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ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Coordinate system and coordinates


 Coordinate Axes : The position of a point in a plane is determined with reference to two
intersecting straight lines called coordinate axes

 Point of intersection of two lines is called origin

Type of coordinate axes :


(i). Rectangular axes : if these two lines intersect at right angle , called rectangular axes
(ii). Oblique axes : if the these two lines does not intersect at right angle , called oblique axes

 Rectangular cartesian coordinates of a point


(i).�' �� is called X-axis and �' �� is called Y-axis
(ii). �� = � = �-coordinate or abscissa of the point P
(iii).�� = � = �-coordinate or ordinate of the point P
(iv). P is the position of point with respect to the
coordinate axes , P is represented by the ordered
pair (�, �) , called coordinates of point P .
(v) . coordinates of origin � = (0,0) .
(vi). XOY = 1st quadrant of Cartesian system where � > 0 , � > 0
(vii) . YO�' = 2ND quadrant of Cartesian system where � < 0 , � > 0
(viii) . �' O�' = 3RD quadrant of Cartesian system where � < 0 , � < 0
(ix) . �' �� =4th quadrant of Cartesian system where � > 0 , � < 0
Polar coordinates of a point : The ordered pair of real numbers �, � called polar coordinates
of point �.
where � = �������� �� � ���� ������ = ��
� = ����� ���� �� �� ���ℎ �������� � − ���� , −� < � ≤ �.

Relation between the polar and Cartesian coordinates : if �(�, �) be a point on plane then
(�, �) = (���� �, �����) where � = �2 + �2 and

�= ���−1 � , � �� ���������� ��������

Quadrant 1st 2nd 3rd 4th


� � �−� −� + � −�

 Distance between two points� �1 , �1 ��� � �2 , �2 ��


�� = (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2

Some important polygon shape : when three points are given


(i). Isosceles triangle : Two sides are equal

(ii). Equilateral triangle : All sides are equal


�� − ������ ��������
(iii). Right angle triangle : The sum of the squares of two sides is equal to the square of
the third side

(iv). Scalene triangle : All sides are unequal

When four points are given :

(i). Square : All sides are equal and diagonals are also equal

(ii). Rectangle : Opposite sides are equal and diagonal are also equal

(iii). Parallelogram : Opposite sides are equal and diagonal are not equal

(iv). Trapezium : Two sides are parallel and other two are not parallel .

 Distance between two points in polar coordinates � �1 , �1 ��� � �2 , �2 is

�� = �21 + �22 − 2�1 �2 cos (�1 − �2 )


Section formula :
(i). if the point P(x,y) divides the line segment joining the points � �1 , �1 ��� � �2 , �2
internally in the ratio �: � , then
��2 +��1 ��2 +��1
�= �+�
�= �+�

�� − ������ ��������

 If P is the mid point of AB then m=n and coordinates of P are


�2 +�1 �2 +�1
(x,y)= 2
,
2
(ii). if the point �(�, �) divides the line segment joining the points
� �1 , �1 ��� � �2 , �2 externally in the ratio �: � , then
��2 −��1 ��2 −��1
� = �−� � = �−�
 If P be any point on line segment AB which divides AB in the ratio AP:PB then if
��
(i). �� > 0 �ℎ�� � ������ ����������
��
(ii). ). �� < 0 �ℎ�� � ������ ����������
 The straight line ax+by+c=0 divides the joint of points � �1 , �1 ��� � �2 , �2 in the ratio
�� � −(��1 +��1 +�)
��
=1= (��2 +��2 +�)
−�1
 The line joining the points �1 , �1 and �2 , �2 is divided by the x − axis in the ratio �2
and
−�1
by y − axis in the ratio �2
.
 In square , rhombus , rectangle and parallelogram diagonals bisects to each other .

