 Methodology
The methodologies followed were based on the objective of the study as stated in section 1.3.
3.1.7 Data collection
3.1.7.2 Primary Data
Before collecting primary data Equipments like Groundwater level measuring device (deep
meter) and GPS were taken from Alamata Woreda Water Resource, Mines and Energy Bureau
then to collect primary data a field trip was conducted in the study area. The primary data
collection during field trip included measuring groundwater level using deep meter, taking
reading of borehole locations and elevation using GPS.
3.1.7.3 Secondary Data
Secondary Data such as literature review of Groundwater Modeling, Groundwater Recharge,
Groundwater abstractions and previous study of the study area were collected from previous
written report and previously done research. And secondary data such as metrological data
(rainfall, wend speed, sunshine hour, and relative humidity, maximum and minimum
temperature) from Tigray national metrological agency: borehole logs, pumping test data and
well completion report from both Alamata Woreda and Tigray Water Resource, Mines and
Energy Bureau, Tekeze Deep Water Wells Drilling Plc and Water Works Design and
Supervision Enterprise.
3.1.8 Data Analysis
Data processing and analysis were conducted using the data collected during primary data
collection and secondary data collection. The activities here are organizing the collected data
preparing the database for the input of WetSpass model and MODFLOW.

3.2.2.1 Estimation of Groundwater Recharge using WetSpass model

Batelaan and De Smedt (2001) developed a steady state spatially distributed water balance model
"WetSpass" upon the foundation of the time dependent spatial distributed water balance model
"WetSpa"." (Batelaan et al., 1996, Wang et al., 1996).

This model is fully integrated or embedded in the GIS Arc View (version 3.x) as raster model,
coded in Avenue. WetSpass stands for Water and Energy Transfer between Soil, Plants and
Atmosphere under quasi-Steady State (Batelaan and De Smedt, 2001).
WetSpass is specially suited for studying long-term effects of land-use changes on the water
regime in a watershed.

i. Model description
The total water balance for a raster cell is split into independent water balances for the vegetated,
bare-soil, open-water and impervious parts of each cell. This allows one to account for the non-
uniformity of the land-use per cell, which is dependent on the resolution of the raster cell. The
processes in each part of a cell are set in a cascading way. This means that an order of occurrence
of the processes, after the precipitation event, is assumed. Defining such an order is a
prerequisite for the seasonal timescale with which the processes will be quantified. A mixture of
physical and empirical relationships is used to describe the processes. The quantity determined
for each process is consequently limited by a number of constraints.

Figure 3.2 Schematic water balance of a hypothetical raster cell (Batelaan and DeSmedt

2001, 2007).
 ii. In puts used for model
 Long term metrological data have been collected from Ethiopian Meteorological Agency
Mekelle branch for six metrological station namely Maichew, Korem, Chercher,Waja,
Kobo and Mehoni
 Rainfall
 Temperature(max and min)
 Wind speed
 Relative humidity
 Sunshine hour E.T.C for both summer and winter
 Physical Data
 soil data have been collected from secondary data which is previously done by
different sectors like agricultural research institute, water and mine energy office ,
relief society of Tigray.
 Slope
 Elevation
 Land use(summer and winter )
 Groundwater level

iii. Out puts of the model

 Recharge
 Runoff
 Evapotranspiration
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of the iteration process in the WetSpass model
(Batelaan 2006).
3.2.2.2 Assessment of Impact of drawdown of well under different well
operation using MODFLOW

i. Model description
Groundwater flow system of the study area was simulated numerically by using a computer
code, the U.S. Geological Survey modular three-dimensional finite difference groundwater flow
model, MODFLOW (Harbough et al., 2000).MODFLOW uses input arrays (gridded data) that
describe hydraulic parameters such as hydraulic conductivity and recharge, top and bottom
elevation of the aquifers and boundary conditions.
Prior to the construction of the three dimensional groundwater flow model, a conceptual model
of the system was developed on the basis of the secondary data collected from different
institutions, previous works, field observations and groundwater literature. By analyzing the
collected data, the input parameter for the numerical model was estimated. Different boundary
conditions were estimated from physical and hydrogeologic boundaries. Hydraulic parameters
such as hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficient were calculated from pumping test data
whenever it is available and from literature for the others depending on the aquifer type. Besides,
hydraulic head map was established from the water level measured during field data collection
and drilling reports.
ii. Applications of MODFLOW
MODFLOW has been applied to numerous systems in many different geologic settings for a
variety of reasons. MODFLOW simulations are sometimes used to develop a better
understanding of the groundwater flow system. For instance, in performing a modeling study,
sometimes lack of data in a specific area can be identified, and effort can be made to collect
more data to add to the knowledge of the flow system.
The primary output from MODFLOW is a resulting hydraulic head distribution for a given
simulation. This information can be used to manage existing problems in a groundwater system,
evaluate the effects of proposed withdrawal rates from a system, or to evaluate the effects of
urbanization on the flow system.
MODFLOW has also been applied to evaluate possible management strategies to alleviate
existing problems in groundwater flow systems. In such an application, modeling offers an
inexpensive way to evaluate whether or not preventative measures or management decisions will
be effective.

Figure 3.2 Model application process

iii. In puts used for model

iv. Out puts of the model

3.3 Materials
In this study the following materials has been used

 Topographic maps; to prepare land use, soil, geologic, drainage map.

 GPS; to determine the position of drilled well and hand dug well in the basin
 Digital camera; to take picture
 Deep meter; to measure the depth of water level
 Scanners; to scan graph, document e.t.c
 Software: like Arc GIS, surfer, Global mapper, WetSpass model, MOD FLOW; to
manipulate and analyze the data
 Record book; to record daily withdrawal of water from the wells and to record note
during personal observation
 Computer;
 Literature Review
Literature review

Proposal Writing

Primary data collection

Field equipments Topographic map

Study area delineation

Secondary data collection

GW level and borehole Pump test data and Metrological data

elevation lithological log

MODFLOW data base GW recharge estimation Conceptual model

ARC-GIS Data processing analysis Model input Developing numerical

Revise calibration Model calibration

Error analysis of flow

No
model

Yes

Conclusion and Recommendation Scenario analysis Sensitivity analysis

Figure 3. Flow chart of the methodology

 CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND MODEL
INPUT DATA PREPARATION
4.1 Meteorological Data Analysis
References
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irrigation in Raya and Kobo valleys, northern Ethiopia. A thesis submitted to the school
of graduate studies of Addis Ababa University, Faculty of Science, Department of Earth
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groundwater resources in different environmental and climatic contexts in Sardinia and in
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