 Important points of a triangle :


(�). Centroid : The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle is called the centroid of
the triangle .
Centroid of triangle divide the median internally in the ratio 2:1.
If �1 , �1 , �2 , �2 and �3 , �3 are the vertices of a triangle then its centroid is
�1 +�2 +�3 �1 +�2 +�3
,
3 3
Note : If �1 , �1 , �2 , �2 and �3 , �3 are the mid-points of a triangle then its centroid is
�1 +�2 +�3 �1 +�2 +�3
3
,
3
(ii). In-centre: The point of intersection of internal angle bisector of triangle is called the
incentre of the triangle .
If A �1 , �1 , B �2 , �2 and C �3 , �3 are the vertices of a triangle then its incentre is
��1 +��2 +��3 ��1 +��2 +��3
�+�+�
, �+�+�
where |��| = � , |��| = � , |��| = �
Note : if a triangle is equilateral , then its incentre and centroid are same and it is
�1 +�2 +�3 �1 +�2 +�3
3
, 3

(iii). Ex-centre : the point of intersection of the external bisector of the angles of a triangle .
If A �1 , �1 , B �2 , �2 and C �3 , �3 are the vertices of a triangle then its excentre are
−��1 +��2 +��3 −��1 +��2 +��3
�1 = −�+�+�
, −�+�+�
, where |��| = � , |��| = � , |��| = �
��1 −��2 +��3 ��1 −��2 +��3 ��1 +��2 −��3 ��1 +��2 −��3
�2 =
�−�+�
,
�−�+�
, �3 = �+�−�
,
�+�−�

Note : a triangle have three excentre .

�� − ������ ��������

(iv). Circumcentre : The circumcentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of the


perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle .
Let �(�1 , �1 ) , �(�2 , �2 ) and �(�3 , �3 ) be the vertices of a triangle then Circumcentre of
�1 ���2�+�2 ���2�+�3 ���2� �1 ���2�+�2 ���2�+�3 ���2�
∆��� �� ���2�+���2�+���2�
, ���2�+���2�+���2�
where �� = �, �� = �, �� = �
 All the vertices of a triangle are equidistant from the circumcentre.
 In an acute-angled triangle, circumcentre lies inside the triangle.
 In an obtuse-angled triangle, circumcentre lies outside the triangle.

�+�
 The circumcentre of the right angled triangle ABC , right angled at A is 2
.
(v).Orthocentre: Orthocentre of a triangle is the point of intersection of altitudes
 Altitude : The line through the vertices and perpendicular to opposite sides .
 The orthocentre of the triangle having vertices �, � , � , � ��� �, � �� (�, �).
 The orthocentre of a right angled triangle ABC , right angled at A is A .
 If the circumcentre and centroid of a triangle are respectively �, � , �, � then orthocentre
will be 3� − 2� , 3� − 2� .
 Area of a Triangle , the coordinates of whose vertices are �(�1 , �1 ) , �(�2 , �2 ) and � �3 , �3
�1 �1 1
1
is 2
�2 �2 1
�3 �3 1
LOCUS : The locus of a moving point is the path traced out by that point under one or more given
conditions.
Equation of Locus : a relation � �, � = 0 between x and y which satisfied by each point on the
locus , is called equation of locus .
Change of Axes : (i). to change or shifting the origin (0,0) of coordinates to another point (ℎ, �)
where as the direction of axes remains unaltered .
We get new coordinate � = � + ℎ , � = � + � .
(ii). When the axes are rotated through � , replace �, � ��
( ����� + ����� , − ����� + ����� )

��� �������� �����

 A straight line is the curve which is such that the line segment joining any two points on it
lies wholly on it .
 The general equation of the first degree in �, � represents a straight line .
 General equation of straight line is �� + �� + � = 0 .
 The number of arbitrary independent constants in the equation of a straight line is two .
 Angle of Inclination of a Line : angle measured between the X-axis and the line in the
anticlockwise direction .
 When two lines are parallel , they have the same inclination .

 The angle of inclination of the lines between 00 ��� 1800 . i.e 0 < � ≤ � , ��� � ≠ 2 .
 Slope or Gradient of a Line : if inclination of a line is �( ≠ 900 ) , then ���� = � is called the
slope or gradient of the line .
 If a line is parallel to X-axis , then its slope = ���00 = 0
� −�
 If � �1 , �1 and � �2 , �2 are two points on a line , then the slope of the line is � = �2−�1 .
2 1
 When two lines are parallel , then their slopes are equal .
 If three points � , �, � are collinear , then slope of AB = slope of BC = slope of AC.
 Angle Between Two Lines : the angle � between the lines having slope �1 ��� �2 is
�1 −�2
given by � = ���−1 ± 1+�1 �2
.

�� − ������ ��������

 If two lines , whose slopes are �1 and �2 are perpendicular ,iff �1 �2 =− 1 .


 Equation of line parallel to y-axis is � = �.
 Equation of line parallel to x-axis is � = �.
 Equation of � − ���� is � = 0 .
 Equation of � − ���� is � = 0 .
 Intercepts of a line on Axes : if a line cuts � − ���� at � �, 0 and the � − ���� at � 0, �
then �� = � and �� = � are known as the intercepts of the line on � − ���� and
� − ���� respectively .
Equations of a straight Line :
1. Slope -Intercept form : the equation of the straight line whose slope in � and which cuts
an intercept � on the � − ���� is � = �� + �
2. The Point-Slope form of a Line : the equation of the straight line which passes through
the point (�1 , �1 ) and has the slope � is � − �� = �(� − �� )

3. The two -Point form of a Line : the equation of the straight line which passes through the
� −�
two points (�1 , �1 ) and (�2 , �2 ) is given by � − �� = ��−�� (� − �� )
� �

4. The Intercept form of a Line : The equation of the straight line which cuts off intercepts
� �
of length of � and � on � − ���� and � − ���� respectively , is �
+� =�.
5. The Normal Form or Perpendicular Form of a Line : the equation of the straight line
upon which the length of perpendicular from the origin is � and this normal makes
an angle � with the positive direction of x-axis is ����� + ����� = �

�� − ������ ��������

 Position of two points Relative to a given Line : the points �(�1 , �1) and �(�2 , �2) lie
on the same or opposite sides of the line �� + �� + � = � according as
��� + ��� + �
> � �� < �
��� + ��� + �
 a point �, � will lie on origin side of the line �� + �� + � = � , if �� + �� + � ��� � have
same sign .
 a point �, � will lie on non-origin side of the line �� + �� + � = �, �� �� + �� + � ��� c
have opposite sign.
 The equation of line parallel to �� + �� + � = � is �� + �� + � = �, where d is some
constant
 The equation of the line parallel to �� + �� + � = � and passing through (�1 , �1 ) is
� � − �� + � � − �� = �
 The equation of line perpendicular to �� + �� + � = � is �� − �� + � = �, where d is
some constant .
 The equation of the line perpendicular to �� + �� + � = � and passing through (�1 , �1 ) is
� � − �� − � � − �� = �

Distance of a point from a line : The length of perpendicular from a point (�1 , �1) to the line
�� + �� + � = � is
��� +��� +�
�=
�� +��

Distance between two parallel lines : the distance between two parallel lines
�� −��
�� + �� + �� = � and �� + �� + �� = � is � =
�� +��
THREE DIMENSIONS GEOMETRY
 The system of three mutually perpendicular lines intersecting at O (origin ) is called
rectangular space or three dimensional space .
 Three lines �' �� , �' �� , �' �� are called � − ���� , � − ���� , � − ���� respectively .

 Coordinates of a point : any point on three dimensional space is represented by �(�, �, �)


 coordinate planes :
(i).The plane containing axes of x and y is called xy-plane.
(ii). The plane containing axes of y and z is called yz-plane.
(iii). The plane containing axes of x and z is called xz-plane.

 Octants: the three coordinate planes divide the whole space into
eight parts

Octants ���� ��' �� OX�' � OXY�' O�' �' � OX�' �' O�' ��' O�' �'�'
� + − + + − + − −
� + + − + − − + −
� + + + − + − − −

Distance formula : let � �1, �1, �1 and �(�2, �2, �2) are two points in space then distance
between � and � is �� = (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2 + (�2 − �1 )2

Section formula : let �� �� � ���� ������� ������� �� � �1, �1, �1 and �(�2, �2, �2)
if a point �(�, �, �) divides the line segment �� in the ratio �: �
��2 +��1 ��2 +��1 ��2 +��1
(i) . internally then �, �, � = �+�
, �+� , �+�
��2 −��1 ��2 −��1 ��2 −��1
(ii) . externally then �, �, � = �−� ,
�−�
,
�−�
�1 +�2 �1 +�2 �1 +�2
(iii) If � �, �, � is mid point then �, �, � = 2
,
2
,
2

�� − ������ ��������

Direction cosine : if the directed line passing through the origin makes angles � , � and � with
� , � and � − ���� respectively , called direction angles , then cosine of these angles , � =
���� , � = ���� ��� � = ���� are called direction cosines of the directed line .
 If we revers the direction of line , then direction angles of revers line are
� − � , � − � ��� � − �
 if �, � ��� � are direction cosines of a line then �2 + �2 + �2 = 1.
 If � , � and � are the direction angle of a line then ���2 � + ���2 � + ���2 � = 2.
 Direction cosines of � − ���� ��� 1 , 0 , 0 .
 Direction cosines of � − ���� ��� 0 , 1 , 0 .
 Direction cosines of � − ���� ��� 0 , 0 , 1 .
Direction Ratios : quantities proportional to direction cosines of a line are called direction
ratios of that line .
 If �, �, � are direction ratio of any line then � = �� , � = �� , � = ��
� � � 1
 �
= �
= � = � where � =±
�2 +�2 +�2
� �
 �� �, �, � are direction ratio of a line then � =± , � =± ,
�2 +�2 +�2 �2 +�2 +�2

� =±
�2 +�2 +�2
 For any line there are two sets of direction cosine and infinitely many sets of direction ratios.
 Direction cosines of a line passing through two points � �1 , �1 , �1 ��� �(�2 , �2 , �2 )are
�2 −�1 �2 −�1 �2 −�1
��
, �� , �� , where �� = �������� ������� � ��� � .
 Direction ratios of a line passing through two points � �1 , �1 , �1 ��� �(�2 , �2 , �2 )are
�2 − �1 , �2 − �1 , �2 − �1

�� − ������ ��������

��� �������� ����

 Every straight line is the intersection of two planes .


Symmetrical form of the straight line : equation of straight line passing through the point
�−�� �−�� �−��
�1 , �1 , �1 and having direction cosines �, �, � is = =
� � �

 �, �, � = (�� + �1 , �� + �1 , �� + �1 ) are the general coordinates of a point on the line .

 �� �, �, � ��� ��������� ������ �� � ���� ��� ������� �ℎ����ℎ �1 , �1 , �1 �ℎ�� �������� �� ���� ��
�−�1 �−� �−�1

= �1=

.

Vector form : equation of straight line passing through a given point and parallel to a given
vector is � = � + �� ,
where � �� ���������� ������ �� ����� ����� , � �������� ������ �� ���� .

 equation of straight line passing through the points �1 , �1 , �1 ��� �2 , �2 , �2 is


�−�1 �−� �−�1
−�
= � −�1 = −�
�2 1 2 1 �2 1

 vector form of a line passing through two given points is � = � + �(� − �) where � ��� �
are positional vectors of given points .

Angle between two lines : let �1 , �2 are two lines and let �1 , �1, �1 ��� �2, �2 , �2 are the
�1 �2 +�1 �2 +�1 �2
direction ratio of the line �1 ��� �2 respectively then ���� =
�21 +�21 +�21 �22 +�22 +�22
 let �1 , �2 are two lines and let �1 , �1 , �1 ��� �2 , �2 , �2 are the direction cosines of the lines
respectively then ���� = |�1 �2 + �1 �2 + �1 �2 |
 Two lines with direction ratios �1 , �1 , �1 ��� �2 , �2 , �2 ���
(i). perpendicular if � = 900 i.e �1 �2 + �1 �2 + �1 �2 = 0
� � �
(ii). Parallel if � = 0 i.e �1 = �1 = �1
2 2 2

 If � = �1 + ��1 and � = �2 + ��2 are two lines then angle between both line is
�1 .�2
���� =
|�1 | |.�2 |

Skew lines : two or more lines which are neither intersecting nor parallel are called skew lines
such pair of lines are called non co-planar

Shortest distance between two skew lines : If � = �1 + ��1 and � = �2 + ��2 are two skew
�1 ×�2 . �2 −�1
lines then shortest distance between these line is � =
�1 �2

�� − ������ ��������

 If two lines in space intersect at a point , then the shortest distance between them is zero .
 Shortest distance between two lines
�2 −�1 �2 −�1 �2 −�1
�1 �1 �1
�−�1 �−�1 �−�1 �−�2 �−�2 �−�2 �2 �2 �2
�1
= �1
= �1
and �2
= �2
= �2
is � =
�1 �2 −�2 �1 2 + �1 �2 −�2 �1 2 + �1 �2 −�2 �1 2

Distance between two parallel lines : if two lines are parallel , then they are coplanar
�×(�2 −�1 )
Distance between two parallel lines � = �1 + �� and � = �2 + �� is � =
|� |
�−�1 �−�1 �−�1 �−�2 �−�2 �−�2
Note : Two lines �1
= �1
=
�1
and �2
= �2
=
�2
are coplanar if

�2 − � 1 �2 − �1 �2 − �1
�1 �1 �1 =0
�2 �2 �2

��� �����

 The plane is a surface such that the straight line joining any two points on the surface lies
wholly in the surface .
 Every equation of the first degree in �, �, � represents a plane �. � the general equation of
plane is �� + �� + �� + � = � .

Various forms of equation of plane :


� � �
(i) . Intercept form : � + � + � = 1

(ii) . Normal form : �� + �� + �� = � �ℎ��� �, �, � are the direction cosines of normal


from origin to plane and � is distance of normal from origin .

(iii). Vector form : equation of a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin is
�(� ≠ 0) and � is unit normal to plane is , �. � =d
Equation of plane through a given point :let �, �, � be the direction ratios of the normal to
the plane through the point �(�1 , �1 , �1 ) , then equation of plane is

� . ��������� ���� : �(� − �1 ) + �(� − �1 ) + �(� − �1 ) = 0


(ii). Vector equation : � − � . � = 0 , where � is normal vector to plane .

 Equation of �� − ����� �� � = 0 , �������� �� �� − ����� �� � =


0 , �ℎ� �������� �� �� − ����� �� � = 0.

 The plane parallel to �� − ����� is � = � , The plane parallel to �� − ����� is � = � , The


plane parallel to �� − ����� is � = � , where � is distance from corresponding

Angle between two planes : if �. �1 =�1 and �. �2 =�2 be equation of two planes then angle
�1 .�2
between these plane is ���� =
|�1 |.|�2 |

Cartesian form : let � �� ����� ������� �1 � + �1 � + �1 � + �1 = 0 ���

�1 �2 +�1 �2 +�1 �2
�2 � + �2 � + �2 � + �2 = 0 then ���� =
�21 +�21 +�21 �22 +�22 +�22

Equation of a plane passing through three non collinear points : let R ,S , and T be three
non collinear points on the plane with position vectors �, � and �respectively then equation of plane
is � − � . � − � × � − � =0. �� − ������ ��������

Cartesian form :let �1 , �1 , �1 , �2 , �2 , �2 ��� (�3 , �3 , �3 ) be the coordinates of the points R ,S


and T respectively , then equation of plane passing through these points is
� − �1 � − �1 � − �1
�2 − �1 �2 − �1 �2 − �1 = 0
�3 − �1 �3 − �1 �3 − �1
 Equation of a plane passing through the intersection of two given planes

�1 � + �1 � + �1 � − �1 = 0 ��� �2 � + �2 � + �2 � − �2 = 0 is

�1 � + �1 � + �1 � − �1 + � �2 � + �2 � + �2 � − �2 = 0

Distance of a point from a plane : let P(�1, �1, �1) be the given point with position vector �
and �� + �� + �� = � be cartesian equation of the given plane and � = �� + �� + �� be
normal to plane then distance from point P to plane is
�.�−�
�=
|�|
��1 +��1 +��1 −�
��������� ���� : � =
�2 +�2 +�2
Angle between a Line and a Plane : the angle between a line and a plane is the complement
of the angle between the line and normal to the plane
Vector form : if the equation of line is � = � + �� and the equation of the plane is �. � = � .
then the angle � between the line and the normal to the plane is
�.�
���� = and so the angle � between the line and plane is � = 90 − � i.e
� �
�.�
sin (90 − � )= ���� ⇒ ���� =
� �
 Equation of a plane perpendicular to a given line with direction ratio �, �, � and passing
through a given point �1 , �1 , �1 is � � − �1 + � � − �1 + � � − �1 = 0
 A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in space such that its distance from a fixed point
in the space remains constant.
 The fixed point is called the centre of the sphere and the constant distance is called its radius .

The Equation of sphere : Let � �, �. � be the centre of a sphere and � �� radius then
(� − �)2 + (� − �)2 + (� − �)2 = �2 is the standard equation of sphere .

General equation of sphere is


�2 + �2 + �2 + 2�� + 2�� + 2�� + � = 0
Centre �, �, � = −�. − �. − � , ������ � = �� + �� + �� − �

The equation of Circle : if a plane intersects a sphere , the plane section of the sphere is a circle

A circle is thus given by two equations , one representing a sphere and the other representing a
plane . hence �� − ������ ��������

� ≡ �2 + �2 + �2 + 2�� + 2�� + 2�� + � = 0


� ≡ �� + �� + �� + � = 0 , are the equation of a circle .
Sphere with a given Diameter : the equation of the sphere having �(�1 , �1 , �1 ) and � �2 , �2 , �2
as ends of a diameter is
� − �1 � − �2 + � − �1 � − �2 + � − �1 � − �2 = 0
Equation of tangent plane at (�� , �� , �� ) of the sphere
�2 + �2 + �2 + 2�� + 2�� + 2�� + � = 0 is
��1 + ��1 + ��1 + � + �1 � + � + �1 � + � + �1 � + � = 0
The equation of tangent plane at any point (�� , �� , �� ) of the sphere
�2 + �2 + �2 = �2 is ��1 + ��1 + ��1 = �2
 The line joining the centre of the sphere to any point on the it is perpendicular to the tangent
at that point .
 If the plane touches a sphere , then the length of the perpendicular from its centre to the
plane is equal to its radius .
 Orthogonal spheres : two spheres , intersecting at point P, are called orthogonal , if the angle
between the two tangent planes to the point P is a right angle .
 The condition of orthogonality of two spheres :
�1 ≡ �2 + �2 + �2 + 2�1 � + 2�1 � + 2�1 � + �1 = 0 and
�2 ≡ �2 + �2 + �2 + 2�2 � + 2�2 � + 2�2 � + �2 = 0 are orthogonal if 2�1 �2 + 2�1 �2 +
2�1 �2 = �1 + �2 �� − ������ ��������

����

 A cone is a surface generated by a straight line passing through a fixed point and intersecting a
given curve .
 The fixed point is called the vertex and the given curve is called guiding curve of the cone .
 The moving straight line is called the generator of the cone.
�−� �−� �−�
 If (α, β, γ) is the vertex of a cone , then the equations �
= �
= �
represent a generator of
the cone .
 The homogeneous equation of second degree
�(�, �, �) ≡ ��2 + ��2 + ��2 + 2��� + 2��� + 2ℎ�� = 0 represents a cone with its vertex
at the origin .
� � �
 If one of the generator of the cone �(�, �, �)=0 is = = then �(�, �, �) = 0.
� � �
 The general equation of a cone which passes through the three axes is ��� + ��� + ℎ�� = 0.
 The cone ��2 + ��2 + ��2 + 2��� + 2��� + 2ℎ�� = 0 has three mutually perpendicular
generator if and only if � + � + � = 0.
Right Circular Cone : The surface generated by a line which passes through a fixed point and makes a
constant angle with a fixed line through the fixed point is called right circular cone .
�−� �−� �−�
Let (α, β, γ) be the vertex of the given cone and let its axis be �
= �
= �
Let θ be semi - vertical angle of the cone , if �(�, �, �) is any point on the cone then generator OP
makes an angle θ with axis , then
�(�−�)+�(�−�)+�(�−�)
���� = is the required equation
�2 +�2 +�2 (�−�)2 +(�−�)2 +(�−�)2
 The equation of right circular cone with its vertex at the origin is
(�� + �� + ��)2 = (�2 + �2 + �2 )(�2 + �2 + �2 )���2 �

��������

 A cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line which is parallel to a fixed line and intersects
a given curve .
 The fixed line is called the axis and the given curve the guiding curve of the cylinder .
 The moving line is called a generator of the cylinder .
 A Right circular cylinder is a surface generated by a straight line which is at a constant distance
from a fixed line and parallel to it.
The constant distance is called the radius of the cylinder .
 The equation of the cylinder whose generators are parallel to the z − axis is
��2 + ��2 + 2ℎ�� + 2�� + 2�� + � = 0
 Tangent plane to a cylinder : the equation of the tangent plane at any point (α, β, γ) of the
cylinder ��2 + ��2 + 2ℎ�� + 2�� + 2�� + � = 0 is
�(�� + ℎ� + �) + �(ℎ� + �� + �) + (�� + �� + �) + 0, and that it touches the cylinder
at all points of the generator through the point .

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